• Quiet operation

• High volume of
air, steady flow.
• Lower energy
cost , small size
• Suitable for
continuous
operation (24/7),
• low efficiency
• Low pressure Low mass flow rate,
ratio Service life longer,
high pressure ratios,
bigger size, and is
relatively cheap. Reciprocating
Rotary – screw compressor

Lecture on Compressor
by Dr. Shibayan Sarkar
Department of Mechanical Engg
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM)
Dhanbad

Centrifugal
compressor:
Jet engine
cutaway
showing the
centrifugal
Centrifugal compressor is widely used in chemical and compressor
petroleum refinery industry for specifies services. and other parts
What is Compressor ? PD: Operate by trapping a specific volume of
air and forcing it into a smaller volume. Sliding Vane
Compressor is a device which is Centrifugal: Operate by accelerating the air
used to increase the pressure and converting the energy to pressure
of air from low pressure to high Artificially cooled, Liquid Piston
pressure by using some pressure ratio more
external energy than 1.15, fluid Rotary Helical
• For filling the air in tube of medium - Gas
vehicles
Lobe
• In automobile service station Intermittent
flow / positive
to clean vehicles. displacement
(PD)
• For spray painting in paint Screw
industries.
• In vehicle to operate air Reciprocating
Mechanical
Piston
brakes. Compressor
• For cleaning workshop Radial /
machines. Centrifugal

• For supercharging of an IC
engines. Dynamic Mixed

• For operation of pneumatic Continuous flow

tools i.e. rock drills, vibrators Ejector Axial
etc.
Definitions of Compressor
Compression ratio:- It is defined as the ratio of volume of air before compression to the
volume of air after compression.
Compressor capacity:- It is the quantity of air actually delivered by a compressor in m3/minute
or m3/sec.
Free air Delivered(FAD):- It is the volume of air delivered by compressor under the compressor
intake conditions ( i.e. temperature and pressure ).
Swept Volume:- The volume displaced or swept by piston when it moves between top dead
center and bottom dead center.
Clearance volume:- it is the difference between the total volume and the swept volume,
basically the gap that remains between the piston head and the cylinder head when at top
dead center.
Efficiencies:
Volumetric efficiency:-
It is the ratio of actual volume of the FAD at standard atmospheric condition in one delivery
stroke (Actual air intake) to the swept volume (theoretical air intake) by the piston during
the stroke.
Isothermal efficiency:-
It is defined as the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) (i.e. required input power at isothermal
process) done to the indicated power (IP) or actual work done.
Mechanical efficiency:-
It is the ratio of indicated power (IP) to the shaft(Brake) Power (Pshaft).
Overall efficiency:-
It is the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) to the shaft(Brake) Power (Pshaft).
 The Analysis Objectives

• To calculate air pressure and temperature before

and after compression process
• To calculate indicated work/power
• To obtain compressor efficiency
• To calculate free air delivery rate (kg/s or m3/s)
Reciprocating Compressor
The primary components of a
typical reciprocating compressor
system can be seen in Figures.
The compression cylinders, also
known as stages, of which a
particular design may have from
one to six or more, provide
confinement for the process gas
during compression. A piston is
driven in a reciprocating action
to compress the gas.
Arrangements may be of single-
or dual-acting design. (In the
dual-acting design, compression
occurs on both sides of the
piston during both the advancing
and retreating stroke.) Some
dual-acting cylinders in high-
pressure applications will have a
piston rod on both sides of the
piston to provide equal surface
area and balance loads.
Reciprocating Compressor
Tandem cylinder arrangements
help minimize dynamic loads by
locating cylinders in pairs,
connected to a common
crankshaft, so that the
movements of the pistons
oppose each other. Gas
pressure is sealed and wear of
expensive components is
minimized through the use of
disposable piston rings and
rider bands respectively. These
are formed from comparatively
soft metals relative to piston
and cylinder/liner metallurgy or
materials such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
Reciprocating Compressor Suction line Valve plate
Discharge valve
Discharge line
In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of air is
drawn into a cylinder, it is trapped, and compressed Head
by piston and then discharged into the discharge line. Suction
The cylinder valves control the flow of air through the valve
cylinder; these valves act as check valves.
Rings
Single – Acting compressor
Connecting
It is a compressor that has one discharge per Rod Piston
revolution of crankshaft.
Double – Acting Compressor
It is a compressor that completes two discharge
strokes per revolutions of crankshaft. Most heavy-
duty compressors are double acting. Crankshaft

Multi-staging :Reduction in power required to drive the

compressor.
 Better mechanical balance of the whole unit and
uniform torque.
 Increase in volumetric efficiency.
 Reduced leakage loss.
 Less difficulty in lubrication due to low working
temperature.
 Lighter cylinders can be used.
 Cheaper materials can be used for construction as
the operating temperature is lower.
 Front Face View
Dial weight
Manometer Reading (Kg)
Reading P2 Intercooler
(orifice) 1stStage T2
cylinder T3 2nd Stage cylinder Mechanical
guard dynamometer
T1,
P1
Silencer
cum filter
Air Box Unloader
valve Thermo Motor (without
meter grouting i.e. Stand/
Crank Case: P3 support)
Splash type Safety Valve
Lubricating Pressure
Oil indicator control
Switch Main Switch
Receiver
Tank

Motor (without grouting) to produce opposite torque for mechanical dynamometer.

Water outlet
Unloader valve: to keep the starting compressor operation in ambient pressure.
Drain Cock
 Back Face View

Motor RPM
Compressor RPM
Reciprocating Compressor
Assumptions
The working fluid is assumed as a perfect gas and P-v-T can be calculated by using simple equation of state.
Usually, these assumptions are used to calculate estimate pressure, P, volume, V, and temperature, T, of
the working fluid.
PV = mRT PV / T = K1 PV n = K 2 c b
 Compressor without clearance volume
 Compressor with clearance volume
d
 Multistage compressors
a
Compressor without clearance volume
The Cycle of Operation
• The cycle of operation of a reciprocating
air-compressor is best shown on a
pressure-volume (p-V) diagram.
• It is known as an indicator diagram for
the compressor.
• The cycle comprises of three processes:
d - a: An induction stroke
a - b: A compression stroke
b - c: A delivery stroke
 T p2
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without 2”
p1

clearance volume 2
Description of the Processes 2’
1
d – a: The induction stroke s

Intake valve opens, while exhaust valve closed.

Atmospheric air is drawn into the cylinder at constant c b
pressure p1 and temperature T1. Ideally, there is no
heat loss to the surrounding from the air.
a – b: The compression stroke d
Both intake and exhaust valves closed. The air is a
compressed according to a polytropic law pV n =
constant. Its pressure is increased from p1 to p2. The
temperature is also increased from T1 to T2.
b – c: The delivery stroke
The intake valve closed while the exhaust valve opens.
The compressed air is pushed out of the cylinder at
constant pressure p2 and temperature T2. There is no
heat loss from the air to the surroundings.
During compression, due to its excess temperature above the compressor surrounding, the air will
lose some heat. Thus neglecting the internal effect of friction the index is less than ɣ (i.e. <1.4), the
adiabatic index. If n= ɣ =1.4, area under curve is biggest, i.e. reversible adiabatic or entropy constant.
Since work must be put into an air compressor to run it, every effort is made to reduce this amount of
work input. It is observed that if compression is along isothermal, work done is less (though in practical
it is not possible). Isothermal is attempted by cooling the compressor either by adding cooling fan of
water jacket.
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
clearance volume
Analysis of Cycle
Indicated work per cycle
The area under the p-V diagram represents the net or
indicated work done on the air per cycle. c b
Indicated work / cycle = area a-b-c-d = area 1-2-3-4-1
=area under 1-2+area under 2-3 – area under 4-1
 p2V2 − p1V1  d
 + p2V2 − p1V1 This work must
 n − 1  a
be done on
 n 
W   ( p2V2 − p1V1 ) compressor
 n − 1 

Assuming the air as a perfect gas,

p1V1 = mRT1 p2V2 = mRT2
where m is the mass of air induced and delivered per
cycle, R is the universal gas constant, where R = 0.287
kJ/kgK.
Substituting, 2
Indicated work = / cycle W   n 
 mR ( T − T ) = W1− 2 ∫=
1
pdV , pV n C
 n −1 
2 1
1
( CV21− n − CV11− n )
2
∫ V dV
−n
= C=
1 1− n
=
1
1− n
( p2V2 n × V21− n − p1V1n × V11− n )
 Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
clearance volume
Analysis of Cycle
Other form of the equation for indicated work/ cycle is
 n −1

 n    p2  n 
W   mRT1   − 1 c b
 n −1 
 1 
p

 n −1

 n    p2  n 
=W   p1V1   − 1
 n −1  d
 1 
p

Indicated Power (IP): a
The indicated power (IP) is the work done on the air per unit
time. The mass flow per unit time ṁ is often used to compute
the work done/time or indicated power.
 n 
=IP   (T2 − T1 )
 mR
 n −1 
Mechanical efficiency:-
It is the ratio of indicated power to the shaft Power.
Shaft power = indicated power + friction power
Shaft power is the power supplied by the electric motor to compressor.
For Polytropic process
Motor efficiency:- p1V1 p2V2
p1V1n = p2V2 n
It is the ratio of shaft power to the input Power. =
Input power is the electric power supplied to the electric motor T1 T2
1  n −1 
    ( n −1)
V1  p2  n T2  p2   n  T2  V2 
=  =  = 
V2  p1  T1  p1  T1  V1 
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
Isothermal efficiency:- clearance volume
It is the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) to indicated power (IP)
Isothermal Power:
 1 ln( p2 / p1 )
Piso = mRT
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
Effect of the clearance
volume is to reduce the
clearance volume volume actually aspirated.
Analysis of Cycle
It is a spacing between the top of the piston and the valve’s heads when
the piston is at the end of the delivery stroke. Good quality machines has b
a clearance volume of about 6%. But compressors with clearance of 30 – c
35% are also common.

