Machine Element I

1. Introduction
1.1 Engineering materials and their properties
• The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great
significance for a design engineer.
• The machine elements should be made of such a material
which has properties suitable for the conditions of operation.
• In addition to this, a design engineer must be familiar with the
effects which the manufacturing processes and heat
treatment have on the properties of the materials
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
Engineering 3. Composites
Materials 4. Polymers and elastomers
5. Natural materials (wood)
6. Foams
various of engineering materials are shown in the next slide taken
from Ashby’s material selection handbook
1.1.1The families of engineering materials
 The taxonomy of the kingdom of materials and their attributes

• Computer-based selection software stores data in a hierarchical

structure like this
 1.1.2 Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes
• The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is
one of the most difficult problem for the designer.
• The best material is one which serve the desired objective at
the minimum cost.
• The following factors should be considered while selecting the
material :
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions
in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.

• The important properties, which determine the utility of the

material are physical, chemical and mechanical properties
1.1.3 The strategy for
materials selection

The strategy for materials

selection.
The four main steps are
translation, screening,
ranking, and supporting
information—are shown
here
1.1.4 Mechanical and physical properties of materials
Mechanical Properties Physical Properties
Strength Melting point
Stiffness Density
Elasticity Thermal electric conductivity
Ductility Coeff. Linear expansion
Brittleness luster, colour,
Malleability size and shape
Toughness
Machinability The mechanical properties of the
Resilience metals are those which are
Creep associated with the ability of the
Fatigue material to resist mechanical
Hardness forces and loads
1.1.5 Attribute limits and material indices
 1.2 Allowable stress and the factor of safety
• An engineer in charge of the design of a structural member or
mechanical element must restrict the stress in the material to a
level that will be safe
• So it becomes necessary to perform the calculations using a safe
or allowable stress
• To ensure safety , it is necessary to choose an allowable stress
that restrict the allowable to be less than the load the member
can fully support.
• One method of specifying the allowable load for design analysis
of a member is to use a number called the factory of safety
• The factor of safety is the ratio of the ultimate load the member
can support to the allowable load.
ultimate strength  U  U
F .S   
allowable stress  all  all
1.2.1 Factors considered while selecting factor of safety
• Uncertainties' of the design analysis due various simplifying
assumptions
• Errors in manufacturing and assembling
• Unknown vibrations, accidental impact loads
• Extreme service environmental conditions
• The effect of the failure of single component in the entire
system / machine
• The level of risk and hazards that may result due to failure, etc

What is the difference between design factor of safety

and actual factor of safety ???
2. Stress calculations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Design for static load
2.3 Design for fatigue load
 2.1 Introduction
• While we design any machine component, we must consider
the relations between strength and the loading in order to
make the decisions concerning material and its treatment,
fabrication, and geometry for satisfying the requirements of
functionality, safety, reliability, competitiveness, usability,
manufacturability, and marketability

Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces; has
become permanently distorted, thus ruining its geometry; has had its
reliability downgraded; or has had its function compromised,
whatever the reason.

A designer speaking of failure can mean any or all of

these above possibilities
2.1.1 Examples of failure

Failure of a truck drive-shaft Chain test fixture that failed

spline due to corrosion fatigue in one cycle

Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt

Impact failure of blade driver hub
 2.2 Design for static load

• A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member.

To be stationary, the force or couple must be unchanging in
magnitude, point or points of application, and direction.
• A static load can produce axial tension or compression, shear
load, bending load, tensional load, or any combination of these
Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer should
have available the results of a great many strength tests of the
particular material chosen

The cost of gathering such extensive data prior to design is

justified if failure of the part may endanger human life or if the
part is manufactured in sufficiently large quantities
 2.2.1 Failure theories
• Events such as distortion, permanent set, cracking, and
rupturing are among the ways that a machine element fails

If the failure mechanism is simple, then simple tests can give

clues. Just what is simple? And Just what is important: a critical
stress, a critical strain, a critical energy?
In the next several sections, we shall show failure theories that
have helped answer some of these questions

Unfortunately, there is no universal theory of failure for the

general case of material properties and stress state. Instead, over
the years several hypotheses have been formulated and tested,
leading to today’s accepted practices
 cont…
• Structural metal behaviour is typically classified as being ductile
or brittle,
• Ductile materials are normally classified such that εf ≥ 0.05 &
have an identifiable yield strength that is often the same in
compression as in tension.
• Brittle materials, εf < 0.05, do not exhibit an identifiable yield
strength, and are typically classified by ultimate tensile and
compressive strengths.
The generally accepted failure theories are:

