10

CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY

A.T.M. Shamsuzzoha

Analyzing the economic history of Indian subcontinent, it can be perceived

that crafting always came second to cultivation in agronomy. Following this
sequence, handicrafts thrived due to the invention and utilization of local
technology by the Bengali people, to fulfill their daily needs. However, the
use of local technology for crafting did not have a steady flow since the
earliest times. During the early medieval period due to the negligence of the
ruling class, local and international trading centers, including Tamralipti and
Ganges were shut down, which hindered the progress of craft and technology
and weakened the economy of Bengal. Capitalizing on the advantage of the
puny socio-economic and political condition of Bengal the Muslim
conquerors gave Bengal’s economy a new momentum and it flourished once
again alongside the other regions of the Indian subcontinent. The Muslims of
medieval Bengal imported numerous machineries and technologies from
outside the Indian subcontinent, as well as used local technology to array their
luxurious lifestyle. As a result of using those technologies and agricultural
components, cottage industries of different scales developed in Bengal,
similar to the ones in Muslim ruled regions of the Indian subcontinent. During
that period, handicraft initiatives or factories did not exist in accordance to the
modern definition of large-scale industries. However, in small scale factories
or individual households, different types of handicrafts were in production.1
During the mid-14th century, the Sultanate rule stimulated the rapid growth
of industrialization and during Mughal rule, the import of updated technology
and its usage caused Bengal’s artistry to reach optimum level. While there are
many contemporary accounts of the development of handicrafts in Bengal, the
description of all the technologies used in the growth of this industry is missing.
Regardless of the lack of sources, we will refer to the verified information in
order to highlight the technologies invented and developed in medieval Bengal.
Coming and settling down of the Muslims in Bengal awakened its socio-
economic field; consequently, different occupational classes emerged in
Bengal as a result of the then ruling policy and demand of the time. Due to
158 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

business purposes and to meet the demands of the rulers, nobles and people,
during the Sultanate and Mughal rule the textile industry, salt industry, silk
industry, ship-building industry, currency industry, sugar industry, paper
industry, architecture, arms industry, jewelry industry, wood industry and
multiple small and medium scale cottage industries were rejuvenated. These
industries made use of locally produced agricultural products, mineral
products, imported products, and were powered by local and imported
technologies. The local technologies of Bengal that renewed during the rule
of the independent Sultanate revived even further during the Nawabi regime,
due to assistance of the ruling class, abundance of the artisan class and
utilization of imported industrial materials. All these industries provided the
foundation for the modern industries. Apart from this, when the merchant
community from Europe imported various technologies into Bengal, a new
epoch of industrialization began. Throughout the Sultanate, Mughal, and
Nawabi regimes of the medieval period indigenous and imported technology
were used to produce a distinct form of art. However, there is no basic
research on the role of technology during this long medieval period, except
for a small written piece by M R Tarafdar (Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti
O Samaj Vivartan).2 Therefore, more research is needed in order to find the
nature of Bengali craft and technology and its usages in the medieval period.
Textile Technology
Since the ancient period, akin to the other areas of India, Bengal was
famous for its textile industry. Even in the medieval period, Bengal became
the top exporter of India alongside Gujrat, in the production and export of
clothes. In fact, Amir Khusrau, Ma Huan, Varthema, Barbosa and Ralph
Fitch have highly admired the then textiles of Bengal. According to a
description in Qiran-us-Sa’dain, the Bengal ruler Bughra Khan gifted his
son Muizuddin Kaikobad an item of clothing, and that fabric was praised by
Amir Khusrau himself.3 Various local and imported technologies were used
in the development of the textile industry. In India, the technology was
imported from Persia, which was originally imported from China into the
Arab world. However, some historians speculated that, the silk technology
was imported directly from China into Bengal, but there is no contemporary
evidence to support this speculation. 4
There were usually three steps to process Karpas cotton (Karpas Phuti,
Gosipium Hervaceum) into fabrics; namely, the production and collection of
Karpas, cutting yarn and knitting fabric. For the production of Karpas, the
seeds were generally sown twice in a year (spring and autumn). The seeds
were stored with utmost care to make the finest cotton. In this case, after the
raw Karpas was collected from the cotton fields, the seeds were collected,
sundried and separated from the fibers. These seeds were stored in moist
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 159

earthenware containers filled with ghee or oil, closed shut and hung over the
stove, so that the smoke from cooking on the stove, reaches the closed
container of seeds. The main purpose of this technique was to keep the
Karpas seeds moisture-free.5 The seeds were then planted in deeply
cultivated soil, and after a certain period of time, the crops were harvested.
However, the spring Karpas produces better quality yarn than autumn
Karpas. As per the account of Barbosa and Tavernier, the production of
Karpas increased so drastically in Bengal during the 15th-17th centuries, that
at that time, raw cotton was imported from Bengal for fabric production in
Ahmedabad, Surat and Cambay of Gujrat.6
After the production of Karpas, the cotton cutting layer was even more
technical. To manufacture yarn, the Karpas mingled with seeds was cleaned
and the cotton was extracted. The teeth of a Boal fish (helicopter catfish or
wallagonia attu) was used like a comb to clean the Karpas, and then the
combed Karpas was spread on a smooth flat board which was made of
Chalta wood (dillenia speciosa), to gently remove cotton with a slender iron
pin. The iron pin (in Mymensingh district it was called dullum kathi)
prevented the seeds from being crushed.7 After this, the cotton knitters would
skillfully separate the cotton by means of dhunchi (ginning), in which a bow
shaped machine along with a stick was used, both made out of either bamboo
or cane. The cotton wool was kept on the smooth skin of a Fresh water eel
fish/Mud eel fish or Cuchia fish or a container that will not collect dust.8
Usually, girls would partake in the
processing of cotton wool. Abdul
Karim opines that, spinning wheel
was used to make yarn. Just as the
invention of wheels played a major
role in the development of world
civilization, the use of the spinning
wheel in Medieval Bengal also
contributed greatly in the expansion
Fig. 1: Dhunuchi (after Taylor, 1840).
of the textile industry.
However, Irfan Habib opined that, the best yarn was made by the use of reel
and spindle. But with the start of the use of spinning wheel during mid-14th
century, there was an increase in production of cloth, because the use of
spinning wheel propelled production by six times.9 As per the description of
Isami (Futuh-us-Salatin), during the mid-14th century, Indian cotton gin was
used to produce yarn from Karpas wool in Northern India, which technology
was introduced in Bengal towards the end of the 14th century.10 Even in the
account by Barbosa, there is evidence of the use of spinning wheel in 16th
century Bengal.11 According to D'OYLY, spinning wheel was used to make
160 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

