Physics-II

15B11PH211

❖Electromagnetic Theory

❖Lasers, Optical Fiber and their applications

❖Solid State Physics

Books:
• Introduction to Electrodynamics
by D.J. Griffith

• Engineering Electromagnetic
by William H. Hayt & J A Buck

• Principles of Electromagnetics
by Matthew N. O. Sadiku

• Electromagnetics
by Edminister (Schuam Outline series)
To understand the Electromagnetic, we must know basic
vector algebra and coordinate systems. So let us start the
coordinate systems.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• RECTANGULAR or Choice is based on
Cartesian symmetry of
• CYLINDRICAL problem

• SPHERICAL
Examples
:Sheets -
RECTANGULAR
Wires/Cables -
CYLINDRICAL
Spheres -
 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems:
1. Cartesian Coordinates z
P(x,y,z)
Or
y
Rectangular Coordinates
P (x, y, z) x

z
z
P(r, ϕ,
z)
2. Cylindrical Coordinates
P (r, ϕ, r y
x Φ
z)

z
3. Spherical Coordinates P(r,
θ r
θ,ϕ)
P (r, θ,
ϕ)
Φ
y
x
 Cartesian Coordinates

Differential quantities:

Deduce the area of the lamina

y

3 7 x
 Cartesian Coordinates

Differential quantities:
Cylindrical coordinate system (r,φ,z)
Z

Y
r
φ

X
 Cylindrical Coordinates: Visualization of Volume element
Differential quantities:

Limits of integration of r, φ,z are 0<r<∞ , o<φ <2π ,0<z <∞

Spherical coordinate system (r,
θ,φ)
Radius=r
0<r<∞

θ-Zenith angle
0<θ <π
( starts from +Z reaches up to –Z) ,

ϕ -Azimuthal Angle
0<φ <2π
(starts from +X direction and lies in x-y plane only)
Spherical Coordinates

P(r, θ, φ)
Z
dr
r cos θ P
r dθ
θ r dθ
Y
dφ
φ r sinθ r sinθ dφ

X
 Spherical Coordinates
Differential quantities:
Points to remember
Determine
a) Areas S1, S2 and S3.
b) Volume covered by these surfaces.
Ex: Use the spherical coordinate system
to find the area of the strip α≤ θ ≤ β on
the spherical shell of radius a. What
results when α= 0 and β = π?

Ex: Use spherical coordinates to write

the differential surface areas dS1 and
dS2 and then integrate to obtain the
areas of the surfaces marked 1 and 2.

Ans : π/4,π/6
Books:
Introduction to Electrodynamics
by D.J. Griffith
Electromagnetics
by Edminister (Schuam series)
Principles of Electromagnetics
by Matthew N. O. Sadiku
Engineering Electromagnetic
by W H Hayt & J A Buck
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM ARE
DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF
ELECTROMAGNETISM

• A moving electric charge produces magnetic

fields
• Changing magnetic fields move electric
charges
 Electromagnetism

A fundamental interaction between the magnetic

field and the presence and motion of an electric
charge

A “Field” is any physical quantity which takes on different

values at different points in space.
Topics to be covered in Lecture 2:
✔Basics of fields
✔Gradient
✔Divergence
✔Curl.
Physical significance of Gradient,
divergence and curl
 Vector Analysis

Given A = ax + ay , B=ax+2ay, and C=2ay+az,

find (A x B) x C and compare it with A x (B x C).

find А.В x С and compare it with A x В.С

Scalar and Vector Fields

voltage, current, energy, temperature

velocity, momentum, acceleration and force
 Gradient, Divergence and Curl
The Del Operator
∇
• Gradient of a scalar function is a
vector quantity.

• Divergence of a vector is a scalar

quantity.

• Curl of a vector is a vector

quantity.
 Operator in Cartesian Coordinate
System

gradT: points the direction of maximum increase of

the function T.

Divergence: where

Curl:
Divergen
ce
Cu
rl
 Operator in Cylindrical Coordinate
System
Gradient:

Divergence:

Curl:
 Operator in Spherical Coordinate
System
Gradient
:

Divergen
ce:

Curl:
Fundamental theorem for divergence and curl

• Gauss divergence theorem:

Conversion of volume integral to surface integral and vice verse.

Open S
• Stokes curl theorem

Closed L

Conversion of surface integral to line integral and vice verse.

 Coulomb’s Law
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract

Exercise: A charge Q1= 1nC is located at the origin in free space

and another charge Q at (2,0,0). If the X-component of the electric
field at (3,1,1) is zero, calculate the value of Q. Is the Y component
zero at (3,1,1)?