Processes
d – a: Induction process
The inlet valve opens. Fresh atmospheric air is d a
induced into the cylinder at constant pressure p1
and temperature T1. The volume of air induced is
(Va – Vd). Ideally, there is no heat transfer from
the air to the surroundings.
a – b: Compression process
Both valves closed. The induced air is compressed according to the polytropic law of pVn
= const., until the pressure and temperature increases to p2 and T2, respectively. Ideally,
there is no heat transfer from the air to the surroundings of cylinder.
Clearance volume:
 Give a mechanical freedom to the moving parts
 Reduce noise and vibration during operation
 Prevent damage to moving components
 Deliver valve open,
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
Vc, residual
gas
compress gas starts
delivering from the
clearance volume cylinder
Analysis of Cycle
It is a spacing between the top of the piston and the valve’s heads when As piston
the piston is at the end of the delivery stroke. Good quality machines has b begin intake
a clearance volume of about 6%. But compressors with clearance of 30 – c
stroke,
35% are also common. residual gas
Because of presence of clearance
volume , volumetric efficiency is expand
Processes always less than unity, between 60% according to
to 85 %. pvn=const
b – c: Delivery process
The exhaust valve opens. The compressed air is
delivered out of the cylinder at constant pressure d a
p2 and temperature T2. Ideally, there is no heat
transfer from the air to the surroundings.

c – d: Expansion process
The piston begins the induction stroke. The compressed air occupying the clearance volume
Vc expands according to the polytropic law of pV n = const., until the pressure and
temperature fall to p1 and T1, respectively. Ideally, there is no heat transfer from the air to
the surroundings.
Note: At the end of the delivery stroke, the clearance volume Vc is filled with compressed air
at pressure p2 and temperature T2.
It is the ratio between FAD at standard atmospheric
V −V condition in one delivery stroke (Actual air intake) to the
Volumetric efficiency= 1 4
V1 − V3 swept volume (theoretical air intake)
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
Assuming polytropic index to be same clearance volume
for both compression and clearance
expansion Indicated work / cycle = b
 n −1
  n −1

c
 n  
 2 p  n
  n  
 3 p  n

W   p1V1   − 1 −   p4V4   − 1
 n −1   n −1 
 1   4 
p p
 
But p4=p1, p3=p2 therefore
 n −1

 n    p2  n 
W=  p1 (V1 − V4 )   − 1 a
 n −1  d
 1 
p


 n 
W=   ( m a − m d ) R [T2 − T1 ]
 n − 1 

Volumetric efficiency =
V1 − V4 V1 − V4 The greater is the clearance ratio
=
V1 − V3 Vs through a reciprocating
=1 + k − k (V1 / V2 ) Where, k=clearance ratio = V3/(V1-V3)=Vc/Vs compressor, the greater will be the
Ratio has a value 4% - 10 % effect of the clearance volume
=1 + k − k ( p2 / p1 )1/ n
since the clearance air will expand
=1 + k − k ( p3 / p4 )1/ n through greater volume before
intake condition is reached.
Reciprocating Compressor
Actual p-V (indicator diagram for single stage compressor
At point 4, the clearance air actually reduced to atmospheric pressure.
The inlet valve in practice will not open. Reason : (i) inlet valve inertia (ii)
c b
there must be a pressure difference across the inlet valve in order to
move it. Thus pressure drop away until the valve is forced off its seat.
Some valve bounce will then set in (wavy line) Therefore intake will
become near enough steady at some pressure below atmospheric
pressure. The negative pressure difference, i.e. intake depression settles
naturally.
Similar situation occurs at point 2. There is a constant pressure rise,
followed by valve bounce and the pressure then settles at some pressure a
above external delivery pressure (i.e. Receiver tank pressure). d
Other small effects at inlet and delivery
would be gas inertia and turbulence.
So, practical effects are responsible for
the addition of the two small ripple
negative work areas shown in figure.
There are certain disadvantages to increase the delivery pressure to a high value.
When the delivery pressure is increased to p3, the volume of the fresh air induced is
reduced from (Va – Vd) to (Va – Vd’), and so on, whereas swept volume Vs is remains
constant. Since the volumetric efficiency is given by
ƞvol = (Va – Vd )/ Vs
the volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing delivery pressure.

This situation can be improved by performing

Vc
multistage compression process.
Vs
Reciprocating Compressor
Multistage compression
Observation
After the first stage compression, the air is
passed into a smaller cylinder, in which it is
further compressed to desired final pressure.
The cycle assumes that the delivery process of
the first stage and the induction process of the
second stage take place at the same pressure pi.
Advantage
• Each cylinder works with lower pressure ratio.
Thus the operational safety of the compressor is
improved.
• The overall volumetric efficiency, ηv increases.
• Mass flow rate is increased , as clearance air
expansion is reduced and effective swept
volume of this cylinder is increased.

(i) Single stage Compressor, for delivery pressure upto 5 bar.

(ii) Two stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 to 35 bar
(iii) Three stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 to 85 bar.
(iv) Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar
Reciprocating Compressor
pd or
Multistage compression
Indicated power for stage 1.
 n −1

 n  
 i p  n

W   mRTa   − 1
 n −1 
 1 
p

Indicated power for stage 2.
Ta”=Tb
 n −1

 n    p  n

 mRTa "   − 1
2
W 
 n −1 
 i 
p

 With multistage compression, the air can be
cooled as it is being transferred from one
cylinder to the next, by passing it through an ps or
intercooler.
 The process of cooling the air is called the
intercooling process.
 With intercooling process, temperature is
reduced, therefore internal energy of
delivered air reduced. Since energy must
have come from the input energy required to
drive the machine, this results in a decrease
in input work requirement for a given mass
of delivered air. Thus the power supplied to
the compressor can be reduced.

Complexity of machine limits the number of stages.

Reciprocating Compressor Perfect intercooling:
after initial
compression in the L.P.
Multistage compression (Without Vc) 6’ cylinder with the
consequent
Single stage compressor: W= temperature rise, the
 n −1
  n −1
 air is cooled in an
 n        intercooler back to its
p1V1  5  − 1   5 
p n
n p n

 =    mRT1   − 1 original temperature,

 n −1   n −1 
 1   1 
p p i.e. T2=T1, where point
 
n −1 2 lies on isothermal
p  n through point 1.
Deliver temperature,
T5 = T1  5 
Two stage compressor,  p1  7” 7’

without intercooling: W=
 n −1
  n −1

 n    p4  n
  n    p5  n  Considering clearance volume
  p1V1   − 1 +   p4V4   − 1 8’
 n −1   n −1 
 1   p4 
p
   Without clearance volume
Deliver temperature same as above……
Two stage compressor,
With perfect intercooling: W=
2453 = Work savings occurs
 n −1
  n −1

 n  
 4 p  n
  n  
 3 p  n

  p1V1   − 1 +   p2V2   − 1
 n −1   n −1 
 1   2 
p p
 n −1
 n −1

p  n  p3  n
Deliver temperature,
= T3 T=
2
3
 T1   ,=
where T2 T1
 p2   p2 
 n −1 n −1

 n    p  n  p  n

=
if T2 T=
1 , p2V2 p=
1V1 , p4 =
p2 W   p1V1   +   − 2 
2 3

 n −1 
 1   p2 
p

Reciprocating Compressor 6’
Perfect intercooling:
after initial
Multistage compression (Without Vc) compression in the L.P.
Condition for minimum work done: cylinder with the
consequent
It is observed that an intermediate pressure p2 temperature rise, the
-->p1, then area 2453 --> 0. Also p2-->p3 , then air is cooled in an
area 2453 --> 0. this means , therefore there intercooler back to its
original temperature,
exists an intermediate pressure p2 which makes i.e. T2=T1, where point
area 2453 maximum and W minimum.
n −1 n −1 2 lies on isothermal
For minimum W :  p2  n  p3  n must 7” 7’
through point 1.
be minimum…….  p  +  
 1  p2 
Considering clearance volume
 n −1 n −1
 p p
p  p 
8’
d  2  +  3  
n n
i.e. 2
= 3 Without clearance volume
 p1   2 
p  p1 p2
  =0
dp2
 n −1
  n −1

