Internal flow

• Internal flow: is that flow where the fluid is forced to

flow by a fan or a pump through a flow section such as
pipe, duct, tube, conduit …

• The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used

interchangeably. In general,
• pipe ---→ circular section and the fluid is liquid
• Duct -→ noncircular and the fluid is gas
• We pay particular attention to friction between the
fluid and the tube wall, which is directly related to the
pressure drop and head loss. The pressure drop
is then used to determine the pumping power
requirement.
Internal Flow: Average velocity
• The fluid velocity in a pipe changes from zero at the
wall because of the no-slip condition to a maximum at
the pipe center.
• The value of the average velocity Vavg at some
streamwise cross-section is determined from the
requirement of conservation of mass.
Internal flow: Laminar and Turbulent flow

• When the velocity is small, the flow in a pipe becomes

regular and streamlined (laminar) but it turns chaotic
(turbulent) as the velocity increases above a certain limit.
• The transition from laminar to turbulent does not occur
suddenly. It occurs over some region in which the flow
fluctuates between laminar and turbulent. This region is
called transition region.
• Reynolds showed the transition from laminar to turbulent
by injecting dye streaks into a flow in a glass tube. He
found that the dye streak forms a straight smooth line at
low velocities (laminar), has bursts of fluctuations in
transition, and zigzags rapidly and disorderly when the fluid
becomes fully turbulent.
Internal flow: Reynolds number

• Transition from laminar to turbulent depends on geometry, surface

roughness, flow velocity, and fluid type.
• Reynolds discovered that the flow regime (Laminar/Turbulent) depends
mainly on the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces, Finertia/Fviscous, which is
known as Reynolds number.

𝑚ሶ 𝑉 𝜌𝐷2 𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐷 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐷

• Re = Finertia/Fviscous = ~ 𝑉 = =
𝜏𝐴 𝜇 𝐷𝐷2 𝜇 𝜈

where
Vaver is the average velocity, D is the characteristic length, and  is the fluid
viscosity
 Internal flow: Reynolds number
• For high Reynolds number, the flow fluctuates and becomes
turbulent.
• For low Reynolds number, the viscous forces dampens the flow
fluctuations and the flow becomes laminar.
• The Reynolds number at which the flow changes from laminar to
turbulent is called critical Reynolds number, Recr . For internal flow
in a circular tube, Recr =2300.
• For flow through non-circular pipes, Re is calculated based on the
hydraulic diameter (Dh), Re=  Vav Dh/
• The hydraulic diameter is defined as Dh= 4 Ac /P, where, Ac is the
cross-section area and P is the wetted perimeter.
Re < 2300 laminar
2300 <Re< 4000 Transition
Re> 4000 Turbulent
Internal flow: entrance region
• When a fluid enters a circular pipes, a velocity boundary layer develops besides
the pipe wall. The thickness of the boundary layer increases in the flow direction
until it reaches the pipe center and fills the entire section. The velocity profile at
this point becomes fully developed and the distance from the pipe entrance to
the point at which the velocity profile becomes fully developed is called
Hydrodynamic entrance region.
Internal flow: entrance region

For laminar flow, the length of the hydrodynamic entrance region depends on Re

For turbulent flow, the length of the hydrodynamic entrance region is,

The pipes used in practice are usually several times the length of the entrance
region, and thus the flow through pipes is often assumed to be fully developed for
the entire length of the pipe. This assumption gives good results for long pipes and
poor results for short ones.
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes (Re <2300)
• Consider a steady flow in a circular pipe and assume that the flow
is laminar and fully developed, then the velocity in the pipe will
be a function or r only (u=u(r)).
• Apply momentum equation in x direction on a ring-
shaped differential volume element of radius r,
thickness dr, and length dx oriented coaxially with the
pipe (as shown).
Rate of x-momentum out- rate of x-momentum in = Fx

0=
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes (Re <2300)
• Dividing the previous equation by 2 dr dx yields

• Taking the limits as dr and dx tends to zero

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇 = −𝜇 where r=R-y
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
• Substituting the value of  and divide by r, the differential momentum
equation will be,
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes
• Integrating the pervious equation twice yields

• To get the values of C1 and C2, apply the boundary conditions at the center
(du/dr)r=0 =0 and at the wall u(R) = 0, where R is pipe radius. This will give,
𝑅2 𝑑𝑝
C1 =0 and 𝐶2 = −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
• This will give

• This equation shows that the velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a
pipe is parabolic with a maximum at the centerline and a minimum (zero) at the
pipe wall.
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes
• The average velocity can be determined from the velocity distribution
as