yarn for thick cloth, whereas taku (spindles) were used to manufacture fine
Muslin fabric.12 Generally, the yarn produced at night or from sunrise until the
beginning of the scorching heat of sun, turned out to be of the finest quality.
The weaving of finest muslin was thus conducted in the open air,
exposed to all the intense heat of the climate.13 In order to weave yarn into
fabric, the weavers had to complete many more steps, and in this case they
had to utilize multiple technologies. For example, winding and preparing the
yarn, warping, applying reed to the warp, applying the warp to the end roll of
the loom, beaming or preparing the heddles or harness, weaving, etc.14 At the
initial stage of the aforementioned steps, the yarn was submerged into water.
The water being changed twice daily, and then the yarns were rolled up into
bamboo reels. In the second stage, two rows of yarns were placed
horizontally, supported by poles, and the weaver walks to the two ends of the
poles with glass shards in hand in such a way, that the hands are always
brushing against the yarn while walking.

Fig. 2: Winding and Preparing the Yarn (after Taylor, 1840).

The third step consisted of placing the yarns on bamboo sticks or small sticks
or shana, and levitated at an arms-length above the ground. In the fourth
step, the knitted yarns were gently tied to the end roll and folded slowly
using a brush or curved cane. The fifth step involved using a type of thin
thread or rope to lay out the folded yarn horizontally on a bamboo hose and
shana, so that the weaver could weave by keeping the bamboo in the middle.
The last step of the entire process was the making of cloth. In this stage, four
bamboo sticks were tied to the four corners of the loom, and on top of that
another four bamboos were knotted tightly. Afterwards, the shana and bu
were pulled with the yarn and tied to the breast roll of the loom. Then the end
and breast roll were tied to the rod with thread which was known as a shoe-
knot (Jutdori). Then the two ends (breast and end roll) of the roll were
rotated with a winch, but to ensure that the winch did not rotate in the
opposite direction, a stick was placed in the notch. A three feet wide hole is
dug on the ground for the treadle to be operated. At that time, bamboo or
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 161

branch from betel nut tree was used to make maku (a frame made from
bamboo, with two clamps on
two ends where the yarn was
spun), and for weaving cloth the
left leg would press on the
paddle while the right hand
would pull the maku or
exchanging the hand would
cause the thread on the shana
and bu to be woven.15 Through
this lengthy procedure, the Fig. 3: Weaving of Muslin by Tanti
weaving of fabric would be (after Taylor, 1840).
completed.
Basically, for the manufacturing of Jamdani and Muslin fabric, this tedious
procedure had to be completed. From raw materials to yarn production, and
yarn to fabric making, 126 types of machines were used, and these machines
were known to be made or collected locally.16
The Muslims, who were associated with the production of cloth, were called
either Tati or Jola. The word Jola is a distorted form of the Persian word
Julaha. The lower caste Muslims were mainly part of this occupation, and
some Smarak Buddhists joined them in this line of work. However, the
Julahas, Dyers, Sanakars, tailors and Dhunuri (those who separated the yarn
from cotton) involved in the textile industry did not have a high social status.17
While visiting Bengal, Ma Huan had seen five to six types of fine fabrics.18
There is evidence of the wide popularity of some Muslin fabrics, namely
Molmol Khas (exquisite muslin fabric on sale for the buyers), Abroya,
Shabnam, Fulwar, Dorakata, Palawar, Dubia (double cotton) and Sarkar Ali
(square-sized embroidered muslin cloth made for the elite class). Ralph Fitch
mentioned Herba cloth, which was made from grass but looked like silk.19
Varthema mentioned20 Boirom, Namon, Lizti, Kaintar, Dauzer, Sinaboff and
Barbosa21 Shirbond, which is a type of European-style scarf that is a testament
to the abundance of Bengal clothing in the medieval period. Another source
said about the existence of tanjeb, nainsook, muga etc. as commonly known
muslin and silk cloths of Bengal.22
Tome Pires opined that, the fabrics of
Bengal were very popular in Malacca
and were sold at very high prices.23
Furthermore, local processes and
technologies were utilized to produce a
variety of cotton and thick khadi Fig.4: Winding and Preparing the Yarn
fabric in the medieval period. (after Taylor, 1840).
.
162 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

Ship Building Technology (Ships and Boats)