 2n     2n    p p  n

p1V1  2  − 1 
p n

= p1V1   − 1
3 1
W  
 n −1   p1    n −1   p1 
     P3 or Pd
 
 n −1
  n −1
 T P2 or Pi
 2n   p3  − 1 or  xn  p V  ( x +1)  − 1 , for x stage
p
2 n xn
W=   1 1  
p V   1 1   P1 or Ps
 n −1   p1    n −1   p1  
5
   
Ti or T2 3 4
Where p(x+1)/p1 is the pressure ratio through compressor at x stage. = T3 or Td
p 
Isothermal power Piso =mRT1 ln  3  , 9 2 1Perfect
intercooling
 p1 
s
Heat Transferred in intercooler = mc p (T4 − T=
2) mc p (T4 − T1 )
Rotary Compressor:
PD type:
(i) Lobe type (Roots blower)
(ii) Vane
(iii) Screw
(iv) Etc.
Continuous Flow Compressor:
(i) Centrifugal
(ii) axial
Centrifugal Compressor
• Centrifugal compressors accelerates the velocity of the gases
(increases kinetic energy) which is then converted into pressure as
the air flow leaves the volute and enters the discharge pipe.
• Deliver much higher flow rates than positive displacement
compressors
• For low pressure ratios (< 4:1), if higher pressure ratio with larger unit
– prefer axial flow compressor
• Usually operate at speeds > 3,000 rpm.
• Smaller length, contaminated atmosphere doesn't affect the
performance
• Disadvantages- larger frontal area and lower maximum efficiency
Basic Components
• Impellers, Vanes, Volutes, Suction Eyes, Discharge lines, Diffuser
Plates, Seals, Shaft, Casing
• Suction Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air first.
• Discharge Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air last
Applications
Most well-known centrifugal compressor applications are gas turbines and
turbochargers.
Either or both axial and centrifugal compressors are used to provide
compressed air to Modern gas turbines which operate on the Brayton cycle. The
types of gas turbines that most often include centrifugal compressors include
turboshaft, turboprop, auxiliary power units, and micro-turbines.
Centrifugal compressors used in conjunction with reciprocating internal
combustion engines are known as turbochargers if driven by the engine’s exhaust
gas and turbo-superchargers if mechanically driven by the engine.
Centrifugal Compressor
Inlet
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple
pipe. It may include features such as a valve, stationary
vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both pressure
and temperature instrumentation. Figure 1.
Turbocharger
Centrifugal impeller Construction and
The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the Flow of Gases
centrifugal impeller. It is the impeller’s rotating set of vanes (or
Figure 2.
blades) that gradually raises the energy of the working gas. This open
is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the impeller
gases can reach higher velocities and energy levels through the
impeller’s increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency
centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling
near the speed of sound. Figure 3.
full
Impellers are designed in many length
configurations including “open” (visible splitter
impeller
blades), “covered or shrouded”, “with
splitters”. Most modern high efficiency
impellers use “backsweep” in the blade Figure 4.
shrouded
shape. Euler’s pump and turbine
impeller
equation plays an important role in Figure 5. backsweep impeller
understanding impeller performance.
Centrifugal Compressor
Diffuser
The next key component to the
simple centrifugal compressor is
the diffuser. Downstream of the
impeller in the flow path, it is the
diffuser’s responsibility to convert
the kinetic energy (high velocity) of
the gas into pressure by gradually
slowing (diffusing) the gas velocity.
Diffusers can be vane less, vaned or
an alternating combination.
Hybrid versions of vaned diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe diffusers. There are
turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no diffuser. Bernoulli’s fluid dynamic
principle plays an important role in understanding diffuser performance.
Collector / Casing
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the diffuser
discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When the
diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull’s horn or a French
horn, the collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a collector’s
purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver this flow to a
downstream pipe. Either the collector or the pipe may also contain valves and
instrumentation to control the compressor.
Centrifugal Compressor (steady flow)
 Velocity encountered in the centrifugal compressor are very large, therefore total 1 Q=0
head quantities should be considered while analyzing centrifugal compressor. 2
 Consider, a horizontal passage of varying area through which air is flowing. Applying
steady flow equation to the system we get m2
 V12   V22 
m1  u1 + p1v1 + + gz1  + Q
= m2  u2 + p2 v2 + + gz2  + W m1
 2   2 
for 1 kg of air flow (assuming no external heat transfer and work done) the expression becomes…
V2 V 2 u = internal energy, v= volume, p = pressure, V = velocity, h =
u1 + p1v1 + 1 =u2 + p2 v2 + 2 enthalpy, cp= specific heat at constant pressure, Q=heat, W=work z1 W=0 z2
2 2
V12 V22 V12 V22 P .v represents the displacement or flow energy.
h1 + =h2 +
V2
c pT1 + = c pT2 + c pT + =
const V2 / 2 represents the kinetic energy.
2 2 2 2 2 g. Z represents the potential energy.
 T is static temperature, measured by thermometer when the thermometer is moving at the air velocity. If moving
air is brought to rest under reversible condition, total KE of air is converted into ‘u’, further heat energy, increasing
the temperature and pressure of the air. This temperature and pressure of the air is known as “stagnation” or
“total head” temperature and pressure and it is denoted by ‘o’.
γ
V2
V 2
V 2 po  To  γ −1
c pT + = To − T = ho − h = =
p  T 
c pTo V2
2 2c p 2 2c p
 Ideal reversible adiabatic process is called isentropic process (s=const).
But, during the adiabatic compression in a rotary compressor, there is
friction between molecules of air and between air and blade passages,
eddies formation and shocks at entry and exit. These factors cause
internal generation of heat and consequently the maximum temperature
reached would be more than that for adiabatic compression (T01--->T02).
This result in a progressive increase in entropy. Such a process through
adiabatic (no heat transfer) is not isentropic. Again, the heat generated
by friction etc., may be removed continuously with the result that the
process might not involve any entropy change (T01--->T02’). The process
would be isentropic but not adiabatic as heat has been transferred.
 Centrifugal Compressor (steady flow)
Isentropic efficiency – ratio of isentropic temperature rise to actual
temperature rise or ratio of isentropic to actual compression work.
T02' − T01 T2' − T1 c p (T02 − T01 ) Isentropic Work
'

ηisen
= = = =
T02 − T01 T2 − T1 c p (T02 − T01 ) Actual Work
During compression, work has to be imparted to the impeller (i.e. -ve).
Then the energy balance equation around the impeller will be
V12 V22 V012 V022
c pT1 + = c pT2 + −W c pT01 + = c pT02 + −W
2 2 2 2
W c p (T02 − T01 )
= Thus work input is the product of specific heat at constant pressure
and temperature rise (for both adiabatic and isentropic process).
Status of P & V during Working Process
inlet at diffuser
Air enters at the eye of the impeller at a mean radius rm with low at impeller
velocity V1 and atmospheric pressure p1. Depending upon the
centrifugal action of the impeller, the air moves radial outwards and
during its movement it is guided by the impeller vanes. The impellers
transfers the energy of the drive to the air causing a rise both static
pressure p2 and temperature T2, and increase in velocity V2. The
work input equals the rise in total temperature. Air now enters the
diverging passage ‘diffuser’ where it is efficiently slow down V3. The
KE is converted into pressure energy with the result that there is a
further rise in static pressure p3. In practice nearly half of the total
pressure is achieved in impeller and remaining part in diffuser. A
pressure ratio 4 : 1 can be achieved with single stage centrifugal
compressor, for higher ratio multistage compressor is used.
Centrifugal Compressor (Velocity Diagram)
Isentropic efficiency – ratio of isentropic temperature rise to actual
temperature rise or ratio of isentropic to actual compression work.

v1= absolute velocity of fluid at inlet

u1= Mean blade velocity at inlet
vr1 = relative velocity of fluid at inlet
vw1 = velocity of whirl (tangential) at inlet
vf1 = velocity of flow at inlet
u2= Mean blade velocity at outlet
vr2 = relative velocity of fluid at outlet
v2= absolute velocity of fluid at outlet
vw2 = velocity of whirl at outlet
vf2 = velocity of flow at outlet
α1 = exit angle from the guide vane or inlet angle
of the guide vane
β1 = inlet angle to the rotor or impeller or angle
between vr1 with the direction of motion of vane at
inlet
β2 = outlet angle to the rotor or impeller or angle
between vr2 with the direction of motion of vane at
inlet
α2 = inlet angle to diffuser