• The pressure drop in a pipe of length L is

p =p1-p2
• Since dp/dx is constant, it can be approximated as
𝑅 2 ∆𝑝
dp/dx = - p/L and 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
8𝜇 𝐿
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes
𝑅 2 ∆𝑝
• From 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ,
8𝜇 𝐿
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
∆𝑝 =
𝐷2
• In practice, it is convenient to express the pressure drop in internal flow as

where f is called Darcy friction factor and is the dynamic pressure

2
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐿 𝜌 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
∆𝑝 = 2
=𝑓
64𝜇
𝐷 64
𝐷 2
• This equation yields 𝑓 = =
𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷 𝑅𝑒
• This means that for laminar flow inside pipes, the friction function of
Reynolds number and is independent of surface roughness.
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes
• In the analysis of the piping systems, pressure losses are commonly
expressed in terms of head loss, hl

∆𝑃 𝑅 2 ∆𝑃𝜋 𝐷4
The volume flow rate 𝑉ሶ = 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜋𝑅 2 =
𝐿 8𝜇 128 𝜇 𝐿
ሶ ሶ 2 128 𝜇 𝐿
The pumping power = 𝑉 ∆𝑃 = 𝑉
𝜋𝐷4
• Therefore, for specified volume flow rate the pumping power is
proportional to L and inversely proportional to D4.
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes
• The energy equation for a flow in a pipe takes the form

• This equation can be arranged to define the pressure drop

• This shows that P1-P2 will equal ghL if: 1- the pipe is horizontal
(z1=z2), 2- there is no turbine work, 3- there is pump, 4- if the cross
section of the pipe is constant (V1= V2) and 1 = 2
Internal flow: laminar flow in pipes
• Effect of gravity
The gravity does not affect the flow in horizontal pipes. However,
it has a significant effect on both the velocity and the flow rate in
uphill or downhill pipes.

By arranging and taking the limits as dr and dx tends to zero,

The average velocity and the volume flow rate can be calculated
as
Internal flow: laminar flow in noncircular tube
 Example
• Consider the fully developed flow of glycerin at 40 oC ( = 1252 kg/m3 and =
0.3073 kg/m.s ) through a 70-m-long, 4-cm-diameter, horizontal, circular pipe. If
the flow velocity at the centerline is measured to be 6 m/s, determine the
velocity profile and the pressure difference across this 70-m-long section of the
pipe, and the useful pumping power required to maintain this flow. For the same
useful pumping power input, determine the percent increase of the flow rate if
the pipe is inclined 15o downward and the percent decrease if it is inclined 15o
upward. The pump is located outside this pipe section.
For horizontal pipe
Turbulent flow in pipes
• Most flows encountered in real applications are turbulent
(Re> 2300)
• Turbulent flow is characterized by disorderly and rapid
fluctuations of swirling regions, called eddies. These eddies
provide an additional mechanism for momentum transfer.
• The velocity profile of fully developed turbulent flow is fuller
than that of laminar flow
• So, turbulent flow is associated with higher friction factor
compared to laminar flow
• Turbulent flow is not fully understood, so we rely on
experimental or empirical correlations to determine friction
coefficient for various situations
Turbulent flow in pipes: Moody chart
• The friction factor f in fully
developed turbulent flow
depends on Reynolds number
and relative roughness (/D),
which is the mean height of tube
roughness to the tube diameter.
• Experimental measurements of f
as a function of Re and (/D) are
presented graphically in what is
called Moody Chart. Moody chart
Turbulent flow in pipes: The functional form of the data presented in
Moody chart
• The functional form of the data presented in Moody chart is
presented in a relation known as Colebrook equation:

• We can notice that Colebrook equation is implicit in f, which means

that the determination of f need iteration

• An approximate explicit relation for f is given by S.E. Haaland as,

 Turbulent flow in pipes: Moody chart
From Moody chart, we can notice:
• For laminar flow f decreases with Re and
does not depend on roughness (f=64/Re)
• For turbulent flow (Re> 2300), f depends
on both Re and (/D)
• For smooth pipe, the Colebrook equation
can be reduced to

• At very large Re, f corresponding to

specified friction factor is independent of
Re. The flow in that region is called fully
rough turbulent flow
Types of fluid flow problems
In designing a piping system, you may encounter three types of problems:
1- Determining the pressure drop when the pipe length and diameter are given for
specifies flow rate.
From mass flow rate and D, define Re. From Re and roughness determine f and
from f we can find p=f (0.5 V2)L/D

2- Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are known for
specified pressure drop
In this case, we can not find Re because the flow rate is unknow. So, solution should
be performed iteratively.
3- Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are known
for specified pressure drop
Also in this case, the solution should be performed iteratively.
Types of fluid flow problems
• To avoid the tedious iterative solution that is required in the second
and third case, Swamee and Jain proposed the following explicit
relations that are accurate to within 2% of the moody chart:
Example
• Heated air at 1 atm and 35 oC (=1.145 kg/m3 and  =1.895x 10-5 kg/m·s) is
to be transported in a 300 m long and 0.267 m in diameter. Determine the
mass flow rate in the duct if the head loss in the duct is not to exceed 20 m.
Solution
The equation for V as a function of f is

Once V is calculated, the Reynolds number can be calculated, from which a

corrected friction factor is obtained from the Moody chart or the Colebrook
equation. We repeat the calculations with the corrected value of f until
convergence. Initially, we guess f 0.04 for illustration
Example

The new flow rate can also be determined directly from the second Swamee–Jain formula to be
Minor losses valve

• The losses that occur in piping components such as fittings, valves, bends,
elbows, tees, inlets, exits, expansions, and contractions are called minor
losses. The minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss
coefficient KL. The head loss for a component is determined from

• When all the loss coefficients are available, the total head loss in a piping
system is

where i represents each pipe section with constant diameter and j

represents each component that causes minor losses.
Minor losses

• If the entire pipe system has constant diameter, the total head loss
reduces to

Where, L is the total length and V is the average velocity.

Minor losses
Minor losses
Internal flow: piping network and pump selection

• Piping systems encountered in practice involve numerous parallel and

series connections.
• The piping system design means how to find the piping layout that:
• Deliver the specified flow rate
• Keep the pressure drop at a certain specified value
• has a minimum cost
Series and parallel connections
• In series connection, the flow rate
remains constant and the total head loss
equals the sum of the head loss in
individual pipes plus the minor losses.
• The minor losses are calculated based on
the velocities in the smaller pipes.

𝐿𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑉𝐵2 𝐿𝐵 𝑉𝐵2

ℎ𝑙,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑓𝐴 + 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 + 𝑓𝐵
𝐷𝐴 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷𝐵 2𝑔
Series and parallel connections
• In parallel connections, the flow rate is
the sum of the flow rates in the
individual pipes.
• The pressure drop in each individual pipe
must be the same.

• The ratio of the average velocities and

the flow rates in two parallel pipes will
be
 Junction 1 Junction 2
Path 1
Piping network analysis
Path 2
• The analysis of piping networks is based on two simple principles:
• Conservation of mass throughout the system must be satisfied. This is done by
requiring the total flow into a junction to be equal to the total flow out of the
junction for all junctions in the system.

• Head loss between two junctions must be the same for all paths between the
two junctions. This is because pressure is a point function and it cannot have
two values at a specified point. This is requiring that the algebraic sum of head
losses in a loop (for all loops) be equal to zero. (A head loss is taken to be
positive for flow in the clockwise direction and negative for flow in the
counterclockwise direction.)

• So, the analysis of piping networks is similar to the analysis of electric circuits
using Kirchhoff’s laws with flow rate corresponding to current and pressure
corresponding to electric potential.
 Piping systems with pumps and turbines

• The steady flow energy equation is written as

• In terms of head, the energy equation takes the form

• If we apply energy equation between point 1 and 2 in

the shown figure,
Piping systems with pumps and turbines
• The required power needed to run the pump is

• The power of electric motor needed to run the pump is

ሶ ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑢
𝜌𝑉𝑔
𝑊ሶ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝−𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
Where pump-motor = pump * motor
 Example 1
• Water at 10 oC (= 999.7 kg/m3 =1.307x10-3
kg/m.s) flows from a large reservoir to a
smaller one through a 5-cm diameter cast iron
piping system (=0.00026 m). Determine the
elevation z1 for a flow rate of 6 L/s.
 Example 2
• In a hydroelectric power plant, water at 20°C (= 998 kg/m3
and  =1.002x10-3 kg/m.s) is supplied to the turbine at a rate
of 0.6 m3/s through a 200-m-long, 0.35-m-diameter cast iron
pipe (=0.00026 m). The elevation difference between the
free surface of the reservoir and the turbine discharge is 140
m, and the combined turbine–generator efficiency is 80
percent. Disregarding the minor losses because of the large
length-to-diameter ratio, determine the electric power
output of this plant.
Example 2