Since remote past, Bengal had commercial contract with Malabar and
Coromandel Coast of India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, and other neighboring
states. Although, there was a decline in domestic trade towards the late early
medieval time, due to socio-economic and political reasons, the arrival of the
Muslims during the 13th century caused business and trade to flourish once
again. According to Ibn Battuta, when he entered into Bengal a news of
confrontation between Fakhr al-Din and Ali Shah came to him and also the
supremacy of naval wing of Fakhr al-Din, which gave us information about
Bengal navy and its vessels.24 In addition to the aforementioned states,
Bengal had established trade relations with China and Southeast Asia during
the medieval period. This is confirmed due to the visit of Cheng Ho and Ma
Huan to Bengal, sent by Ming Emperor Yung Lu of China, and also Sultan
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah’s delegation’s visit to China for several times. On
the other hand, due to the formation of naval forces by Ghiyasuddin Iwaz
Khalji and later Sultans, we can be certain that, ships and small boats were
locally manufactured in Bengal for military and commercial purposes. Also,
the naval journey by Muizuddin Kaikobad, during his meeting with his father
Bughra Khan, further proves the point.25
There are 14 types and names of ships of Chandbena in the Mansamangal
Kavya26 and in Chandimangal.27 There is mention of 7 commercial boats of
Dhanpati and 9 commercial boats owned by his son, Srimanta. The
whereabouts of the great ships during this era can be understood through the
description of the Sapta Dinga (boat/ship) in the Mansamangal Kavya by
Ketakadas Khemananda.28 Sri Rai Binod mentions Chand Saudagar’s 14
dingas (ships), and trade journeys to South Patan of India.29 In the
Chaitanyacharitamrita, there is a description of the journey to Sri Krishna by
Gopichandan, description of the transportation of many idols on the Dinga, and
description of many names of ships to help explain the massive size of the
ship.30 However, Aniruddha Roy doubts whether ships were built in Bengal in
the middle ages.31 Yet, Chinese traveler Ma Huan stated that, the wealthy
merchants in Bengal built ships and carried out commercial activities abroad
by using ships of numerous sizes.32 On the other hand, Tarafdar opined that in
the medieval period, the Chinese Junk, Arabian ship Daw/Dhow and local
ships with indigenous technology were built in Bengal.33 Barbosa also
mentioned existing of ships at the seaport of Bengal during 15th century, and
mentions seeing two types of ships called Naos and Navios.34 From the account
of Sri Krishna Kirtana, crossing the rivers by the Gopis, helps to imagine the
massive ships of Bengal.35 In Tome Pres’ narrative, there is evidence of the
use of Chinese Junk and ships by Bengali merchants. From his description of
4-5 ships traveling every year from Bengal to Malacca, it is certain that
locally made sailing vessels were used as trade ships in Bengal.36 The English
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 163

traveler Ralph Filch mentions large boats which would require 24-26 majhi
(sailor) to maneuver, and this basically indicates towards the ships of Bengal.37
As per the description of Baharistan, the expedition led by Mirza Nathan in
Bengal revealed the repairing and decoration of warships and merchant ships
near Ghoraghat of Dinajpur, which gives us insight into the abundance of
naval workers and growth of the shipbuilding industry.38 A 72 feet x 24 feet x
10.6 feet sailing vessel made from Jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa) wood
during the 17th/18th century (approximately) in Kuakata of Patuakhali
District, Bangladesh was dubbed as a small sailing boat by Yves Marre in
2013.39 Considering the use of paddy shells, broken soil and locally made
iron found in the ships gives us information that, at that time ships were built
locally and the dockyards were situated near the seaports of Bengal.
The vessels of Bengal built in the medieval period were generally made
of oak, cedar, jarul and shaal (Shorea robusta) woods. The two sides of the
flat floor were made very high so that the structure looked rectangular. On
the other hand, by observing the ship in Kuakata it can be deduced that, the
bottom of the vessel was made by cutting a big tree, from which the log was
used to form the structure of the ship and fire was used to bend the shape and
put pressure on the log, and iron or brass/copper nails were embedded to hold
the wood in place. To strengthen the structure, the two heads of a solid wood
was attached to the two sides of the upper part of the vessel, and then another
wide wood was attached over that. To attach the timbers, large sheets of iron
were used and folded at the bottom to give the ship a strong structure. The
holes of the ship were closed on both ends by means of coconut shells, which
were pasted using a special adhesive in order to protect the ship form
saltwater. Evidence suggests that the vessel was covered with large copper
panes to prevent water from leaking into the ship.40 However, in the case of
large Junk or Daw ships, some waterproof rooms would be built and along
the length of the ship 14 bulk heads would be instituted. In case of Arabian
ships, it is known that timbers would be attached by means of gilding or
sewing. On the other hand, the indigenous technique of attaching timbers
with Jalui was effective. It is known that, to attach big planks of wood
locally made drills or bow drills were used.41 Under the deck, many rooms
were built as per requirement and the rest of the space was used for storage
of goods.42 There were rooms for keeping compass, for worship, for sleeping,
for storage and for cooking. The erection of a mast would depend on the size
of the ship. The junk that came to Bengal during the Ming Dynasty would
have 6 masts which would be connected to the sails and would make use of
wind speed to propel forward. The Sea-sailing ships were primarily driven by
seasonal wind and were propelled by oars during low wind speed. According
to Mills, 6 anchors were used to stop the ship at the shore, however there
would be difficulty anchoring the ship at small ports, therefore, small boats
164 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