Ductile materials (yield criteria) Brittle materials (brittle fracture)

• Maximum shear stress (MSS) • Maximum normal stress (MNS)
• Distortion energy (DE) • Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM) • Modified Mohr (MM),
2.2.2 Failure theories for ductile materials
1) Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory (Tresca or Guest theory)
• The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins
whenever the maximum shear stress in any element equals or
exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen of
the same material when that specimen begins to yield
Recall that for simple tensile stress, σ = P/A, and the maximum shear
stress occurs on a surface 45° from the tensile surface with a y
magnitude of    . So the maximum shear stress at yield  max 
max
2 2

For a general state of stress, three principal stresses can be

determined and ordered such that  1   2   3 . The maximum shear
stress is then  max  ( 1   3 ) / 2
Cont…
Thus, for a general state of stress (3D stress state) , the
maximum-shear-stress theory predicts yielding when
( 1   3  y
 max   or ( 1   3 )   y  S sy  0.5S y (2.1)
2 2

For design purposes, Equation (2.1 can be modified to

incorporate a factor of safety, n. Thus,
y y
 max    1   3   (2.2)
2n n

Plane stress problems are very common where one of the

principal stresses is zero, then there are three cases to
consider in using Eq. (2.1) for plane stress: (see next slide)
Cont…
For plane stress, let  1   2   3 and  3  0

Case 1:  A   B  0 . For this case,

 1  . A  2   B  3  0
Equation (2.1) reduces to a yield
condition of
 A  Sy
Case 2: A  0   B , equation 2.1)
reduces to a yield condition of

 A  B  Sy
Case 3:0   A   B , equation (2.1)
reduces to a yield condition of
The maximum-shear-stress (MSS)
 B  S y theory for plane stress, where σA and
σB are two nonzero principal stresses.
2) Distortion-Energy Theory (DE)
• The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs when the
distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or exceeds the
distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension
or compression of the same material.
The DE theory is originated from the observation that ductile materials
stressed hydrostatically exhibited yield strengths greatly in excess of
the values given by the simple tension test ; yielding in tension test is
somehow related to the angular distortion of the stressed element
Cont…
In the above figure, (a) Element with tri-axial stresses; element
undergoes both volume change and angular distortion. (b) Element
under hydrostatic tension undergoes only volume change. (c) Element
has angular distortion without volume change
1   2   3
 av  (2.3)
3
1
The strain energy per unit volume for simple tension is u  .
2
For the element under tri-axial stress, the strain energy per unit
1
volume is u  ( 1 1   2 2   3 3 ) . Substituting for the principal
2
strains from generalized Hooke’s law for multi-axial loading, we get

1
[ 1   2   3  2 ( 1 2   2 3   3 1 )]
2 2 2
u (2.4)
2E
 Cont…
The strain energy for producing only volume change uv can be
obtained by substituting  av for  1 ,  3 and  3 in Eq. (2.4) and using
eq. (2.3) for the value of  av , we get

3 av
2
uv  (1  2 )
2E (2.5)
1  2
( 1   2   3  2 1 2  2 2 3  2 3 1 )
2 2 2

6E
The distortion energy is obtained by subtracting Eq. (2.5) from Eq. (2.4);

1   ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2 
u d  u  uv    (2.6)
3E  2 
 Cont…
For the simple tensile test, at yield, 1  S y and  2   3  0 , and from
Eq.(2.6) the distortion energy is

1  2
ud  Sy (2.7)
3E
Equating eq. (2.6) and eq. (2.7), the distortion energy failure theory for
the general state of stress given as;
1
 ( 1   2 )  ( 2   3 )  ( 3   1 ) 
2 2 2 2
 '    Sy (2.8)
 2 
Where  ' is called von Mises stress which represent a single, equivalent,
or effective stress for the entire general tri-axial state of stress
Sy
  ' Sy or  ' Distortion Energy failure criterion
n
Cont…
For plane stress, let1 and  2 be the nonzero principal stresses
and  3  0 , then the von Mises stress becomes
2 12
 '  ( 1   1 2   2 )
2 (2.9)