Calculate E due to

1.Dipole,
2.Rod (line charge), Ring (Line charge),
3.Circular plate (surface charge), Square sheet,
4.Sphere or Cylinder (Volume charge density)
 Electric Flux
The number of electric field lines through a
surface

ΦE=E A
θ
A, E
θ

Conclusion:
The total flux depends on
✔ strength of the field,
✔ the size of the surface area it passes through,
✔ and on how the area is oriented with respect to the
field.
 Gauss' Law
• The total of the electric flux out of a closed
surface is equal to the charge enclosed
divided by the permittivity (εo.).
da
Integral Form E
+q
Differential
Form
εo = the permittivity of free space 8.854x10-12 C2/(N m2)
where
 Electric lines of flux and
Derivation of Gauss’ Law using Coulomb’s law
⮚ Consider a sphere drawn around a positive point charge.
Evaluate the net flux through the closed surface.
Net Flux

For a Point charge

dA

Gauss’ Law
Asmnt 1:
Proof of the Gauss’s law for the charge
inside
da
+q E

and outside the Gaussian surface

+q A C
da
da E
B D

Where dΩ is solid angle

 +ve Flux
-ve flux
Differential form of Gauss Law:

Proof: Gauss Law

Gauss divergence theorem:

or

Note: Gauss law is also known as Maxwell‟s first equation.

 Quiz:

(a) 1.12 x 105 Vm, (b) 1.86 x 104 Vm,

-10-4 Vm
 Remember
1. Electric Flux (φ=E⊥A=EA cosθ= q/ε0)
2. Flux is independent of the distance of a point from position
of charge.
3. Electric Flux is the number of electric field lines crossing per
unit area.
I. For Φmax; EA ⇒ θ=0o.
II. For Φmin; EA=0 ⇒ θ=90o
4. Gauss Law is Maxwell‟s first equation.
5. Conductors in electric Field;
I. E inside=0 as net charge is distributed over the surface
of a conductor.
II. At the surface of conductor; perpendicular E only, no
parallel component of E.
Applications of Gauss law -
Spherical and Cylindrical
symmetries
 Applications of Gauss law
(Spherical distribution systems)
1)Conducting Sphere of charge „q‟ and radius „R‟:
1) E at an external point: Eo
2) E at the surface: Es
3) E at an internal point: Ei
2)Nonconducting Sphere
1) E at an external point: Eo
2) E at the surface: Es
3) E at an internal point: Ei
 (Spherical systems: Conducting Sphere)
1) Conducting Sphere of charge „q‟ and radius „R‟:
1) E at an external point: Eo r>R
2) E at the surface: Es r=R Gaussian
3) E at an internal point: Ei r<R surface

Case-I: E at an external point;

Net electric fux through „P‟:
R

r P

S1

The Electric field strength at any point outside a spherical charge distribution
is the same as through the whole charge were concentrated at the centre.
 (Spherical systems: Conducting Sphere)

Gaussian
Case-II: E at the Surface; surface

r=R

Gaussian
Case-III: E at an internal point; surface

R
r
 (Spherical systems: Nonconducting Sphere)
1)Nonconducting Sphere of charge „q‟ and radius „R‟:
1) E at an external point: Eo r>R
2) E at the surface: Es r=R
3) E at an internal point: Ei r<R

Case-I: E at an external point;

Gaussia
Net electric flux through „P‟: n surface

r P

S1
 (Spherical systems: Nonconducting Sphere)
Case-II: E at the Surface; Gaussian
surface

r=R

Case-II: E at an internal point;

Gaussian
surface

R
r
 R
(Spherical systems:
Conducting Sphere) r P

r=0 r=R r

(Spherical systems: R
Nonconducting P
r
Sphere)

r=0 r=R r
Numerical

R
Ei Eo
Es
Solid sphere
 Problems: Spherical Symmetry
Determine Electric field everywhere by using Gauss Law for the following;

1. Non conducting solid sphere of 2. Non conducting spherical shell of

radius R and charge density ρ=k/r2, inner radius r1, outer radius r2 and
Where k is a constant. charge density ρ= k/r2 , where k is a
constant. Also determine Max E at any
R value of r .
E3
Ei Eo
E1
Es E5
E2
Solid sphere E4

Spherical shell
 Applications of Gauss law
(Cylindrical distribution systems)

1)Conducting long Cylinder of charge „q‟ and radius „R‟:

1) E at an external point: Eo
2) E at the surface: Es
3) E at an internal point: Ei