attached to the ship was used for the movement of merchants and goods to
the shore and back.43 Marco Polo described tha a ship would be equipped with
a hull, four masts, and another two masts for maneuvering around the ship, and
depending on the size of the ship, there would be 150 to 300 crewmen.44
Apart from the Chinese and Arab ships, Bengal’s own shipbuilding
system was also practiced at that time. The description of Sapta Dinga in
Bengali Mangalkavvya may be tainted by fantasy, but it still gives us the idea
that shipbuilding existed during that time in Bengal. The description of the
construction of ship/boat in medieval Bengal, in Padma Purana written by
poet Shri Ray Vinod mentions Golui (front of the boat), Dara (oars of the
boat), Gura (seating board adjacent to the boat), Hangsabata (fence from
prow to chhoy), Koljhap (cabin door), Jhap (door made from mat),
Swaribata (separate ways on the two sides of the cabin), Chorat (wood
framed corner built close to the prow), Malum kath (mast), Kander (Boat’s
hull), Boitha (small paddle) and Patowal (big hull) gives us the idea of strong
existence of ship building and its technology of the period.45 Nonetheless, the
commercial and sea-sailing boats of medieval Bengal were called Dinga46
and perhaps the larger vessels were not called ships at that time. But in later
times, the European influence caused the big vessels to be called ships and
this is observed in the accounts of Barbosa, Varthema and Luis Phillips.47 It
is known from the description by Tavernier that, in medieval Bengal, boat
makers (Sutrodhara) would live near about 4 miles of land alongside the
river banks of Dhaka, and the Saudagiri (merchants) boats were called
Madhukara, while the seafaring vessels were called Buhit.48
In addition to large vessels, local technology was used to make various
small/big boats in Bengal. Among these boats worth mentioning are, Dingi,49
Panshi, Madhukar, Biju-Shiju, Guwarekhi, Potua, Shongkhachur, Sholpaat,
Udaytara, Tiathuti, Dhabal, Kedar, Pankhiraj, Bhimaksha, Shongkhatali and
Ajela-Kajela, Shinghamukhi, Durgabor, Chandrapan and Chhotomukhi,
Modhupaal, Ranajoya, Ranabhima, Sharbadhara, Hiramuni, Chandratara,
Natshala, Pinis, Bhauliya, Kosha, Chhip, Konda, Ektha, Polowar,
Chuwathutti, Shonamukhi, Teldhar, Boromodhu, Chhotomodhu, Chapadaal,
Bhor, Godha, Sharonga, Hola, Patila and Ulokh. From James Taylor’s
account, mention of Polowar, Bhadu, Duri and Sharinga boats in Dhaka,
Mymensingh and neighboring areas, and mention of Government and
Landlord’s boats on market days, proves the making of boats in Medieval
Bengal.50 The main parts of these vessels were hull, stern, prow, gunwale,
amid ship, mast, sail, rudder/paddle, oar, cabin, cabin deck, and sometimes
when there was low wind speed, the boatman would jump down to the shore
and pull the boat with a rope which was known as guntana or gun.51 The
size, structure and usefulness of the boats were timeless; hence it still exists
in riverine Bengal.
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 165

Sugar Making Technology

Due to being the second key component of the business world, and having
huge demand from natives and foreigners alike, the sugar industry became
widespread in medieval period, and hence developed its own sugar making
technology in Bengal. Contemporary Bengali literature reports on the
preparation of sweet dishes for daily meals, weddings, housewarming,
religious offerings and worship at temples. Exquisite sugar was used to
make sweet dishes for these occasions.52 Even in the writings of Ibn
Battuta, Barbosa and Ralph Filch, there is evidence of sugar industry.
According to Tome Pires, the sugar producers knew different methods of
sugar production and preservation, which led to the production of many
types of sugar.53 Ma Huan witnessed 3 types of sugar: granulated sugar,
white sugar and crystallized sugar.54 Multiple steps had to be completed to
produce sugar from sugarcane. Firstly, sugarcane would be collected,
chopped into pieces and placed inside a sugarcane thresher. The thresher
was mainly two horizontally mounted wooden rollers, between which the
sugarcane was placed and the wooden bar or wooden rod connected to the
rollers was rotated around by cattle. The pressure from the rollers would
cause juice to ooze out of the sugarcane and the juice would be extracted
from the scraps of sugarcane.55
Around 1400 CE, the use of worm-gearing crushing machine began to be
used in India, and like other parts of India, there was widespread use of
cattle-gearing and human-gearing grinding machine in Bengal.56 Producing
sugar by squashing sugarcane out in the open was also common, but the ease
of extracting juice with a grinding machine made this method more popular.
The collected juice was heated in an iron container until it solidified and then
it crystallized and unpurified sugar was formed. These sugar chunks were
used as jiggery. Heated sugarcane juice was stored in clay containers, and
after a certain period of time the juice would turn granular, known as
granulated sugar or tube which called kanada in Persian language. The most
refined form of sugar was crystallized white sugar which had a considerably
high price.57 Tarafdar opined that the making of jiggery cakes from particles,
the crystallizing and whitening of sugar was undoubtedly results of
professional engineering work.58 In medieval Bengal, large amount of good
quality sugar was produced to meet local demand and was exported to
foreign countries in leather parcel.
Salt Making Technology
The salt industry of medieval Bengal was quite advanced. Although Mirza
Nathan claimed salt as a scarce product of Bengal,59 Cesar Frederick’s
account of buying meat preserved with salt from Sandwip, proves the futility
166 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

of Mirza Nathan’s claim.60 In the middle age, salt was produced alongside
the vast seashore from Chattogram to Orissa. The period from January to
April was considered the prime time to produce the finest quality of salt.
However, small quantity of salt was also produced during November-
December and May-June. The main ingredient for salt production was
collecting the flooded water during the high tide of the sea in a khalari (land
prepared for salt production). Then there were mainly two ways of producing
salt. Firstly, the salt particles filled seawater that was collected in the khalar,
was evaporated with the help of sunlight. Afterwards, the molungis (workers
associated with salt production) would extract salt from the saline soil of
khalari, and produce a type of salt known as kurkuch (sun-dried) salt.
Secondly, the concentrated saltwater of the sea was boiled and it would dry
down into a layer which was used as salt. The salt produced by means of
boiling was known as pungah salt.61 Despite the kurkuch salt being
considered auspicious by some class of Hindu, pungah salt had much greater
demand in the market.
Paper Making Technology
Paper is one of the important objects that played a vital role in the
development of human civilization. It is proven that written form existed
prior to the invention of paper, but human civilization accelerated after paper
producing process was invented. Although the production of paper was first
initiated from the bark of mulberry tree in China, the discovery of pure rag
paper was made by the Arabs, especially the Muslims of Samarkand.
Therefore, even though fine quality paper was invented in China and later in
Arabia, the production and use of paper began in India and Bengal much
later, probably after the arrival of the Muslims. P. K. Gode remarked that
paper was seen in India around 1000 CE, but there is no evidence of its
production prior to the 13th century.62 Paper making technology was
imported in this subcontinent by the Muslims and it was imported into
Bengal possibly through the Muslim merchants. It is known from the account
of Amir Khusrau that, the first paper was made in India in the 13th century.63
Also, in the 14th century, there is evidence of paper being used to sell
haluwa and shirni in the sweet shops of Delhi.64 Paper production began in
Bengal in the 15th century. During the reign of Sultan Alauddin Husain Shah
(1494-1519 CE) the writing of Sahih Bukhari, and the writing of Sarafnama
by Nizami in Gaur towards the end of the rule of Nusrat Shah (1531-1532
CE), proves the use of paper in Bengal during the 15th-16th century.65 On
Mukundaram Chakrabarty’s observation to Muslims as the paper-making
class albeit in lesser terms, proves the making of paper in Bengal. However,
Tarafdar opines that due to shortage of paper and conservatism of people,
leaves and barks of tree were used in large quantities for books, ledgers and
administrative work up until the 19th century.66 From the description of
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 167