It assumes that entry of the air is ‘axial’ therefore the whirl Vw1 is zero, and V1=Vf1. To avoid shock at
entry and exit the blade must be parallel to the relative velocity of air at inlet or outlet and β1 and β2
are the impeller blade angle at inlet and outlet. The diffuser blade angle must be parallel to the absolute
velocity of air from the impeller (V2), therefore α2 is the diffuser blade angle at inlet and α3 will be the
diffuser blade angle at outlet. If the discharge from the diffuser is circumferential, then angle at outlet
(α3) should be as small as possible.
 Centrifugal Compressor (Equations)
Work done by the impeller (Euler’s Work)
W = Vw 2 u2 − Vw1u1 = h02 − h01 = c p (T02 − T01 ) If working fluid enters radially , Vw1=0
Using inlet and outlet velocity triangle Term I= increase in KE of 1 kg of working fluid in impeller, that has converted into pressure
term − I term − II term − III
energy in the diffuser
V − V Vr21 − Vr22 u22 − u12
2 2 Term II= pressure rise in the impeller due to ‘diffusion action’, as relative velocity
W= +
2 1
+ decreases from inlet to outlet
2 2 2 Term III= pressure rise in the impeller due to ‘centrifugal action’, as working fluid enters at
Power required per impeller for ṁ kg of a lower diameter and comes out at a higher diameter
air flow in one second:
 w 2 u2
mV If the blade is radial (ideal case), Vw2=u2, and W= V22 Since the air cannot leave the impeller at a
P= kW
1000 velocity greater than the impeller tip velocity, the maximum work supplied per kg of air per second
is given by the above equation.
Considering the steady flow at the inlet and outlet of the impeller, assuming the heat transfer during the flow of air
through the impeller is zero i.e. adiabatic. V2 V0 2
c pT + = cont = c pT0 +
2 2
V 2
V 2
 V   V 2  V 
2  2
V  2
h1 + + W = h2 + W =  h2 +  −  h1 +  = c p  T2 +  − c p  T1 +  = c p (T02 − T01 )
1 2 2 1 2 1
2 2  2   2   2 c p   2 c p 
γ −1 γ −1
 γ −1
 rpo= pressure
   γ −1
 ratio based on
T  p  γ p  γ p  γ
=W c pT01  02= − 1 c pT01  T2  02  T1  01  = − 1 c pT01   02  = − 1 c pT01  rp 0 γ − 1 stagnation pr.
     
 T01    p2   p1     p01    
γ −1
     γ −1 
 γ
 T

 p2   γ 


= V=
W 2
c pT01  rp 0 − 1 In most of the practical problem V1=V2, therefore 2
= 
2
 
  T 1  p1 
γ −1
 γ γ−1  p2  V 2  γ Power input to the compressor depends upon:
W c pT1  rp − 1 =  2
+ 1 (i) Mass flow of air through the compressor
  
  p1  2c pT1  (ii) Total temperature at the inlet of the compressor
rp= pressure ratio based on (iii) Total pressure ratio of the compressor which depends upon the square
static pr. of the impeller tip velocity.
 Centrifugal Compressor (Equations)
Width of the blades of impeller and diffuser ṁ = mass of air flowing per second
b1= width (or height) of impeller at inlet
Volume of the air flowing per second 2π r1b1V f 1 2π r1b1V1
m = = r1= radius of impeller at inlet
Volume of 1 kg of air v1 v1 V1=Vf1, as air trapped radially
2π r2 b2V f 2 If , n is number of blade in the impeller having ‘t’ thickness
m = Similarly at outlet (2π r1 − nt )b1V f 1 (2π r2 − nt )b2V f 2 (2π rd − nt )bd V fd
v2 m = m = m =
v1 v2 vd
2π rd bd V fd Similarly at diffuser,
m = ‘d’ for diffuser
vd
Isentropic efficiency If , V1=V2
Isentropic Work T02′ − T01 c p (T02′ − T01 ) c p (T2′ − T1 )
ηisen = = =
Actual Work T02 − T01 c p (T02 − T01 ) c p (T2 − T )1
(γ −1) / γ
T2′ − T1 T2′ T1 − 1 ( p2 p1 ) −1
ηisen =
= = ( n −1) / n
,n > γ
T2 − T1 T2 T1 − 1 ( p2 p1 ) −1
Slip Factor (øs) – ratio of actual whirl component and the
ideal whirl component (radial exit)
Vw 2
φs = slip= u2 − Vw 2
u2
Pressure Coefficient (øp) – ratio of isentropic work to Euler work
c p (T02′ − T01 )
φp = Work factor or power input factor φw = u2Vw 2 At radial exit u2 = Vw 2
u2Vw 2
 Centrifugal Compressor (Equations)

Pressure ratio or head

Forward
Diffuser efficiency Radial
Suffix 1 and 2 represents
( p2 − p1 ) upstream and downstream
ηd =
ω
2g
(V 1
2
− V22 )
condition of diffuser, w=weight
density
Backward-
curved
Radial-
curved
Forward-
curved
Backward

blades blades blades

1. Backward blades – High head or pressure ratio
β2<90° β2=90° β2>90° Mass flow rate
2. Radial vane – high outlet velocity, manufactured easily, free
from complex bending stress, high pressure ratio

Losses in Centrifugal Compressor

1. Friction loss frictional losses are due to both skin friction and boundary layer separation. It is
proportional to both V2 and m2
2. Incidence loss – During the off-design conditions, the direction of relative velocity of fluid at inlet
does not match with the inlet blade angle and therefore fluid cannot enter the blade passage smoothly
by gliding along the blade surface. It is proportional to CDV2, where CD is drag coefficient.
Selection of Compressor geometries
1.
Number of Blade in impeller: Can be chosen by experience corresponding to requirements. Usually
experiments shows that it varies from 18 to 22 for radial bladed diameter from 25 to 36 cm
2. Blade Angle- outlet angle influence the inlet angle, usually inlet angle varies from 30 to 35 degree.
3. Impeller diameter – u2 = π D2 N / 60 after knowing the tip diameter, the inlet diameter is calculated from the
tip diameter ratio. Generally D2/D1 varies from 1.6 to 2.0
4. Impeller width - If b1 and b2 are the blade width at inlet and outlet of the impeller, then neglecting the
thickness of blades it is calculated by the equation.
= m π= d1b1V f 1 ρ1 π d 2 b2V f 2 ρ 2 Generally V f 1 = V f 2
5. Impeller Material – forged or die casted of low silicon aluminum alloy.
6. Vaneless diffuser – The function of vaneless diffuser or space is to stabilize the flow for shockless entry into a
bladed diffuser and to invert some portions of K.E. into pressure energy. The diameter ratio of vaneless to
impeller tip diameter (D3/D2) varies from 1/0.06 to 1.12
Since the flow in the vaneless diffuser is assumed to be logarithmic spiral, hence α2= α3. Generally b2=b3
= width of vaneless diffuser. In some cases b3>b2
 Surging and Chocking
Centrifugal Compressor Suppose compressor is running in equilibrium condition at N, If flow is
Compressor Characteristics curve restricted (i.e. low mass flow rate) by valve or by any means resistance of flow
is increased, the equilibrium point moves to M. If flow still reduces, operating
Inlet loss, friction, separation loss, losses in diffuser point moves left to L (max pr. ratio). If flow further reduced, pressure ratio will
reduce. At this moment, there is a higher pressure downstream system than
compressor delivery . So flow stops or may even reverse.

After a short duration,

Initial
compressor starts to
equilibriu
deliver fluid (say N).
m point
Pressure starts to increase
and operating point
moves towards left from

compressor
right again, and after

operation
point ‘L’ it cuts and the
cycle will be repeated

No
with high frequency. It is
called surging.

At a constant rotor speed, the tangential

velocity component (Vw2) at the impeller tip
remains constant. With the increase in mass
Compressor flow the pressure ratio decreases and hence
Performance the density is decreased. Consequently, the
curve radial velocity (Vr2) is increased considerably,
which increases the absolute velocity and
incidence angle at diffuser vane tip. Thus there
is a rapid progression towards choking state.
Beyond this compressor cannot be operated.
Axial Flow Compressor

Composed of a rotor that has rows of fanlike blades.