2)Nonconducting long Cylinder

1) E at an external point: Eo
2) E at the surface: Es
3) E at an internal point: Ei
 Cylindrical distribution systems:
Conducting Cylinder
1)Conducting long Cylinder of charge „q‟ and radius „R‟ :
1) E at an external point: Eo r>R Gaussian
surface
2) E at the surface: Es r=R
3) E at an internal point: Ei r<R
Case-I: E at an external point;
Net electric flux through „P‟:

l E
R

O P

r
Case-II: E at the Surface; Case-III: E at an internal point;

l E
R

O P

E Es
Eo
Ei=0

r=0 r=R r
 Cylindrical distribution systems:
Nonconducting Cylinder
1) Nonconducting Cylinder of radius „R‟, height „l’ and charge
density ‘ρ’:
1) E at an external point: Eo r>R
2) E at the surface: Es r=R
3) E at an internal point: Ei r<R

Case-I: E at an external point; Gaussian

surface
Net electric flux through ‘P’:

l E
R

O P
Case-II: E at the Surface; Case-III: E at an internal point;

l E
R

O P

E Es

Ei Eo

r=0 r=R r
For infinite long line charge density ‘λ’
 Numerical:
Non conducting Cylindrical shell (r1, r2 and height h) having
volume charge density ρ=k/r. Determine E everywhere.
Case-I: E at an external
point r0; E0

Gaussian
surface

l E

O P
r1
r2
r0
 Applications of Gauss law
(Infinitely long sheet of
Charge)

The plane is infinitely large, any point can be treated as the

center point of the plane, so E at that point must be normal to
the surface and must have the same magnitude at all points
equidistant from the plane.
A cylindrical Gaussian surface is used to
find the electric field of an infinite plane
sheet of charge.
Assume
the
surface
charge
density is
σ.

‘E’ does not depend on the

distance ‘r’. Therefore, the field is
uniform everywhere.
 Electric field just outside the surface of a charged
conductor

Assume the surface charge

density is σ.

σ
 Find the field in each of three regions
(i) to the left of both
(ii) between them
(iii) to the right of both

+σ +σ -σ +σ
E+ E+ E+ E+ E- E- E- E-
(1) (2)

E+ E+ E+ E+ E+ E+ E+ E+

0 0 0
-σ -σ
E- E- E- E-

(3)
E- E- E- E-

0
 Quiz
• For a conducting sphere: with surface charge
qensity ‘σ’ anq raqius R, qetermine Eo, Es and
Ei.

• For a spherical shell volume charge density is

ρ =k/r for a≤r≤b otherwise zero. determine E
for each region.

• For a cylinqer of raqius ‘R’ anq height ‘h’

volume charge density is ρ =kr. Determine Eo,
Es and Ei
 Line integral of Electric field: Electric Potential
Electric field at a field point r, due to a point charge at origin:

The electric potential at a distance r from the point charge is the work
done per unit charge in bringing a test charge from infinity to that point.
 ❖ Surface over which Potential is constant is called an
equi-potential surface.
❖Reference point : V(∞)=0 convention at infinity.
❖Superposition principle: V=V1+V2+…..
❖Unit: Nm/C or Joule/C or VOLT

Curl of E ?
The integral around a closed path is zero

Using Stokes‟ theorem

In electrostatics only.
→ no moving charge or current
 Poisson's and Laplace's Equation
• The electric field is related to the charge density

• The electric field is related to the electric potential

• Therefore the potential is related to the charge density by

∇2 : Laplacian operator.
Conversion from one to
another
ρ

E V
Note: Laplace’s Operator
Show that potential function V(x,y,z) or V(r)
satisfies the Laplace’s equation.
Find the potential inside and outside a spherical shell of
radius R, which carries a uniform surface charge. Set the
reference point at infinity.

Notice that the potential is not zero inside the shell , even
though the field is. V is constant in this region, so that ∇V=0
Calculate the numerical value for V and ρv
at point P in free space if (D 7.1 (page 175,
7th Ed. Hayt)

Ans: (a) 12V, - 106.2 pC/m3

(b) -22.5V, 0
(c) 4V, 0
 Numerical
• Does potential function 2(x2-y2+z) satisfies
Laplace‟s equation? Ans: Yes

• Determine potential outside a charged

conducting sphere of radius R, using
Laplace’s equation.
Given V=V0 at r=R
= 0 at r=infinite.
Solution:
 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Cartesian or Rectangular coordinates
Z