paper making in China, it can be noted that usually the bark of a tree would
be crushed in a roller and then the mold would be garnished with a type of
glue to make it dark. To be fit for use, the mold would be smoothened out
with a roller and dried in the sun. During the Mughal period, cotton cloths,
old ropes, low quality fibrous jute bags, tree vines and bark would be
submerged in a tub and when they would soften, a roller would be used to
crush/beat until a mold formed. Along with lime/soda and some other
ingredients, the mold would be submerged in water again. Afterwards, a
bamboo frame would be placed in the tub containing the mold, and the mold
that would stick to the frame would be taken out and dried in the sun.67 The
surface of the paper was rubbed with stone or glass to make it smooth. Later,
different colors or gold liquid and different decoration of flora-fauna would
be added to the paper mold to produce varieties of paper.
Currency Making Technology
In medieval Bengal, one of the finest technologies was emerged that of coin
making. According to Ma Huan, the rulers of Bengal during that time would
make silver coins known as Thang-chie or Taka. The weight of these coins
would be 3 chien or about 172.68 grain as per modern measurement standard.
The official radius of the coin was 1 thusun, which was equivalent to 2 fen or 2
paisa of the Chinese currency.68 However, cowrie or shell-money was used for
general transactions. On the other hand, at that time, small quantity of gold and
silver coins was minted and the weight of a coin was of 1/8th of an ounce.69
During that time, coins were made by melting and molding metal alloys.70 The
coins made in moulds had lines alongside their circumference. The coin
makers had knowledge of physics, metallurgy, separation of minerals from
alloys, purification of silver and gold, melting procedure, metal mould process,
engraving on steel, etc. To produce one exquisite coin (96 rati or 172.8 grain),
21 classes of mint makers were listed by Abul Fazl. From Abul Fazl’s
description, it can be understood how much of detailed planning, careful
instruction and exclusive work was required in the coin-making procedure.71
Drug Manufacturing and Distillation Technology
Since the earliest times, liquor was a luxury product in Bengal. Ma Huan saw
that alcohol was being sold in the marketplace in Bengal, and there were four
types of alcohol produced in abundance- coconut wine, rice wine, tree wine
and chiao-chang (traditional wine usually made from fruits). These wines
were made through a variety of processes, but most of the wine was
produced by distillation.72 Although contemporary narratives lack any
description of the alcohol distillation process, from Abul Fazl’s description
of the three types of distillation tubes, the reactions in the vessels and the
technologies used, it can be speculated that it was a type of dispenser.73 This
technology was probably imported from Delhi to Bengal. It can be known
168 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

from Ibn Battuta’s description that rose water sold in Bengal in 1340 CE.
During that time, crushed rose petals were mixed with water and heated in
the distillery to make rose water. As a result of the heating, the water would
boil and the steam would be preserved inside with the help of a tube. While
hot, a fine layer would form over the rose water which was used as powerful
scent.74 In 1520, the guests invited to a royal gathering at Gaur, were given
distilled rose water and sweet syrup, which proves that distillation
technology and its use existed in medieval Bengal.75
Construction Technology
When it comes to aesthetics of India, Bengal artisans had a special reputation
since the ancient times, and in this regard the construction industry is
undoubtedly worth mentioning. Although, the rural buildings of Bengal made
with bamboo, wood and timber were mainly noted, bricks, stones, lime and
sawdust were used to make buildings in the city during the 13th and 14th
century. To enhance the beauty and grace of palaces, India’s corbelling
technique was practiced in building constructions and later arcuate method of
the Muslims emerged, both of which were learned by the construction
workers of Bengal to build arches, dome, vault etc. The establishment of
Muslim rule in Bengal gave rise to voussoir technology (technique of divided
downward pressure and load into architecture), construction of arches, dome
and arched roof by means of semi-circular structure, and technology of
making mortar for connecting bricks.76 As a result, when Chinese traveler Fei
Hsin arrived in Pandua, he was impressed upon seeing the palace. The
buildings were spacious and tall, the roofs were plain and of white cement,
and the entire palace was adorned with tiles, precious stones and bricks. Its
three-level door, pillar made of brass and copper, and arches were all
decorated with design of flowers and animals.77 Tome Pires has repeatedly
praised the construction of Bengal ruler Alauddin Husain Shah’s palace in
Gaur, which is undoubtedly a testament to the advanced construction
technology of Bengal in the medieval period.78 On the other hand, the
extensive use of tiles as narrated by Fei Hsin or as evidenced by the finds in
the historic city of Gaur, demands a study; whether Bengal had the
technology to manufacture tiles or were they imported from outside?
Agro Technology
Ibn Battuta mentioned Bengal as a hell full of wealth after witnessing its
plentiful wealth and environment.79 The main reason for this prosperity of
Bengal was farming and several agricultural technologies played a vital role
in behind that development. As per the description of Sandhyakar Nandi
(Ramcharitam), grains were laid out in an open space on which animals
walked in circular motion in order to thresh grains, and it is speculated that the
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 169