Using xy components for plane

stress, the von Mises stress can
be written as

2 12
 '  ( x   x y   y  3 xy )
2 2

MSS theory, can be seen to be

more restrictive, hence, more
conservative
Shear yield strength predicted by DE
Ssy  0.577S y (2.10)
 3) Ductile Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• This theory is primarily used to predict failure for materials whose
strengths in tension and compression are not equal
The idea of Mohr is based on three simple tests: tension, compression,
and shear, to yielding if the material can yield, or to rupture

Three Mohr circles, one for the

uniaxial compression test, one for the
test in pure shear, and one for the
uniaxial tension test, are used to
define failure by the Mohr hypothesis

Based on Mohr, failure occurs when

one of the circles (stresses) become
tangent to the failure envelope
depicted as ABCDE in the fig, above The difficulty in Mohr theory is;
the σ axis; The failure envelope need Was the failure envelope straight,
not be straight circular, or quadratic???
Cont…
A variation of Mohr’s theory, called the Coulomb-Mohr theory or the
internal-friction theory, assumes that failure envelope is straight and
only the tensile and compressive strengths are necessary
Consider the conventional ordering of the
principal stresses such that  1   2   3 .
The largest circle connects 1 and  3

Triangles OBi Ci are similar, therefore

B2C2  B1C1 B3C3  B1C1
 (2.11)
OC2  OC1 OC3  OC1

1   3 St Sc St
 
2 2  2 2
St  1   3 Sc St (2.12)
Where S t and S c are tensile  
2 2 2 2
and compressive strengths
 Cont…
Cross-multiplying and simplifying equation (2.12) reduces to;
1  3
 1 (2.13)
St Sc

For plane stress, let  1   2   3 and  3  0

Case 1:  1   2  0 . Failure condition is

 1  St
Case 2: 1  0   2 , failure condition is
1  2
 1
St Sc
Incorporating the factor of safety
Case 3: 0  1   2 , failure condition n in eq. (2.13) for design purpose
 2  Sc 1  3 1
  (2.14)
St S c n
 2.2.3 Summary of Failure of Ductile Materials
The selection of
one or the other of
these theories is
something that you,
the engineer, must
decide

1) For design the 2) To learn why a part

MSS theory is failed, then the DE theory
easy, quick to may be the best to use
use, and
conservative 3) For ductile materials with
unequal yield strengths in tension
&in compression, the Coulomb-
Mohr theory is the best available
2.2.4 Failure theories for brittle materials
1) Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory (MNS)
The MNS theory states that failure occurs whenever one of the
three principal stresses equals or exceeds the ultimate strength
Let the principal stresses for a general stress state are ordered in the
form  1   2   3 , failure occurs whenever

 1  Sut or  3  Suc (2.15)

For plane stress, let 1   2 and  3  0

 1  Sut or  2   Suc (2.16)

The failure criteria equations can be

converted to design equations as;
Sut  Suc
1  or  2  (2.17)
n n
2) Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr Theory (BCM)
Considering plane stress condition, the design type equation
incorporating the factor of safety

Sut
1  for  1   2  0 (2.18a)
n
1  2 1
  for  1  0   2 (2.18b)
Sut Suc n
Sut
2   for 0   1   2 (2.18c)
n

In the first quadrant the data appear on both sides and

along the failure curves of maximum-normal-stress,
Coulomb-Mohr, and modified Mohr. All failure curves are
the same, and data fit well
3) Modified-Mohr Theory (MM)

SSut

 11  for 
 ut for  
11   22 
 00
nn
(a)

 11  1

 11  
 00   22 and
and 1

 22
(( SSuc  S ))  
ut  11
uc  S ut --  22 for   0   and  22  1 (b)
for  11  0   22 and 1
SSuc SSut
uc ut
SSuc
uc

 11
Suc Suc 0    
 2    2  for for1 0  2 1   2 (c)
n n

In the fourth quadrant the modified Mohr theory

represents the data best
Failure of Brittle Materials Summary

A plot of experimental
data points obtained
from tests on cast iron.
Shown also are the
graphs of three failure
theories of possible
usefulness for brittle
materials

In the first quadrant the

data appear on both sides
and along the failure
curves of maximum-
normal-stress, Coulomb-
Mohr, and modified Mohr.
All failure curves are
the same, and data fit well
 Cont…
In the fourth quadrant the modified Mohr theory represents the
data best.