One dimensional solution of Laplace‟s Equation in

rectangular coordinate system

Let V be a function of z only. Then Laplace‟s Equation reduces to

Equation (3) represents a family of equi – potential surfaces with z

taking up constant values.
 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
Consider two such equi – potential surfaces one at z = z1 and the other at z = z2.
Z
Let V= V1 at z = z1 and V = V2 at z = z2

This is the case with a parallel plate capacitor with a

plate separation of z1 ~ z2 = d and a potential difference
V1 ~ V2 .
Applying the above two conditions, called boundary conditions, we get,

Let , V1 = 0 at z1 = 0 and V2 = Va at z2=d

V = V2 = Va z=z2
d
V = V1 = 0 z1=0
We find that V is a linear function of z Fig 1 Parallel plate
capacitor

Similarly, V as a function of x or y the solution of the Laplace‟s equation can be solved.

Two infinite conducting planes are parallel to the YZ plane.
One of the plane is at x = 0 and is kept at a potential V o .
The other plane is located at x = d and is kept at a constant
potential Vd. The region between them is filled with volume
charge density ρ=ρo (x/d)2. Find the potential V between the
plates using Poisson‟s equation.
 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Cylindrical coordinates: r dependent only
Now, in cylindrical coordinates, the Laplace‟s equation becomes

Consider V is a function of r only . Thus the Laplace’s equation reduces to

From this equation, we observe that equipotential surfaces are given

by r = constant and are cylinders. Example of the problem is that of a
coaxial capacitor or coaxial cable.
Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Cylindrical coordinates: r dependent only
Let us create the boundary conditions by choosing
V = Va at r = a and V = Vb at r = b, b > a.
 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Cylindrical coordinates: ϕ dependent only
Consider V as a function of Φ only.

From this equation, we observe that equipotential surfaces

are given by Ф = constant planes,
Choose two such equipotential surfaces, V = Va at Ф = α and V = 0 at Ф = 0.
Example: corner reflector antenna ,Used in communication systems.
 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Spherical coordinates: r dependent only

Consider that V is a function of r only. Laplace‟s equation reduces to

where A and B are arbitrary constants to be evaluated. This equation

represents a family of equi – potential surfaces for r = constant.
Let us choose two such equi-potential surfaces at r = a and r = b, b > a , such that at
r = a, V = Va and at r = b, V = Vb
 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Spherical coordinates: r dependent only

This is an example of concentric spheres or Spherical capacitor

 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Spherical coordinates: θ dependent only
Finally let us consider V as a function of θ only . In this case the
Laplace‟s equation reduces to

Integrating once again, we get,

This equation represents a family of equi-potential surfaces for

constant θ. Let us consider two such equi-potential surfaces at θ =π/2,
V = 0 and at θ = α, V = Va.
 Applications: Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation
In Spherical coordinates: θ dependent only

The equi-potential surfaces are cones as shown in figure below.

Such a system is called a conical antenna

Applying these two boundary conditions to

the equation (i) and solving it for A and B,
substituting these values in (i),we get,
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
E
For an infinite plane carrying
uniform surface charge σ

Discontinuity
y
E
Discontinuity

For a spherical shell of

radius R, carrying uniform
R r surface charge σ
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

A
σ ε

Conclusion : The normal component of E is

discontinuous by an amount σ/ε0 at any boundary.
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

σ
ε
l
 Force on the surface of conductor
Electric Field outside a conductor

Note1: Force on a charge q (or surface charge density σ) placed in an external field E :

Note 2: “ But E is discontinuous across a surface charge distribution” Therefore

On the surface, force per unit area :

In our case: Eabove=σ/ε0 and Ebelow is zero. Hence Force (per unit area) on the
conductor surface:
Prob. 2.37:
Two large metal plates (each of area A) are held a
distance d apart. Suppose we put a charge Q on each
plate, what is the electrostatic pressure on the plates ?

Assignment:
Define the following
Biot-Savart law,
Ampere’s circuital law
Transverse nature of light
 Biot-Savart Law
• Currents, i.e. moving electric charges, produce magnetic fields. There are
no magnetic charges
 MAGNETIC FLUX
It is defined as the magnetic lines of force produced in the medium
surrounding electric currents or magnets and is expressed as surface integral
of the magnetic flux density.

The unit of magnetic flux is T.m2 ( weber).

B is defined as magnetic flux per unit area (Magnetic flux density)

through a loop of small area

Gauss‟ law for magnetic fields** says there can not be a net magnetic
flux through the surface since there can be no net magnetic charge
enclosed by the surface. ⇒ magnetic monopoles do not exist.