method of using a cow for threshing grains, spread outside of Bengal.80 While
traveling to Bengal, Ibn Battuta saw water wheel or Al-Nawawir on the two
shores of Al-Nahar ul-Azrak (Meghna or Surma). This technology was used
for irrigation. Usually, pots and vessels would be tied to the animal-driven
vehicle, and the circular motion of the animal would allow water to be
collected and poured on the ground. In addition, the ancient method of two
people carrying a rope tied to container filled with water from the reservoir for
irrigation purpose was well known. The technology that made the biggest
contribution to this agricultural growth was wheel and lever.81 Donga and dheki
working under the same formula as lever caused rapid growth in agriculture.
There is no evidence of silk production and silkworm breeding, prior to
the arrival of Muslims in Bengal. The first mention of silk production and
silkworm breeding in Bengal is found in the account of Chinese traveler Ma
Huan. According to him, Bengal became one of the largest silk producing
centers in the world during that period and silk fibers were collected six
times a year from silkworm.82 Bengal’s silk dresses are also known from the
description of Tome Pires and Ralph Fitch.83 The technology of collecting
silk fiber from the pupa and making yarn from the fiber, made significant
contribution to the growth of textile industry.
Military Technology
Due to the use of various weapons in medieval Bengal, it can be deduced
with certainty that the weapon industry developed for the needs of war
and security. The addition of Arab-Persian, Chinese, European military
technology with the local ones, and mainly the introduction of gunpowder,
primarily caused a variation in military technology and its use in Bengal.
It is reported that the Mughal Emperor Babur made use of gunpowder in
cannon and guns during the battle of Panipath in 1526 CE. However, in
the light of recent facts, it is known that the first canon in Bengal was used
during the rule of Husain Shah. From the account of Sri Rajmala, it is
known that Gaur Mallick, who was the commander of Sultan Husain
Shah, first used cannon in a war against the King of Tripura, Dhanya
Manik (c.1514-1515 CE).84 In another description, Sultan Nusrat Shah
purchases a canon named Kuchmardan from Kamta.85 It was reported that
the raid of Assam during his reign, Bengal’s Army used a cannon named
Bara Uzir.86 Although it is known that the Bengal army used canon during
the battle between Nusrat Shah and Emperor Babur, the weakness of
artillery leaves room for much criticism.87 Bharatchandra Raygunakar
mentioned the use of canon by Mughal General Raja Man Singh against
Raja Pratapaditya.88 During the victory of the Mughals, the Subahadar of
Bengal, Jahangir Quli Khan built two canons in Bengal and when Islam
170 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

Khan proceeded against the Baro Bhuiyans, he made use of the canons. 89
When Islam Khan’s commander, Itimat Khan, advanced against the Baro
Bhuiyans on June 7, 1607, he brought with him 330 gajnal (small canon),
hath-nal (guns) and sher hadan (tiger-face shaped) canons. In addition,
while he was returning to Bengal after handing over responsibilities of
Rohtash Fort to Kishwar Khan, he took 500 canons and Itimat Khan came
out of the fort with 85 pieces of big cannon of the type of Bigu-Mardan,
Kidar-Mardan, Kuj-Mardan, Kunjar-Mabanj-bhaia, Sulaymani or Bhaiya
Sulaymani.90 Furthermore, there is evidence of the use of canon in the
army of Isa Khan (leader of Baro Bhuiyan), his son Musa Khan, Uthman
Khan and the other Bhuiyans. A canon displayed in the Bangladesh
National Museum (no. J. 2287) having inscription of Bengali writing and
Isa Khan’s name proves that it was locally produced. Similar canon found
in the Central Museum of Tripura indicates that Bengal possibly exported
canons after meeting its local demand.91
In the Mughal period, bronze and brass would be welded into large
canons and canons that can be built by assembling separate parts were built
to ensure ease of use. In this case, molten metal from the reactor would be
poured in the mould and pieces of wrought iron or cylinder ring would be
used to form a barrel. In 1666, Emperor Aurangzeb appointed 5 English and
Dutch gun founders and 2 Engineers because the canons made by this
method were not functional. 92 To manufacture pellet guns, at first welding
method and then paper-roll technique was used. The technology used to
create an unmanned smooth gun tube structure by heating iron sheet and
beating by hammer, allowed more gunpowder to be stored and the
effectiveness of the gun increased.
In the light of the above discussion, it can be deduced that the textile,
shipbuilding, sugar, salt, paper, construction, agricultural and military industry
accelerated because of the use of local and imported technology, in order to meet
the needs of the local people, fulfill the luxurious lifestyle of rulers and elites,
and to meet the administrative and socio-economic demands of medieval
Bengal. However, after the imported Arab-Persian, Chinese and other foreign
technologies were used alongside the local technologies that prevailed since the
ancient times in Bengal, medieval Bengal experienced a periodic changes in its
textile, ship building, construction, agriculture and military industries and in
these fields, various technologies had a major impact. Due to the widespread use
of multiple technologies in medieval Bengal, the local industries had a major
growth, which not only met local demand, but could also be exported abroad,
and thus Bengal began its journey as an exporter in home and abroad which
rejuvenated the trade of medieval Bengal, and for its impact Bengal was
recognized as an economically affluent state to the outer world.
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 171