In the third quadrant the points A, B, C, and D are too few to make
any suggestion concerning a fracture locus.

Selection of Failure Criteria

For ductile behavior the preferred criterion is the distortion-energy
theory, although some designers also apply the maximum-shear-stress
theory because of its simplicity and conservative nature

For brittle behavior, the original Mohr hypothesis, constructed with

tensile, compression, and torsion tests, with a curved failure locus is
the best hypothesis we have. However, the difficulty of applying it
without a computer leads engineers to choose modifications, namely,
Coulomb Mohr, or modified Mohr
Failure theory selection flowchart

Failure theory
selection flowchart
2.3 Design for fatigue load
fatigue failure arises when the loads vary with time or they fluctuate
between different levels

These and other kinds of loading occurring in machine members

produce stresses that are called variable, repeated, alternating, or
fluctuating stresses.

fatigue failure gives no warning! It is sudden and total, and hence

dangerous

It is relatively simple to design against a static failure, because our

knowledge is comprehensive. Fatigue is a much more complicated
phenomenon, only partially understood, and the engineer seeking
competence must acquire as much knowledge of the subject as
possible
 Cont…
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue
crack will typically initiate at a discontinuity in the material where the
cyclic stress is a maximum, Discontinuities can arise because of:

1 Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc.

where stress concentrations occur

2 Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings,

gears, cams, etc.) under high contact pressure, developing
concentrated subsurface contact stresses that can cause
surface pitting or spalling after many cycles of the load

3 Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks,

scratches, &burrs; poor joint design; improper assembly; and
other fabrication faults
 Cont…

4 Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling,

forging, casting, extrusion, drawing, heat treatment, etc.
microscopic and sub microscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material,
alloy segregation, voids, hard precipitated particles, and crystal
discontinuities

Various conditions that can accelerate crack initiation include residual

tensile stresses, elevated temperatures, temperature cycling, a
corrosive environment, and high-frequency cycling

The rate and direction of fatigue crack propagation is primarily

controlled by localized stresses and by the structure of the material at
the crack. However, as with crack formation, other factors may exert a
significant influence, such as environment, temperature, and
frequency
2.3.1 Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design

The methods of fatigue failure analysis represent a combination of

engineering and science; while science has not yet completely
explained the complete mechanism of fatigue, the engineer
must still design things that will not fail

Engineers use science to solve their problems if the science is

available. But available or not, the problem must be solved
whatever form the solution takes under these conditions.

We will take a structured approach in the design against fatigue

failure. As with static failure, we will attempt to relate to test
results performed on simply loaded specimens. However,
because of the complex nature of fatigue, there is much more to
account for
 Cont…

Fatigue-Life Methods

Three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis are the
stress-life method, the strain-life method, and the linear-elastic fracture
mechanics method.
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to
failure, N, for a specific level of loading. Life of 1  N  103 cycles is
generally classified as low-cycle fatigue, whereas high-cycle fatigue is
considered to be N  103 cycles

The S - N method, based on stress levels only, is the least accurate

approach, especially for low-cycle applications. However, it is the most
traditional method, since it is the easiest to implement for a wide
range of design applications has ample supporting data, and
represents high-cycle applications adequately
Stress-Life method (S-N)
 Strain-life method
Strain-life method involves more detailed analysis of the plastic deformation
at localized regions where the stresses and strains are considered for life
estimates. This method is especially good for low-cycle fatigue applications. In
this method several idealizations must be compounded, and so some
uncertainties will exist in the results

Fatigue ductility coefficient ε′F

Fatigue strength coefficient σ′F

Fatigue ductility exponent c

Fatigue strength exponent b

 2.3.2 The Endurance Limit
For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point.
The strength at this point is called the endurance limit S ' e and occurs
somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles

Endurance limit for steel

• Verify that the loading imposed by the four symmetrically located
bearings causes the center portion of the specimen to be loaded in
pure bending (i.e.,zero transverse shear),and that the stress at any
point goes through a cycle of tension-to-compression-to-tension
with each shaft rotation.
2.3.2 The Endurance Limit modifying factors
The rotating-beam specimen used in the laboratory to determine
endurance limits is prepared very carefully and tested under closely
controlled conditions. It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a
mechanical or structural member to match the values obtained in the
laboratory. Some differences include;
1. Material: composition, basis of failure, variability
2. Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting
corrosion, surface condition, stress concentration
3. Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state,
relaxation times
4. Design: size, shape, life, stress state, stress
concentration, speed, fretting, galling