** Maxwell’s II equation
Solution:

φ = 2√2=2.83 wb
 Ampere’s Circuital Law** in Integral Form
Ampere’s Circuital Law -“the circulation of the magnetic flux density in
free space is proportional to the total current through the surface
bounding the path over which the circulation is computed.”

Note: ** Ampere’s circuital Law is

Maxwell’s IV equation.
 3. Faraday’s Law **
B (increasing)
Changing magnetic field gives rise to electric current.

Loop
E ^
EMF(Ve)

B (increasing)

>

^
I
<
Field by I

Note: ** Faraday’s Law is Maxwell’s III equation.

0

Need modification
in ampere’s law
Modification to Ampere’s Law:
-Ampere‟s law must be wrong!

- it depends on what “enclosed” means

Surface S1 encloses a current

Surface S2 does not!

What if we moved S1 into the gap?

How can we modify the rule

to handle all situations?
 Modified Ampere’s Law

To see how the displacement current comes about, one has to

consider the electric flux through the capacitor‟s plate (Gauss‟s
Law).

As „Q‟ increases on the capacitor, the electric flux also increases

 Modified Ampere’s Law:

I I

What does B-field

look like in this
region?
 Modified Ampere’s Law:

E-field
I • • • • increasing
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • •

What does B-field B-field forms concentric rings

look like in this with direction given as shown.
region?
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
From the principle of charge conservation, the time rate of decrease of
charge with in a given volume must be equal to the net outward current
flow through the surface of the volume.
Qin is the total charge
enclosed by the closed
surface.

Using the divergence theorem

 Maxwell’s (need of ) modification of Ampere’s Law

Applying Stroke's theorem to left-hand side of above equation

Differential form of Ampere’s Law

Taking divergence of above equation

Since R.H.S. of above equation is not zero**, so let us apply

Continuity equation and Gauss‟s law (Electrostatics) we get

Hence

Hence modified Ampere‟s

Law (differential form)

**Note: Fundamental theorem of vector analysis;

Exercise:

Write Maxwell’s equations in integral form and obtain their

differential form by using vector analysis. Write statement and
physical significance of every equation.
Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form
 Proof: Differential form

Use equation 1 and apply Gauss divergence theorem

Use equation 2 and apply Gauss divergence theorem

Use equation 3 and apply Stoke‟s theorem

Use equation 4 and apply Stoke‟s theorem

Curl of B is due to current flow and a changing electric field.

 Maxwell's Equations with Physical Interpretation

1. Relates net electric flux to net enclosed electric charge.

2. Relates net magnetic flux to net enclosed magnetic charge.

3. Relates induced electric field to changing magnetic flux.

4. Relates induced magnetic field to changing electric flux and to current.

 Case 1: Maxwell equations in free space*
(no free charges and no currents)

* Helpful to understand Electromagnetic waves in free space.

 Maxwell’s Equations in material media

Maxwell’s Equations in linear media (Perfect dielectric)

Inside matter, but in regions where there is no free charge or free current,
1. 2. 3. 4.
If the medium is linear

That is homogeneous ( ε and μ do not vary from point to point), and

isotropic (in which μ and ε are invariant with field orientation )Maxwell‟s
equation reduces to

1. 2. 3. 4.
• Derivation of Electromagnetic wave equation
• Properties of E.M. Waves.
• E is prependicular to k (direction of propagation); k.E=0
• B is prependicular to k (direction of propagation); k.B=0
• E is prependicular to B too; k × E=?
• Wave Impedance E0/B0=c

• Poynting Theorem.
Electromagnetic waves in free space or vacuum

Take curl of equation 3 Take curl of equation 4

103
Thus we conclude that light is electromagnetic in nature with
electric vector E and magnetic vector B oscillating as a wave
and propagating with a velocity of light in free space .

Maxwell’s equations also imply that empty space support the

propagation of electromagnetic waves, traveling with speed of
light. 104
 That is the speed of electromagnetic waves in an isotropic
dielectric is less than the speed of electromagnetic waves in
free space.
Exercise: The relative permittivity of distilled water is 81.
Calculate refractive index and velocity of light in it .
 Solution of Electromagnetic waves in free space

The harmonic
solutions to the wave
equations
Where, k=2π/λ is propagation vector,
ω=2πν is angular frequency
where Eo and Bo (amplitudes of wave) space and time independent
vectors but may in general be complex.

106
Proof:
 Similarly from equation 4, we can show that

or

i.e. E is perpendicular to the Plane formed by k and B !!

Thus, k, E and B vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other.