Notes and References

1 K.M. Asharaf, Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, Delhi, 1964: 138.
2 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti O Samaj Vivartan, Dhaka, 1993.
3 Amir Khusrau, Qiran-us-Sa’dain, Translated and edited by Professor Ishrat Husain
Ansari and others, Delhi, 2012: 36-50.
4 Md. Akhtaruzzaman, Society and Urbanization in Medieval Bengal, Dhaka, 2009: 283.
5 Abdul Karim, Dhakai Muslin, Dhaka, 1965: 19-20.
6 Barbosa, The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Translated from the original Portuguese text by
Mansel Longworth Dames, Vol. I, London: 1918: 154; Tavernier, Travels in India, Vol.
II, Trans by V. Ball, Edited by E. Crooke, London, 1898: 3.
7 James Taylor, A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Cotton Manufacture of Dacca,
London, 1851: 16.
8 Ibid.: 17-18.
9 Irfan Habib, Medieval India: The Study of a Civilization, New Delhi, 2008: 16.
10 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 13.
11 Barbosa, The Book of Duarte Barbosa, 1918: 146.
12 Sir Charles D'OYLY, Antiquities of Dacca, London, 1823: 18.
13 James Taylor, A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Cotton Manufacture of Dacca,
1851: 25.
14 Ibid.: p. 26.
15 Abdul Karim, Dhakai Muslin, 1965: 31-38.
16 James Taylor, A Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca, Calcutta, 1840: 174.
17 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 19-20.
18 Ma Huan, Yang-Yai Sheng-Lan ‘The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores’[1433], Trans
from the Chinese text edited by Feng Ch’eng-Chün, Introduction, notes and appendices
by J. V. G. Mills, Cambridge, 1970: 162.
19 Ralph Fitch, Early Travels in India, Edited by William Foster, New Delhi, 1985: 26.
20 Varthema, The Travels of Ludoyico Di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and
Arabia Felix, in Persia, India and Ethiopia, a.d. 1503 to 1508, Trans. From original Italian
Edition by John Winter Jones, Edited by George Percy Badger, London, 1863: 212.
21 Barbosa, The Book of Duarte Barbosa, 1918: 145.
22 James Taylor, A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Cotton Manufacture of Dacca,
1851: 41.
23 Tome Pires, The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea
to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 and The Book of Francisco
Rodrigues: Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanac and Maps,
Written and Drawn in the East before 1515, Trans. From the Portuguese MS and edited
by Armando Cortesao, Vol. 1, London, 1944: 92.
172 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

24 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta [AD 1325–1354], Volume IV, Edited by H.A.R.
Gibb and C.F. Beckingham, London, 2016: 867-68.
25 Amir Khusrau, Qiran-us-Sa’dain, 2012: 39-40, 45-46.
26 Madhukar, Biju-Siju, Guarekhi, Patua, Shakhachur, Sholpata, Udaytara, Tiyathuthi,
Dhabal, Kedar, Ponkhiraja, Vhimakkho, Shangkhatali and Ajela-Kajela (Vijaya Gupta,
Padmapuran or Manasa Mangal, edited by Bashantakumar Bhattacharjee, 2009: 123-24).
27 The name of the seven boats of Dhanpati are; Madhukar, Singhomukhi, Durgabar, Guarekhi,
Ranajaya, Ranavhima, Sarbadhara, Hiramuni, Chandratara and Natshala (Kabikankan
Mukunda, Chandimangal, edited by Sukumar Sena, New Delhi, 1993: 195-43).
28 Puv`‡e‡b e‡j wgZv wK Ke/Kn `yt‡Li K_v
wewa evg wjwLj Kcv‡j|
Kvbx †POgyox †ewU cyÎ †gvi LvBj QwU
mvZ wW½v WzevBj R‡j \
For detail see, Ketakadas Khemananda, Mansamangal, Edited by Bijan Bihari
Bhattacharjee, Kolkata: Introduction page and 1-3.
29 Av‡M P‡j gayKi P›`ªai m`vMi
Z‡e P‡j wW½v `yMv© ei|
Z‡e P‡j †Zjavi †mvbvgyLx PuvcvWvj
Z‡e P‡j iw½qvPvgi \
nuvwKbx-kuvwLbx †g‡j KvRj‡KvVv wW½v †V‡j
eogay †`wL jv‡M k¼v|
†QvUgay wW½v †V‡j evZv‡mZ fi K‡i
Z‡e †V‡j njejj¼v \
†g‡j wW½v †Zjavi †Rb we`y¨r mÂvi
Z‡e P‡j wW½v k•LP~o|
PzTvVuyUx wW½v †g‡j LMcwZ †Rb P‡j
wW½v †Vwj Pwj †Mj `~i \
For details see, Dr. Muhammad Sahjahan Mia, Sri Roy Binod: Kavi O Kavya, Dhaka, 1991: 90.
30 Krishnadas Kabiraj Gowasmi, Sri Sri Chaitanyacharitamrita, Edited by Sri
Subodhchandra Majumder, Kolkata, 1941: 228.
31 Aniruddha Roy, Madhyayuger Bharater Orthanaitik Itihas 1200-1757, Kolkata, 2008: 68-69.
32 Ma Huan, Yang-Yai Sheng-Lan, 1970: 160.
33 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 25.
34 Barbosa, The Book of Duarte Barbosa, 1918: 135.
35 Baru Chandidas, Shri Krishna Kirtan, Edited and annotated by Amitrashudan
Bhattacharjee, Kolkata, 2013: 192, 194, 298.
36 Tome Pires, The Suma Oriental, 1944: 88- 92.
37 Ralph Fitch, Early Travels in India, 1985: 26.
38 Mirza Nathan, Baharistan-i-Ghaybi, Vol. I, Translated by M I Borah, Guahati, Assam, 1936: 32.
39 Author of this article personally visited the ship and collected information from the
museum and the Department of Archaeology of Khulna region.
 CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY 173