• In industry, axial compressors are used a lot high flows and pressures are needed.
• Air flow is moves along the shaft.
• Rotating blades attached to a shaft push air over stationary blades called stators.
• Stator blades are attached to the casing.
• As the air velocity is increased by the rotating blades, the stator blades slow it down. As
the air slows, kinetic energy is converted into pressure.
• air velocity increases as it moves from stage to stage until it reaches the discharge.
• Multi-Stage axial compressors can generate very high flow rates and discharge pressures.
• Axial compressors are usually limited to 16 stages (due to temperature/material
limitations)
• Pound for pound, axial compressors are lighter, more efficient, and smaller than
centrifugal compressors.
What is Compressor ? PD: Operate by trapping a specific volume of
air and forcing it into a smaller volume. Sliding Vane
Compressor is a device which is Centrifugal: Operate by accelerating the air
used to increase the pressure and converting the energy to pressure
of air from low pressure to high Artificially cooled, Liquid Piston
pressure by using some pressure ratio more
external energy than 1.15, fluid Rotary Helical
• For filling the air in tube of medium - Gas
vehicles
Lobe
• In automobile service station Intermittent
flow / positive
to clean vehicles. displacement
(PD)
• For spray painting in paint Screw
industries.
• In vehicle to operate air Reciprocating
Mechanical
Piston
brakes. Compressor
• For cleaning workshop Radial /
machines. Centrifugal

• For supercharging of an IC
engines. Dynamic Mixed

• For operation of pneumatic Continuous flow

tools i.e. rock drills, vibrators Ejector Axial
etc.
• Quiet operation
• High volume of
air, steady flow.
• Lower energy
cost , small size
• Suitable for
continuous
operation (24/7),
• low efficiency
• Low pressure Low mass flow rate,
ratio Service life longer,
high pressure ratios,
bigger size, and is
relatively cheap. Reciprocating
Rotary – screw compressor

Ejector Centrifugal
Process plant optimization. Gas compression. compressor:
Production boosting. Jet engine
cutaway
showing the
centrifugal
Centrifugal compressor is widely used in chemical and compressor
petroleum refinery industry for specifies services. and other parts
Definitions of Compressor
Compression ratio:- It is defined as the ratio of volume of air before compression to the
volume of air after compression.
Compressor capacity:- It is the quantity of air actually delivered by a compressor in m3/minute
or m3/sec.
Free air Delivered(FAD):- It is the volume of air delivered by compressor under the compressor
intake conditions ( i.e. temperature and pressure ).
Swept Volume:- The volume displaced or swept by piston when it moves between top dead
center and bottom dead center.
Clearance volume:- it is the difference between the total volume and the swept volume,
basically the gap that remains between the piston head and the cylinder head when at top
dead center.
Efficiencies:
Volumetric efficiency:-
It is the ratio of actual volume of the FAD at standard atmospheric condition in one delivery
stroke (Actual air intake) to the swept volume (theoretical air intake) by the piston during
the stroke.
Isothermal efficiency:-
It is defined as the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) (i.e. required input power at isothermal
process) done to the indicated power (IP) or actual work done.
Mechanical efficiency:-
It is the ratio of indicated power (IP) to the shaft(Brake) Power (Pshaft).
Overall efficiency:-
It is the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) to the shaft(Brake) Power (Pshaft).
 The Analysis Objectives

• To calculate air pressure and temperature before

and after compression process
• To calculate indicated work/power
• To obtain compressor efficiency
• To calculate free air delivery rate (kg/s or m3/s)
Reciprocating Compressor
The primary components of a
typical reciprocating compressor
system can be seen in Figures.
The compression cylinders, also
known as stages, of which a
particular design may have from
one to six or more, provide
confinement for the process gas
during compression. A piston is
driven in a reciprocating action
to compress the gas.
Arrangements may be of single-
or dual-acting design. (In the
dual-acting design, compression
occurs on both sides of the
piston during both the advancing
and retreating stroke.) Some
dual-acting cylinders in high-
pressure applications will have a
piston rod on both sides of the
piston to provide equal surface
area and balance loads.
Reciprocating Compressor
Tandem cylinder arrangements
help minimize dynamic loads by
locating cylinders in pairs,
connected to a common
crankshaft, so that the
movements of the pistons
oppose each other. Gas
pressure is sealed and wear of
expensive components is
minimized through the use of
disposable piston rings and
rider bands respectively. These
are formed from comparatively
soft metals relative to piston
and cylinder/liner metallurgy or
materials such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
Reciprocating Compressor Suction line Valve plate
Discharge valve
Discharge line
In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of air is
drawn into a cylinder, it is trapped, and compressed Head
by piston and then discharged into the discharge line. Suction
The cylinder valves control the flow of air through the valve
cylinder; these valves act as check valves.
Rings
Single – Acting compressor
Connecting
It is a compressor that has one discharge per Rod Piston
revolution of crankshaft.
Double – Acting Compressor
It is a compressor that completes two discharge
strokes per revolutions of crankshaft. Most heavy-
duty compressors are double acting. Crankshaft

Multi-staging :Reduction in power required to drive the

compressor.
 Better mechanical balance of the whole unit and
uniform torque.
 Increase in volumetric efficiency.
 Reduced leakage loss.
 Less difficulty in lubrication due to low working
temperature.
 Lighter cylinders can be used.
 Cheaper materials can be used for construction as
the operating temperature is lower.
 Front Face View
Dial weight
Manometer Reading (Kg)
Reading P2 Intercooler
(orifice) 1stStage T2
cylinder T3 2nd Stage cylinder Mechanical
guard dynamometer
T1,
P1
Silencer
cum filter
Air Box Unloader
valve Thermo Motor (without
meter grouting i.e. Stand/
Crank Case: P3 support)
Splash type Safety Valve
Lubricating Pressure
Oil indicator control
Switch Main Switch
Receiver
Tank

Motor (without grouting) to produce opposite torque for mechanical dynamometer.

Water outlet
Unloader valve: to keep the starting compressor operation in ambient pressure.
Drain Cock
 Back Face View

Motor RPM
Compressor RPM
Reciprocating Compressor
Assumptions
The working fluid is assumed as a perfect gas and P-v-T can be calculated by using simple equation of state.
Usually, these assumptions are used to calculate estimate pressure, P, volume, V, and temperature, T, of
the working fluid.
PV = mRT PV / T = K1 PV n = K 2 c b
 Compressor without clearance volume
 Compressor with clearance volume
d
 Multistage compressors
a
Compressor without clearance volume
The Cycle of Operation
• The cycle of operation of a reciprocating
air-compressor is best shown on a
pressure-volume (p-V) diagram.
• It is known as an indicator diagram for
the compressor.
• The cycle comprises of three processes:
d - a: An induction stroke
a - b: A compression stroke
b - c: A delivery stroke
 T p2
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without 2”
p1

clearance volume 2
Description of the Processes 2’
1
d – a: The induction stroke s

Intake valve opens, while exhaust valve closed.

Atmospheric air is drawn into the cylinder at constant c b
pressure p1 and temperature T1. Ideally, there is no
heat loss to the surrounding from the air.
a – b: The compression stroke d
Both intake and exhaust valves closed. The air is a
compressed according to a polytropic law pV n =
constant. Its pressure is increased from p1 to p2. The
temperature is also increased from T1 to T2.
b – c: The delivery stroke
The intake valve closed while the exhaust valve opens.
The compressed air is pushed out of the cylinder at
constant pressure p2 and temperature T2. There is no
heat loss from the air to the surroundings.
During compression, due to its excess temperature above the compressor surrounding, the air will
lose some heat. Thus neglecting the internal effect of friction the index is less than ɣ (i.e. <1.4), the
adiabatic index. If n= ɣ =1.4, area under curve is biggest, i.e. reversible adiabatic or entropy constant.
Since work must be put into an air compressor to run it, every effort is made to reduce this amount of
work input. It is observed that if compression is along isothermal, work done is less (though in practical
it is not possible). Isothermal is attempted by cooling the compressor either by adding cooling fan of
water jacket.
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
clearance volume
Analysis of Cycle
Indicated work per cycle
The area under the p-V diagram represents the net or
indicated work done on the air per cycle. c b
Indicated work / cycle = area a-b-c-d = area 1-2-3-4-1
=area under 1-2+area under 2-3 – area under 4-1
 p2V2 − p1V1  d
 + p2V2 − p1V1 This work must
 n − 1  a
be done on
 n 
W   ( p2V2 − p1V1 ) compressor
 n − 1 

Assuming the air as a perfect gas,

p1V1 = mRT1 p2V2 = mRT2
where m is the mass of air induced and delivered per
cycle, R is the universal gas constant, where R = 0.287
kJ/kgK.
Substituting, 2
Indicated work = / cycle W   n 
 mR ( T − T ) = W1− 2 ∫=
1
pdV , pV n C
 n −1 
2 1
1
( CV21− n − CV11− n )
2
∫ V dV
−n
= C=
1 1− n
=
1
1− n
( p2V2 n × V21− n − p1V1n × V11− n )
 Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
clearance volume
Analysis of Cycle
Other form of the equation for indicated work/ cycle is
 n −1

 n    p2  n 
W   mRT1   − 1 c b
 n −1 
 1 
p

 n −1

 n    p2  n 
=W   p1V1   − 1
 n −1  d
 1 
p

Indicated Power (IP): a
The indicated power (IP) is the work done on the air per unit
time. The mass flow per unit time ṁ is often used to compute
the work done/time or indicated power.
 n 
=IP   (T2 − T1 )
 mR
 n −1 
Mechanical efficiency:-
It is the ratio of indicated power to the shaft Power.
Shaft power = indicated power + friction power
Shaft power is the power supplied by the electric motor to compressor.
For Polytropic process
Motor efficiency:- p1V1 p2V2
p1V1n = p2V2 n
It is the ratio of shaft power to the input Power. =
Input power is the electric power supplied to the electric motor T1 T2
1  n −1 
    ( n −1)
V1  p2  n T2  p2   n  T2  V2 
=  =  = 
V2  p1  T1  p1  T1  V1 
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
Isothermal efficiency:- clearance volume
It is the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) to indicated power (IP)
Isothermal Power:
 1 ln( p2 / p1 )
Piso = mRT
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
Effect of the clearance
volume is to reduce the
clearance volume volume actually aspirated.
Analysis of Cycle
It is a spacing between the top of the piston and the valve’s heads when
the piston is at the end of the delivery stroke. Good quality machines has b
a clearance volume of about 6%. But compressors with clearance of 30 – c
35% are also common.