Assignment : Algebraic form of Maxwell's
Equations in free space

111
 Plane Waves

We conclude that electromagnetic field vectors E and B are both

perpendicular to the direction of propagation vector k. This
shows that Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, but
are not mechanical waves (they do not need medium to vibrate
in).
Therefore, electromagnetic waves can propagate in free space.

Ey

x
direction of
propagation
112
B
 Monochromatic Plane Waves
Plane wave because the fields are uniform over every plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation (i.e. x = constant plane) as shown in the
figure below.

or or
Ey

kx
Bz
y

E v

x
B

z
Show that E and B of plane wave are in same phase at any time in
space.

From equation 3

Since

But

Both Ey and Bz are in same phase.

Since ω/k is a real and positive, the
electric and magnetic vectors are in
phase; thus if at any instant, E is zero
then B is also zero, similarly when E
attains its maximum value, B also attains 115
its maximum value, etc.
Summary of Important Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
The solutions (plane wave) of Maxwell’s equations are wave-like with
both E and B satisfying a wave equation.

Electromagnetic waves travel through empty space with the speed of

light c = 1/(μ0ε0)½.

The plane wave as represented by above is said to be linearly

polarized because the electric vector is always along y-axis and,
similarly, the magnetic vector is always along z-axis.

x direction of
propagation
z
 The components of the electric and magnetic fields of plane EM
waves are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. The latter property says that EM
waves are transverse waves.
The magnitudes of E and B in empty space are related by
E/B = c.

Both E and B are at right angles to the direction

of propagation. Thus the waves are transverse. k
E

The electric and magnetic waves are interdependent; neither can exist
without the other. Physically, an electric field varying in time produces
a magnetic field varying in space and time; this changing magnetic
field produces an electric field varying in space and time and so on.
This mutual generation of electric and magnetic fields result in the
propagation of the EM waves.
 Numerical
In free space the Electric field is given as

Determine D, B and H by using Maxwell‟s equations.

Sol: Wave is propagating along x direction.

(1)

(2)

Ey

(3) kx
Bz
Thus, k, E and B vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other.
Energy in EM Waves:
Poynting Theorem and
Poynting Vector
 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves carry energy, and as they propagate through
space they can transfer energy to objects in their path. The rate of
flow of energy in an electromagnetic wave is described by a vector S,
called the Poynting vector.*

The magnitude S represents the rate at which energy flows through a

unit surface area perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Thus, S represents power per unit area. The direction of S is along
the direction of wave propagation. The units of S are J/(s·m2)
=W/m2. *J. H. Poynting, 1884.
 Poynting Vector in the Time
Domain
• We define a new vector called the (instantaneous)
Poynting vector as
• The Poynting
vector has units of
W/m2.
• The Poynting vector has the same direction as the
direction of propagation.

• The Poynting vector at a point is equivalent to the

power density of the wave at that point.
 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves

y
or or

E Because B = E/c for EM waves in free space

S
x
B c
z

The average of S over one or more cycles is called the wave intensity I.
 Energy Density
The energy densities (energy per unit volume) associated with electric
field and magnetic fields are:

Using B = E/c and c = 1/(μ0ε0)½ we can write

Conclusion: For an electromagnetic wave, the instantaneous energy

density associated with the magnetic field equals the instantaneous
energy density associated with the electric field.
Hence, in a given volume the energy is equally shared by the two
fields.
The total energy density is equal to the sum of the energy densities
associated with the electric and magnetic fields:
 Relation between S and U
When we average this instantaneous energy density over one or more
cycles of an electromagnetic wave, we again get a factor of ½ from
the time average of cos2(kx - ωt).

and

Recall

Hence Energy flux=energy density ×

c
The intensity of an electromagnetic wave equals the average
energy density multiplied by the speed of light.
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2 =
1 kg/(m·s2)
Ex: a radio station on the surface of the earth radiates a sinusoidal wave
with an average total power of 50 kW. Assuming the wave is radiated
equally in all directions above the ground, find the amplitude of the electric
and magnetic fields detected by a satellite 100 km from the antenna.

All the radiated power passes through the

hemispherical surface* so the average power per unit Satell
area (the intensity) is R ite

Stati
on
Exercise: calculate the average
energy densities associated with
the electric and magnetic field.

*In problems like this you need to ask whether the power is radiated into all space or into just part
of space.
 Poynting‟s Theorem
“Conservation of Energy”
Chapter 8, Page 346, Griffith

“The work done on the charges by the

electromagnetic force is equal to the decrease in
energy stored in the field, less the energy that flowed
out through the surface”
Differential form of Poynting’s
Theorem
If the earth receives 2cal min-1cm-2 solar energy, what are the
amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields of radiation?