A Marin equation to determine the modified endurance limit is

Se  ka kb kc kd ke k f Se '
 Cont…
Where k a  surface condition modifying factor
kb  size modification factor
kc  load modification factor
k d  temprature modification factor
ke  reliability factor
k f  miscellaneous effect modification factor
S e '  rotary beam test specimen endurance limit
S e  endurance limit at the critical location of a machine part

Surface Factor k a

ka  a(Sut )b
 Cont…
Size Factor kb

For non-rotating solid or hollow rounds of diameter d

A rectangular section of dimensions h × b has

For axial loading there is no size effect, so kb  1

Load Factor k c
Temperature Factor k d

If the rotating beam

endurance limit is
known at room
temperature, use
Reliability Factor k e

Reliability Factors k e Corresponding to 8 Percent Standard Deviation

of the Endurance Limit
 2.3.3 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves,
or notches, in a part increases the theoretical stresses significantly in the
immediate vicinity of the discontinuity
A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor K t or K ts is
used to relate the actual maximum stress at the discontinuity to the
nominal stress. Maximum stress ( max ) Is determined experimentally

e.g. plate in tension or simple

compression with a transverse
central hole.

The net tensile force is

The nominal stress is given by
 Cont…
The fatigue stress-concentration factor for a material under a cyclic load is

Based on the Neuber

equation,

Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation

Where is defined as
the Neuber constant and
is a material constant.
In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from the For steels and
geometry of the part. Then specify the material, aluminium alloys, the
notch sensitivity is
find q, and solve for Kf from the equation

Recommended value of
q for all grades of cast
iron is 0.20 be used
 Notch-sensitivity charts

Notch-sensitivity charts for steels and UNS A92024-T wrought aluminium alloys
subjected to reversed bending or reversed axial loads. For larger notch radii,
use the values of q corresponding to the r = 0.16-in (4-mm) ordinate
Notch-sensitivity charts (cont…)

Notch-sensitivity curves for materials in reversed torsion. For larger notch

radii, use the values of qshear corresponding to r = 0.16 in (4 mm)
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Bar in tension or simple compression

Fig. 1 with a transverse hole

Rectangular bar with a transverse

Fig. 2 hole in bending

Fig. 3 Notched rectangular bar in

Fig. 3 tension or simple compression
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 6

Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Notched rectangular bar in bending

Rectangular filleted bar in

Fig. 5 Fig. 5 tension or simple compression

Fig. 6 Rectangular filleted bar in bending

Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 7 in tension

Fig. 8 Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 9 in torsion

Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 9 in bending
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 10
Fig. 12

Fig. 10 Round shaft in torsion with

transverse hole

Round shaft in bending with

Fig. 11 a transverse hole

Fig. 11
Plate loaded in tension by a
Fig. 12 pin through a hole
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 13 Fig. 14

Fig. 13 Grooved round bar in tension

Fig. 15

Fig. 14 Grooved round bar in bending

Fig. 15 Grooved round bar in torsion

 Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 17 Round shaft with flat bottom

groove in torsion

Fig. 16 Round shaft with flat-bottom groove in

bending and/or tension
 2.3.4 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of a sinusoidal
pattern because of the nature of some rotating machinery. However,
other patterns, some quite irregular, do occur

However; in periodic patterns exhibiting a single maximum and a single

minimum of force, the shape of the wave is not important, but the
peaks on both the high side (maximum) and the low side (minimum)
are important
If the largest force is Fmax and the smallest force is Fmin, then a steady
component and an alternating component can be constructed as follows

where Fm is the midrange steady component of force, and Fa is the amplitude

of the alternating component of force.
Some stress-time relations

(a) fluctuating stress with high

frequency ripple
(d) sinusoidal fluctuating stress;

(b) Non sinusoidal fluctuating stress

(e) repeated stress;

(c) Non sinusoidal fluctuating stress (f ) completely reversed sinusoidal stress.