Processes
d – a: Induction process
The inlet valve opens. Fresh atmospheric air is d a
induced into the cylinder at constant pressure p1
and temperature T1. The volume of air induced is
(Va – Vd). Ideally, there is no heat transfer from
the air to the surroundings.
a – b: Compression process
Both valves closed. The induced air is compressed according to the polytropic law of pVn
= const., until the pressure and temperature increases to p2 and T2, respectively. Ideally,
there is no heat transfer from the air to the surroundings of cylinder.
Clearance volume:
 Give a mechanical freedom to the moving parts
 Reduce noise and vibration during operation
 Prevent damage to moving components
 Deliver valve open,
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
Vc, residual
gas
compress gas starts
delivering from the
clearance volume cylinder
Analysis of Cycle
It is a spacing between the top of the piston and the valve’s heads when As piston
the piston is at the end of the delivery stroke. Good quality machines has b begin intake
a clearance volume of about 6%. But compressors with clearance of 30 – c
stroke,
35% are also common. residual gas
Because of presence of clearance
volume , volumetric efficiency is expand
Processes always less than unity, between 60% according to
to 85 %. pvn=const
b – c: Delivery process
The exhaust valve opens. The compressed air is
delivered out of the cylinder at constant pressure d a
p2 and temperature T2. Ideally, there is no heat
transfer from the air to the surroundings.

c – d: Expansion process
The piston begins the induction stroke. The compressed air occupying the clearance volume
Vc expands according to the polytropic law of pV n = const., until the pressure and
temperature fall to p1 and T1, respectively. Ideally, there is no heat transfer from the air to
the surroundings.
Note: At the end of the delivery stroke, the clearance volume Vc is filled with compressed air
at pressure p2 and temperature T2.
It is the ratio between FAD at standard atmospheric
V −V condition in one delivery stroke (Actual air intake) to the
Volumetric efficiency= 1 4
V1 − V3 swept volume (theoretical air intake)
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
Assuming polytropic index to be same clearance volume
for both compression and clearance
expansion Indicated work / cycle = b
 n −1
  n −1

c
 n  
 2 p  n
  n  
 3 p  n

W   p1V1   − 1 −   p4V4   − 1
 n −1   n −1 
 1   4 
p p
 
But p4=p1, p3=p2 therefore
 n −1

 n    p2  n 
W=  p1 (V1 − V4 )   − 1 a
 n −1  d
 1 
p


 n 
W=   ( m a − m d ) R [T2 − T1 ]
 n − 1 

Volumetric efficiency =
V1 − V4 V1 − V4 The greater is the clearance ratio
=
V1 − V3 Vs through a reciprocating
=1 + k − k (V1 / V2 ) Where, k=clearance ratio = V3/(V1-V3)=Vc/Vs compressor, the greater will be the
Ratio has a value 4% - 10 % effect of the clearance volume
=1 + k − k ( p2 / p1 )1/ n
since the clearance air will expand
=1 + k − k ( p3 / p4 )1/ n through greater volume before
intake condition is reached.
Reciprocating Compressor
Actual p-V (indicator diagram for single stage compressor
At point 4, the clearance air actually reduced to atmospheric pressure.
The inlet valve in practice will not open. Reason : (i) inlet valve inertia (ii)
c b
there must be a pressure difference across the inlet valve in order to
move it. Thus pressure drop away until the valve is forced off its seat.
Some valve bounce will then set in (wavy line) Therefore intake will
become near enough steady at some pressure below atmospheric
pressure. The negative pressure difference, i.e. intake depression settles
naturally.
Similar situation occurs at point 2. There is a constant pressure rise,
followed by valve bounce and the pressure then settles at some pressure a
above external delivery pressure (i.e. Receiver tank pressure). d
Other small effects at inlet and delivery
would be gas inertia and turbulence.
So, practical effects are responsible for
the addition of the two small ripple
negative work areas shown in figure.
There are certain disadvantages to increase the delivery pressure to a high value.
When the delivery pressure is increased to p3, the volume of the fresh air induced is
reduced from (Va – Vd) to (Va – Vd’), and so on, whereas swept volume Vs is remains
constant. Since the volumetric efficiency is given by
ƞvol = (Va – Vd )/ Vs
the volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing delivery pressure.

This situation can be improved by performing

Vc
multistage compression process.
Vs
Reciprocating Compressor
Multistage compression
Observation
After the first stage compression, the air is
passed into a smaller cylinder, in which it is
further compressed to desired final pressure.
The cycle assumes that the delivery process of
the first stage and the induction process of the
second stage take place at the same pressure pi.
Advantage
• Each cylinder works with lower pressure ratio.
Thus the operational safety of the compressor is
improved.
• The overall volumetric efficiency, ηv increases.
• Mass flow rate is increased , as clearance air
expansion is reduced and effective swept
volume of this cylinder is increased.

(i) Single stage Compressor, for delivery pressure upto 5 bar.

(ii) Two stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 to 35 bar
(iii) Three stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 to 85 bar.
(iv) Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar
Reciprocating Compressor
pd or
Multistage compression
Indicated power for stage 1.
 n −1

 n  
 i p  n

W   mRTa   − 1
 n −1 
 1 
p

Indicated power for stage 2.
Ta”=Tb
 n −1

 n    p  n

 mRTa "   − 1
2
W 
 n −1 
 i 
p

 With multistage compression, the air can be
cooled as it is being transferred from one
cylinder to the next, by passing it through an ps or
intercooler.
 The process of cooling the air is called the
intercooling process.
 With intercooling process, temperature is
reduced, therefore internal energy of
delivered air reduced. Since energy must
have come from the input energy required to
drive the machine, this results in a decrease
in input work requirement for a given mass
of delivered air. Thus the power supplied to
the compressor can be reduced.

Complexity of machine limits the number of stages.

Reciprocating Compressor Perfect intercooling:
after initial
compression in the L.P.
Multistage compression (Without Vc) 6’ cylinder with the
consequent
Single stage compressor: W= temperature rise, the
 n −1
  n −1
 air is cooled in an
 n        intercooler back to its
p1V1  5  − 1   5 
p n
n p n

 =    mRT1   − 1 original temperature,

 n −1   n −1 
 1   1 
p p i.e. T2=T1, where point
 
n −1 2 lies on isothermal
p  n through point 1.
Deliver temperature,
T5 = T1  5 
Two stage compressor,  p1  7” 7’

without intercooling: W=
 n −1
  n −1

 n    p4  n
  n    p5  n  Considering clearance volume
  p1V1   − 1 +   p4V4   − 1 8’
 n −1   n −1 
 1   p4 
p
   Without clearance volume
Deliver temperature same as above……
Two stage compressor,
With perfect intercooling: W=
2453 = Work savings occurs
 n −1
  n −1

 n  
 4 p  n
  n  
 3 p  n

  p1V1   − 1 +   p2V2   − 1
 n −1   n −1 
 1   2 
p p
 n −1
 n −1

p  n  p3  n
Deliver temperature,
= T3 T=
2
3
 T1   ,=
where T2 T1
 p2   p2 
 n −1 n −1

 n    p  n  p  n

=
if T2 T=
1 , p2V2 p=
1V1 , p4 =
p2 W   p1V1   +   − 2 
2 3

 n −1 
 1   p2 
p

Reciprocating Compressor 6’
Perfect intercooling:
after initial
Multistage compression (Without Vc) compression in the L.P.
Condition for minimum work done: cylinder with the
consequent
It is observed that an intermediate pressure p2 temperature rise, the
-->p1, then area 2453 --> 0. Also p2-->p3 , then air is cooled in an
area 2453 --> 0. this means , therefore there intercooler back to its
original temperature,
exists an intermediate pressure p2 which makes i.e. T2=T1, where point
area 2453 maximum and W minimum.
n −1 n −1 2 lies on isothermal
For minimum W :  p2  n  p3  n must 7” 7’
through point 1.
be minimum…….  p  +  
 1  p2 
Considering clearance volume
 n −1 n −1
 p p
p  p 
8’
d  2  +  3  
n n
i.e. 2
= 3 Without clearance volume
 p1   2 
p  p1 p2
  =0
dp2
 n −1
  n −1