E0=1026.8V/m
H0=2.726A-turn/m

The electric field in an em wave is given by E=E0sinω(t-x/c),

where E0=100 N/Coul. Find the energy contained in a
cylinder of cross section 10-3m2 and length 100 cm along x-
axis.

U=4.427×10-11 Joule
 Boundary conditions, Page 333,
Ch. 7
• If there is no free charge or free current at the
interface of two medium, then

Incident E┴

E
E// Reflected
Medium-1(ε1 , µ1)

Medium-2(ε2 , µ2) Refracted

 Reflection and Transmission at
Normal incidence

Reference
Introduction to Electrodynamics
By D. J. Griffith
 Reflection and Transmission at
Normal incidence

Incident wave Transmitted

wave
μ1 ε1 μ2 ε2

Reflected
wave

Suppose yz plane forms the boundary between two linear media. A

plane wave of frequency ω traveling in The x direction (from left) and
polarized along y direction, approaches the interface from left (see
figure)
 Reflection and Transmission at
Normal incidence

Incident wave

Reflected wave

Transmitted Wave
 Reflection and Transmission at
Normal incidence
At x=o the combined fields to the left
EI+ER and BI+BR, must join the fields to the right ET and BT in
accordance to the boundary condition.
Since there are no components perpendicular to the surface so
boundary conditions (i) and (ii) are trivial. However last two [(iii) &
(iv)] yields:
Reflected wave is 180o out of phase when reflected from a denser medium. This fact
was encountered by you during Last semester optics course. Now you have a proof!!!
 Reflectance (R)
and
Transmittance (T)
• Wave Intensity (average power per unit area is given by):

• If μ1= μ2 = μ0, i.e μr=1 , then the ratio of the reflected

intensity to the incident intensity is

Where as the ratio of transmitted intensity to incident intensity is

Use ε α (n)2
Traveling E and H waves in free space ( region 1) are
normally incident on the interface with a perfect
dielectric (region 2) for which εr=3.0. Compare the
magnitudes of the incident, reflected and transmitted
E and H waves at the interface.

Find out Reflectance and Transmittance .

Check the result.

Ans:
NOTE: R+T=1 => conservation of energy
Chapter 24, Optics by GHATAK 4th Ed.

Oblique Incidence
Case 1: E parallel to the plane of incidence

The reflection of a plane wave with its electric vector parallel to the plane of
incidence.

The parallel polarization (or the p polarization) is also called the transverse
magnetic (or the TM) polarization as the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the plane of incidence.
 Case 2. E perpendicular to the plane of incidence

The reflection and refraction of a plane wave with the electric vector
lying perpendicular to the plane of incidence. (s-polarized)

Since, the y axis is tangential to the interface, the y component of E must

be continuous across the interface; consequently
E10 + E30 = E20
the z -component of the magnetic field to be continuous,
We summarize the amplitude reflection and transmission coefficients
for the two cases; the results are valid for nonmagnetic media:

Equations are known as the Fresnel equations.

 Ex 1: Light is incident at 60o on a boundary separated by media of
refractive index n1 = 1 and n2 = sqrt(3) . Find the amplitude of
reflection coefficient r when electric field is perpendicular to the plane
of incidence.

Ex 2: Consider a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave (with its electric

field vector along y-direction) of magnitude 5 V/m propagating in vacuum.
It is incident on a dielectric interface at x = 0 at an angle of incidence of 30o.
The frequency associated with the wave is 6×1014 Hz and refractive index of
the dielectric is 1.5. Show that R⊥+ T⊥=1.
For an Air glass Interface (n1=1.0 and n2=1.5)
(a) determine r// and t// for normal incidence.
(b) determine Brewster‟s angle.
(c) if incidence angle is 300 determine r// ,t// , r⊥ and t⊥

Example: 24.5, 24.6, 24.7 Page-24.11, “Ghatak” 4th edition.

Problem: 24.4 Page24.17 “Ghatak” 4th edition
I have heard a ray of light laugh and sing. We may talk by light to any visible
distance without any conducting wire.

—Alexander Graham Bell (1880),

after succeeding in transmitting a
voice signal over 200 m using light as the signal carrier

REF: Optics by Ajoy Ghatak

Chapter -27
Optical fiber vs Copper
Fiber has these advantages compared with metal wires
• Bandwidth – more data per second
• Longer distance
• Faster
• Lower loss
• Immunity to crosstalk
• Special applications like medical imaging and other
sensors are only possible with fiber because they
use light directly

Disadvantage

• Optical fiber is more expensive per meter than copper

• Optical fiber can not be join together as easily as copper cable.
requires training , expensive measurement equipment
 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
(a)For a ray incident on a denser medium (n2 > n1 ), the
angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence.