40 Ibid.
41 McGrail, Sean and Lucy Blue, ‘The Rivers Clinker Boats of Bangladesh’, in Sean
McGrail (ed.), Boats of South Asia, London and New York, 2002: 65-66.
42 Ma Huan, Yang-Yai Sheng-Lan, Vol. 3, 1970: 305.
43 Ibid.: 305-306.
44 Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, Trans by R. E. Latham, London, 1953: 213-14.
45 Muhammad Sahjahan Mia, Shri Roy Binod: Kobi o Kavya, 1991: 270-271.
46 Baru Chandidas, Shri Krishna Kirtan, 2013: 204; Bijaya Gupta, Padmapuran or
Manashamangal, edited by Bashantakumar Bhattacharjya, 2009: 123-124.
47 Barbosa, The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Vol. II, 1918: 142-145; Varthema, The Travels of
Varthema, 1898: 210; Genevieve Bouchon Et Luis Filipe Thomaz (ed.), Voyage Dans
Les Deltas Du Gange Et De L’Irraouaddy, 1521: 317-318.
48 Romeshchandra Majumder, Bangladesher Itihas: Modhyayug, Kolkata, 2006: 156.
49 According to Satishchandra, Dingi is commonly known as boat (Satishchandra Mitra,
Jessore-Khulnar Itihas, Vol. 2, Kolkata, 2001: 653); but Sukumar Sena mentioned Dingi
as small version of Dinga (Sukumar Sen, An Etymological Dictionary of Bengal: c. 1000-
1800 A. D., Calcutta, 1971: 375).
50 James Taylor, A Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca, 1840: 120.
51 Gokulchandra Das, Banglar Nouka: Prak Oupanibeshik Yug, Kolkata, 2011:110-111.
52 Krishnadas Kaviraj Goswami, Chaitanya Charitamrita, edited by Shri Subodh chandra
Majumder, Madhyalilaparba, Kolikata, 1941: 271; Mukundaram Chakrabarti,
Kavikankan Chandi, Kolikata, 1275 BY: 49-50; Kavikankan Mukundaram Chakrabarti,
Chandimangal, 1993: 101.
53 Tome Pires, The Suma Oriental, 1944: 92.
54 Ma Huan, Yang-Yai Sheng-Lan, 1970: 162.
55 K.M. Asharaf, Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, 1964: 148-149; Irfan
Habib, Technology in Medieval India c.650-1750, People’s History of India Series: 20,
New Delhi, 2008: 18-19; Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti,
1993: 22.
56 Irfan Habib, Technology in Medieval India, 2008: 19.
57 K.M. Asharaf, Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, 1964: 148-149.
58 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 22.
59 Mirza Nathan, Baharistan-i-Ghaybi, 1936: 5; probably the author commented on it,
because Chattogram and sea level areas of Bengal were not the part of Mughal Empire at
that time.
60 Wakil Ahmad, Banglay Bideshi Porjotok, Dhaka, 1990: 45.
61 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 22.
62. P. K. Gode, Studies in Indian Cultural History, Vol. III, Professor P. K. Gode Works
Publication Committee, Poona, 1960: 8.
63. Amir Khusrau, Qiran-us-Sa’dain, 2012: 177, 228-230.
174 HISTORY OF BANGLADESH

64. Hamid Qalandar, Khairul Majalish (Malfoozat Hazrat Shaikh Naseer-ud-din Mahmood,
Chiragh-i-Delhi), Translated by Prof. Ishrat Hussain Ansari and Dr. Hamid Afaq
Siddiqui, Delhi, 2010: 190.
65 Catalogue of the Arabic and Persian Manuscripts in the Oriental Public Library of
Bankipur, Vol. V, Part. I, Supervised by E. Denison Ross, Calcutta, 1908: 18-20.
66 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 32.
67 Irfan Habib, Technology in Medieval India, 2008: 64-65.
68 Ma Huan, Yang-Yai Sheng-Lan, 1970: 161.
69 Tome Pires, The Suma Oriental, 1944: 93-94.
70 Ma Huan, Yang-Yai Sheng-Lan, 1970: 161.
71 Abul Fazl ’Allami, The Ain-i-Akbari, Vol. 1, Translated from the original Persian by H.
Blochmann, The Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, 1873: 20-27.
72 Ma Huan, Yang-Yai Sheng-Lan, 1970: 161.
73 Abul Fazl ’Allami, The Ain-i-Akbari, 1873: 74.
74 Irfan Habib, Technology in Medieval India, 2008: 25-26.
75 Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan The Overall Survey of Star Raft, Trans by J. V. G.
Mills, Revised, annotated and edited by Roderich Ptak, Wiesbaden, 1996: 73-74.
76 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 19-20, 29.
77 Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, 1996: 74.
78 Tome Pires, The Suma Oriental, 1944: 91.
79 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, 2016: 867.
80 Please see; Irfan Habib, Technology in Medieval India, 2008: 3.
81 Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, Madhyayuger Banglay Prayukti, 1993: 31.
82 Irfan Habib, Technology in Medieval India, 2008: 7-8.
83 Tome Pires, The Suma Oriental, 1944: 89; Ralph Fitch, Early Travels in India, 1985: 25-26.
84 S. Naher, S. Lahiri, and P. K. Chattopadhya, ‘Pre Mughals Cannons of Bengal: A Re-
evaluation’, Pranta Samikkha, New Series 5, Kolkata, 2014: 54.
85 Sukhomoya Mukhopadhyay, Banglar Itihaser Dusho Bosor: Swadhin Sultander Amal,
Kolkata, 1988: 305.
86 N. N. Acharyya, The History of Medieval Assam, Gauhati and New Delhi, 1966: 71-75.
87 Jahiruddin Muhammad Babur Padsha Ghazi, The Babur Nama, Trans By A. S.
Beveridge, London, 1922: 671-672.
88 Bharatchandra Raygunakar, Annada Mangal, 3rd Volume, Edited by Shri Bajendranath
Bandyopadhyay and Shri Sajinikanta Das, Kolkata, 1349 BY: 173-174.
89 Mirza Nathan, Baharistan-i-Ghaybi, 1936: 5, 64.
90 Ibid.: 12.
91 Canon displayed in the Bangladesh National Museum: J. 2287.
92 Irfan Habib, Technology in Medieval India, 2008: 91-93.