 2n     2n    p p  n

p1V1  2  − 1 
p n

= p1V1   − 1
3 1
W  
 n −1   p1    n −1   p1 
     P3 or Pd
 
 n −1
  n −1
 T P2 or Pi
 2n   p3  − 1 or  xn  p V  ( x +1)  − 1 , for x stage
p
2 n xn
W=   1 1  
p V   1 1   P1 or Ps
 n −1   p1    n −1   p1  
5
   
Ti or T2 3 4
Where p(x+1)/p1 is the pressure ratio through compressor at x stage. = T3 or Td
p 
Isothermal power Piso =mRT1 ln  3  , 9 2 1Perfect
intercooling
 p1 
s
Heat Transferred in intercooler = mc p (T4 − T=
2) mc p (T4 − T1 )
Rotary Compressor:
PD type:
(i) Lobe type (Roots blower)
(ii) Vane
(iii) Screw
(iv) Etc.
Continuous Flow Compressor:
(i) Centrifugal
(ii) axial
Centrifugal Compressor
• Centrifugal compressors accelerates the velocity of the gases
(increases kinetic energy) which is then converted into pressure as
the air flow leaves the volute and enters the discharge pipe.
• Deliver much higher flow rates than positive displacement
compressors
• For low pressure ratios (< 4:1), if higher pressure ratio with larger unit
– prefer axial flow compressor
• Usually operate at speeds > 3,000 rpm.
• Smaller length, contaminated atmosphere doesn't affect the
performance
• Disadvantages- larger frontal area and lower maximum efficiency
Basic Components
• Impellers, Vanes, Volutes, Suction Eyes, Discharge lines, Diffuser
Plates, Seals, Shaft, Casing
• Suction Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air first.
• Discharge Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air last
Applications
Most well-known centrifugal compressor applications are gas turbines and
turbochargers.
Either or both axial and centrifugal compressors are used to provide
compressed air to Modern gas turbines which operate on the Brayton cycle. The
types of gas turbines that most often include centrifugal compressors include
turboshaft, turboprop, auxiliary power units, and micro-turbines.
Centrifugal compressors used in conjunction with reciprocating internal
combustion engines are known as turbochargers if driven by the engine’s exhaust
gas and turbo-superchargers if mechanically driven by the engine.
Centrifugal Compressor
Inlet
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple
pipe. It may include features such as a valve, stationary
vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both pressure
and temperature instrumentation. Figure 1.
Turbocharger
Centrifugal impeller Construction and
The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the Flow of Gases
centrifugal impeller. It is the impeller’s rotating set of vanes (or
Figure 2.
blades) that gradually raises the energy of the working gas. This open
is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the impeller
gases can reach higher velocities and energy levels through the
impeller’s increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency
centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling
near the speed of sound. Figure 3.
full
Impellers are designed in many length
configurations including “open” (visible splitter
impeller
blades), “covered or shrouded”, “with
splitters”. Most modern high efficiency
impellers use “backsweep” in the blade Figure 4.
shrouded
shape. Euler’s pump and turbine
impeller
equation plays an important role in Figure 5. backsweep impeller
understanding impeller performance.
Centrifugal Compressor
Diffuser
The next key component to the
simple centrifugal compressor is
the diffuser. Downstream of the
impeller in the flow path, it is the
diffuser’s responsibility to convert
the kinetic energy (high velocity) of
the gas into pressure by gradually
slowing (diffusing) the gas velocity.
Diffusers can be vane less, vaned or
an alternating combination.
Hybrid versions of vaned diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe diffusers. There are
turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no diffuser. Bernoulli’s fluid dynamic
principle plays an important role in understanding diffuser performance.
Collector / Casing
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the diffuser
discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When the
diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull’s horn or a French
horn, the collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a collector’s
purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver this flow to a
downstream pipe. Either the collector or the pipe may also contain valves and
instrumentation to control the compressor.
Centrifugal Compressor (steady flow)
 Velocity encountered in the centrifugal compressor are very large, therefore total 1 Q=0
head quantities should be considered while analyzing centrifugal compressor. 2
 Consider, a horizontal passage of varying area through which air is flowing. Applying
steady flow equation to the system we get m2
 V12   V22 
m1  u1 + p1v1 + + gz1  + Q
= m2  u2 + p2 v2 + + gz2  + W m1
 2   2 
for 1 kg of air flow (assuming no external heat transfer and work done) the expression becomes…
V2 V 2 u = internal energy, v= volume, p = pressure, V = velocity, h =
u1 + p1v1 + 1 =u2 + p2 v2 + 2 enthalpy, cp= specific heat at constant pressure, Q=heat, W=work z1 W=0 z2
2 2
V12 V22 V12 V22 P .v represents the displacement or flow energy.
h1 + =h2 +
V2
c pT1 + = c pT2 + c pT + =
const V2 / 2 represents the kinetic energy.
2 2 2 2 2 g. Z represents the potential energy.
 T is static temperature, measured by thermometer when the thermometer is moving at the air velocity. If moving
air is brought to rest under reversible condition, total KE of air is converted into ‘u’, further heat energy, increasing
the temperature and pressure of the air. This temperature and pressure of the air is known as “stagnation” or
“total head” temperature and pressure and it is denoted by ‘o’.
γ
V2
V 2
V 2 po  To  γ −1
c pT + = To − T = ho − h = =
p  T 
c pTo V2
2 2c p 2 2c p
 Ideal reversible adiabatic process is called isentropic process (s=const).
But, during the adiabatic compression in a rotary compressor, there is
friction between molecules of air and between air and blade passages,
eddies formation and shocks at entry and exit. These factors cause
internal generation of heat and consequently the maximum temperature
reached would be more than that for adiabatic compression (T01--->T02).
This result in a progressive increase in entropy. Such a process through
adiabatic (no heat transfer) is not isentropic. Again, the heat generated
by friction etc., may be removed continuously with the result that the
process might not involve any entropy change (T01--->T02’). The process
would be isentropic but not adiabatic as heat has been transferred.
 Centrifugal Compressor (steady flow)
Isentropic efficiency – ratio of isentropic temperature rise to actual
temperature rise or ratio of isentropic to actual compression work.
T02' − T01 T2' − T1 c p (T02 − T01 ) Isentropic Work
'

ηisen
= = = =
T02 − T01 T2 − T1 c p (T02 − T01 ) Actual Work
During compression, work has to be imparted to the impeller (i.e. -ve).
Then the energy balance equation around the impeller will be
V12 V22 V012 V022
c pT1 + = c pT2 + −W c pT01 + = c pT02 + −W
2 2 2 2
W c p (T02 − T01 )
= Thus work input is the product of specific heat at constant pressure
and temperature rise (for both adiabatic and isentropic process).
Status of P & V during Working Process
inlet at diffuser
Air enters at the eye of the impeller at a mean radius rm with low at impeller
velocity V1 and atmospheric pressure p1. Depending upon the
centrifugal action of the impeller, the air moves radial outwards and
during its movement it is guided by the impeller vanes. The impellers
transfers the energy of the drive to the air causing a rise both static
pressure p2 and temperature T2, and increase in velocity V2. The
work input equals the rise in total temperature. Air now enters the
diverging passage ‘diffuser’ where it is efficiently slow down V3. The
KE is converted into pressure energy with the result that there is a
further rise in static pressure p3. In practice nearly half of the total
pressure is achieved in impeller and remaining part in diffuser. A
pressure ratio 4 : 1 can be achieved with single stage centrifugal
compressor, for higher ratio multistage compressor is used.
Centrifugal Compressor (Velocity Diagram)
Isentropic efficiency – ratio of isentropic temperature rise to actual
temperature rise or ratio of isentropic to actual compression work.

v1= absolute velocity of fluid at inlet

u1= Mean blade velocity at inlet
vr1 = relative velocity of fluid at inlet
vw1 = velocity of whirl (tangential) at inlet
vf1 = velocity of flow at inlet
u2= Mean blade velocity at outlet
vr2 = relative velocity of fluid at outlet
v2= absolute velocity of fluid at outlet
vw2 = velocity of whirl at outlet
vf2 = velocity of flow at outlet
α1 = exit angle from the guide vane or inlet angle
of the guide vane
β1 = inlet angle to the rotor or impeller or angle
between vr1 with the direction of motion of vane at
inlet
β2 = outlet angle to the rotor or impeller or angle
between vr2 with the direction of motion of vane at
inlet
α2 = inlet angle to diffuser