(a)For a ray incident on a rarer medium (n2 < n1 ), the angle

of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence.

(a)The angle of incidence, for which the angle of refraction

is 90o, is known as the critical angle and is denoted by
φc. Thus, when

the angle of refraction φ2 = 90o. When the angle of

incidence exceeds the critical angle (i.e., when φ1 > φc),
there is no refracted ray and we have what is known as
total internal reflection.
 THE OPTICAL FIBER
A dielectric (glass) fiber consists of a cylindrical
central core cladded by a material of slightly
lower refractive index.

Light rays incident on the core-cladding interface

at an angle greater than the critical angle are
trapped inside the core of the fiber.

Refractive index distribution for a step-index

fiber.

where n1 and n2 (< n1) represent, respectively,

the refractive indices of core and cladding and a
represents the radius of the core.
 Now, for a ray entering the fiber, if the angle of incidence (at the core-
cladding interface) is greater than the critical angle φc, then the ray will
undergo TIR at that interface. Thus, for TIR to occur at the core-cladding
interface

Or θ should be less than θc:

Further, because of the cylindrical symmetry in the fiber structure, the

ray will suffer TIR at the lower interface also and therefore get guided
through the core by repeated total internal reflections.
 Types of Fibers
On the basis of refractive index profile of the core and the way in which light signal
propagates down the core, the fibers are broadly divided into three categories.
 THE NUMERICAL APERTURE
Consider a ray which is incident on the entrance aperture of the fiber,
making an angle i with the axis. Assuming the outside medium to have a
refractive index n0

z
ray has to suffer total internal reflection.
If the outside medium is air, i.e., n0 = 1;
then the maximum value of sin i
for a ray to be guided is given by
If the outside medium is air, i.e., n0 = 1; and therefore the maximum value
of sin imax for a ray to be guided is given by

Thus, if a cone of light is incident on one end of the fiber, it will be guided
through it provided the semi angle of the cone is less than im (Acceptance
Angle)
The quantity sin im is known as the numerical aperture (NA) of
the fiber and is a measure of the light-gathering power of the
fiber.
Find out the critical angle
❑for the glass-air interface, n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1.
❑for the glass-water interface, n1 = 1.5, n2 = 4/3

❑ Calculate numerical aperture and acceptance angle for a typical step index
(multimode) fiber with n1 =1.45 and = 0.01.
 Number of Modes and Cut-off Parameters of Fibers
The number of electromagnetic modes supported by an optical fiber is
described by dimensionless parameter called V-number. It is also called
normalized frequency parameter and is given by
Mathematically V- number is expressed as,

For single mode operation V ≤ 2.405 and for multimode operation V >
2.405.

The wavelength at which the fiber becomes single mode is called as cut-off
(λC ). At cut off V = 2.405 sothat

c=2πa√n12-n22/2.404

and for all other wavelengths greater than the cutoff wavelength the fiber is
said to be single-mode. If V increases above 2.405 the number of modes
rise.
Practice Problem 1: A SIF has NA =0.17 and core diameter of 100 µm.
Determine V of the fiber when the light of wavelength 0.85 µm is
transmitted through it. Also calculate M.

Ans: V = 62.83; M =1974

Practice Problem 2: A multimode SIF has relative refractive index

difference of 2% and core refractive index of 1.5. The number of modes
propagating at a wavelength of 1.3 µm is 1000. Calculate diameter of the
core.

Ans: d = 2a = 62 µm
Numerical : Compute the maximum value of Δ ( relative
refractive index) and n2 (cladding) of a single mode
fibre of core diameter 10 μm and core refractive
index 1.5. The fibre is coupled to a light source with a
of 1.3μm. V cut-off for single mode propagation is
2.405. Also calculate the acceptance angle.

Δ=0.0022
n2 (cladding)=1.497
Acceptance angle = 5.71deg
Attenuation and Signal Losses in Optical Fibers

The reduction in amplitude (or power) and intensity of

a signal as it is guided through an optical fibre is
called attenuation.
Attenuation coefficient
Attenuation coefficient

The optical power, after propagating through a fibre that is

500 m long is reduced to 25% of its original value.
Calculate the fibre loss in dB/km.

12.042 dB/km