It assumes that entry of the air is ‘axial’ therefore the whirl Vw1 is zero, and V1=Vf1. To avoid shock at
entry and exit the blade must be parallel to the relative velocity of air at inlet or outlet and β1 and β2
are the impeller blade angle at inlet and outlet. The diffuser blade angle must be parallel to the absolute
velocity of air from the impeller (V2), therefore α2 is the diffuser blade angle at inlet and α3 will be the
diffuser blade angle at outlet. If the discharge from the diffuser is circumferential, then angle at outlet
(α3) should be as small as possible.
 Centrifugal Compressor (Equations)
Work done by the impeller (Euler’s Work)
W = Vw 2 u2 − Vw1u1 = h02 − h01 = c p (T02 − T01 ) If working fluid enters radially , Vw1=0
Using inlet and outlet velocity triangle Term I= increase in KE of 1 kg of working fluid in impeller, that has converted into pressure
term − I term − II term − III
energy in the diffuser
V − V Vr21 − Vr22 u22 − u12
2 2 Term II= pressure rise in the impeller due to ‘diffusion action’, as relative velocity
W= +
2 1
+ decreases from inlet to outlet
2 2 2 Term III= pressure rise in the impeller due to ‘centrifugal action’, as working fluid enters at
Power required per impeller for ṁ kg of a lower diameter and comes out at a higher diameter
air flow in one second:
 w 2 u2
mV If the blade is radial (ideal case), Vw2=u2, and W= V22 Since the air cannot leave the impeller at a
P= kW
1000 velocity greater than the impeller tip velocity, the maximum work supplied per kg of air per second
is given by the above equation.
Considering the steady flow at the inlet and outlet of the impeller, assuming the heat transfer during the flow of air
through the impeller is zero i.e. adiabatic. V2 V0 2
c pT + = cont = c pT0 +
2 2
V 2
V 2
 V   V 2  V 
2  2
V  2
h1 + + W = h2 + W =  h2 +  −  h1 +  = c p  T2 +  − c p  T1 +  = c p (T02 − T01 )
1 2 2 1 2 1
2 2  2   2   2 c p   2 c p 
γ −1 γ −1
 γ −1
 rpo= pressure
   γ −1
 ratio based on
T  p  γ p  γ p  γ
=W c pT01  02= − 1 c pT01  T2  02  T1  01  = − 1 c pT01   02  = − 1 c pT01  rp 0 γ − 1 stagnation pr.
     
 T01    p2   p1     p01    
γ −1
     γ −1 
 γ
 T

 p2   γ 


= V=
W 2
c pT01  rp 0 − 1 In most of the practical problem V1=V2, therefore 2
= 
2
 
  T 1  p1 
γ −1
 γ γ−1  p2  V 2  γ Power input to the compressor depends upon:
W c pT1  rp − 1 =  2
+ 1 (i) Mass flow of air through the compressor
  
  p1  2c pT1  (ii) Total temperature at the inlet of the compressor
rp= pressure ratio based on (iii) Total pressure ratio of the compressor which depends upon the square
static pr. of the impeller tip velocity.
 Centrifugal Compressor (Equations)
Width of the blades of impeller and diffuser ṁ = mass of air flowing per second
b1= width (or height) of impeller at inlet
Volume of the air flowing per second 2π r1b1V f 1 2π r1b1V1
m = = r1= radius of impeller at inlet
Volume of 1 kg of air v1 v1 V1=Vf1, as air trapped radially
2π r2 b2V f 2 If , n is number of blade in the impeller having ‘t’ thickness
m = Similarly at outlet (2π r1 − nt )b1V f 1 (2π r2 − nt )b2V f 2 (2π rd − nt )bd V fd
v2 m = m = m =
v1 v2 vd
2π rd bd V fd Similarly at diffuser,
m = ‘d’ for diffuser
vd
Isentropic efficiency If , V1=V2
Isentropic Work T02′ − T01 c p (T02′ − T01 ) c p (T2′ − T1 )
ηisen = = =
Actual Work T02 − T01 c p (T02 − T01 ) c p (T2 − T )1
(γ −1) / γ
T2′ − T1 T2′ T1 − 1 ( p2 p1 ) −1
ηisen =
= = ( n −1) / n
,n > γ
T2 − T1 T2 T1 − 1 ( p2 p1 ) −1
Slip Factor (øs) – ratio of actual whirl component and the
ideal whirl component (radial exit)
Vw 2
φs = slip= u2 − Vw 2
u2
Pressure Coefficient (øp) – ratio of isentropic work to Euler work
c p (T02′ − T01 )
φp = Work factor or power input factor φw = u2Vw 2 At radial exit u2 = Vw 2
u2Vw 2
 Centrifugal Compressor (Equations)

Pressure ratio or head

Forward
Diffuser efficiency Radial
Suffix 1 and 2 represents
( p2 − p1 ) upstream and downstream
ηd =
ω
2g
(V 1
2
− V22 )
condition of diffuser, w=weight
density
Backward-
curved
Radial-
curved
Forward-
curved
Backward

blades blades blades

1. Backward blades – High head or pressure ratio
β2<90° β2=90° β2>90° Mass flow rate
2. Radial vane – high outlet velocity, manufactured easily, free
from complex bending stress, high pressure ratio

Losses in Centrifugal Compressor

1. Friction loss frictional losses are due to both skin friction and boundary layer separation. It is
proportional to both V2 and m2
2. Incidence loss – During the off-design conditions, the direction of relative velocity of fluid at inlet
does not match with the inlet blade angle and therefore fluid cannot enter the blade passage smoothly
by gliding along the blade surface. It is proportional to CDV2, where CD is drag coefficient.
Selection of Compressor geometries
1.
Number of Blade in impeller: Can be chosen by experience corresponding to requirements. Usually
experiments shows that it varies from 18 to 22 for radial bladed diameter from 25 to 36 cm
2. Blade Angle- outlet angle influence the inlet angle, usually inlet angle varies from 30 to 35 degree.
3. Impeller diameter – u2 = π D2 N / 60 after knowing the tip diameter, the inlet diameter is calculated from the
tip diameter ratio. Generally D2/D1 varies from 1.6 to 2.0
4. Impeller width - If b1 and b2 are the blade width at inlet and outlet of the impeller, then neglecting the
thickness of blades it is calculated by the equation.
= m π= d1b1V f 1 ρ1 π d 2 b2V f 2 ρ 2 Generally V f 1 = V f 2
5. Impeller Material – forged or die casted of low silicon aluminum alloy.
6. Vaneless diffuser – The function of vaneless diffuser or space is to stabilize the flow for shockless entry into a
bladed diffuser and to invert some portions of K.E. into pressure energy. The diameter ratio of vaneless to
impeller tip diameter (D3/D2) varies from 1/0.06 to 1.12
Since the flow in the vaneless diffuser is assumed to be logarithmic spiral, hence α2= α3. Generally b2=b3
= width of vaneless diffuser. In some cases b3>b2
 Surging and Chocking
Centrifugal Compressor Suppose compressor is running in equilibrium condition at N, If flow is
Compressor Characteristics curve restricted (i.e. low mass flow rate) by valve or by any means resistance of flow
is increased, the equilibrium point moves to M. If flow still reduces, operating
Inlet loss, friction, separation loss, losses in diffuser point moves left to L (max pr. ratio). If flow further reduced, pressure ratio will
reduce. At this moment, there is a higher pressure downstream system than
compressor delivery . So flow stops or may even reverse.

After a short duration,

Initial
compressor starts to
equilibriu
deliver fluid (say N).
m point
Pressure starts to increase
and operating point
moves towards left from

compressor
right again, and after

operation
point ‘L’ it cuts and the
cycle will be repeated

No
with high frequency. It is
called surging.

At a constant rotor speed, the tangential

velocity component (Vw2) at the impeller tip
remains constant. With the increase in mass
Compressor flow the pressure ratio decreases and hence
Performance the density is decreased. Consequently, the
curve radial velocity (Vr2) is increased considerably,
which increases the absolute velocity and
incidence angle at diffuser vane tip. Thus there
is a rapid progression towards choking state.
Beyond this compressor cannot be operated.
Axial Flow Compressor

Composed of a rotor that has rows of fanlike blades.

• In industry, axial compressors are used a lot high flows and pressures are needed.
• Air flow is moves along the shaft.
• Rotating blades attached to a shaft push air over stationary blades called stators.
• Stator blades are attached to the casing.
• As the air velocity is increased by the rotating blades, the stator blades slow it down. As
the air slows, kinetic energy is converted into pressure.
• air velocity increases as it moves from stage to stage until it reaches the discharge.
• Multi-Stage axial compressors can generate very high flow rates and discharge pressures.
• Axial compressors are usually limited to 16 stages (due to temperature/material
limitations)
• Pound for pound, axial compressors are lighter, more efficient, and smaller than
centrifugal compressors.