Cont…
Components of stress, some of which are shown in the previous Fig. are

The steady, or static, stress is not the same as the midrange stress; in fact, it
may have any value between σmin and σmax. The steady stress exists
because of a fixed load or preload applied to the part, and it is usually
independent of the varying portion of the load

midrange steady component and amplitude of the alternating component of

stresses are

The stress ratio and the amplitude ratio

 2.3.5 Fatigue Failure Criteria for Fluctuating Stress
The following are fatigue failure criteria that are often used for analysis
and design purposes;
1. Goodman line
2. Soderberg line
3. Modified Goodman line
4. Gerber line
5. ASME elliptic line
6. Yielding line
Either the fatigue limit Se or
the finite-life strength Sf is
plotted on the ordinate. Note
that the yield strength Sy is
plotted on the ordinate too.

The midrange-stress axis has

Fatigue diagram showing various criteria of
the yield strength Sy and the failure. For each criterion, points on or
tensile strength Sut plotted “above” the respective line indicate failure
along it.
 Cont…
In order to understand other fatigue failure criteria, it is important to
include the failure criterion of Goodman because

• It is a straight line and the algebra is linear and easy.

• It is easily graphed, every time for every problem.
• It reveals subtleties of insight into fatigue problems.
• Answers can be scaled from the diagrams as a check on the algebra.

The criterion equation for the the ASME-elliptic is written as

Soderberg line is

find the modified Goodman The Gerber failure criterion

relation to be is written as
Cont…
The Langer first-cycle-yielding criterion is used in
connection with the fatigue curve

The stresses and can replace and when n is the design factor
or factor of safety, then

The Soderber line becomes The ASME elliptic line becomes

The modified Goodman line becomes

The Langer line becomes

The Gerber line becomes

Roadmaps and important design steps for the Stress-Life method
To proceed with a typical analysis, assume that fatigue occurs first and use one
of the fatigue failure criteria to determine factory of safety n or the size of the
component, depending on the task. Most often fatigue is the governing failure
mode. Then follow with static check. If fatigue failure governs, then the
analysis is repeated using the Langer criterion.
A. Completely reversed simple loading

1.Determine experimental endurance limit from

2. Modify the experimental endurance limit

Cont..

B. Fluctuating simple loading

Cont..
C. Combined loading modes
3. Strength Calculation and
Dimensioning of Joints
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Power Screws and threaded fastners
3.3 Riveted Joints
3.4 Welding Joints
3.1 Introduction

A machine element used for holding or joining two or more parts

of a machine or structure is known as a fastener

There are two types of joints (fasteners):

1. Permanent (Riveting, bonding, welding ) and
2. Removable /temporary (Screwed fasteners such as bolts, studs and
nuts in combination, machine screws, set screws, etc., and keys,
cotters, couplings).

Removable /temporary fasteners are used for fastening components

that require frequent assembly and disassembly
3.2 Threaded Fasteners
Threaded fasteners occupy the most prominent place among the
removable fasteners. In general, Threaded fasteners are used :
(i) to hold parts together,
(ii) to adjust parts with reference to each other and
(iii) to transmit power.

Fig. 3.1: Terminology of

screw threads. Sharp
vee threads shown for
clarity; the crests and
roots are actually
flattened or rounded
during the forming
operation.
3.2.1 Thread Standards and Definitions
1. The pitch p is the distance between adjacent thread forms measured
parallel to the thread axis
2. The major diameter d - largest diameter of a screw thread.
3. The minor (root) diameter dr - smallest diameter of a screw thread.
4. The pitch diameter dp - theoretical diameter between the major and
minor diameters

Fig. 3.2 Basic profile

for metric M and MJ
threads.
d = major diameter
dr = minor diameter
dp = pitch diameter
p = pitch
H = (√3p)/2
Cont…
• Two commonly used Unified thread series: UN and UNR.
• The difference between these is simply that a root radius must be used
in the UNR series.
• Because of reduced thread stress-concentration factors, UNR series
threads have improved fatigue strengths
• Square and Acme threads, shown in Fig. 3.3 a and b, respectively, are
used on screws when power is to be transmitted

Acme Buttress
Square
– 29° included angle – great strength
– strongest
– easier to manufacture – only unidirectional
– no radial load
– Used for loading in loading
– hard to manufacture
both directions
3.2.2 Screw Classifications

Note that the thread size is specified by giving the pitch p for metric sizes
and by giving the number of threads per inch N for the Unified sizes

Unified threads are specified by stating the nominal major diameter, the
number of threads per inch, and the thread series, for example, 5/8 in-18
UNRF or 0.625 in-18 UNRF.
Metric threads are specified by writing the diameter and pitch in
millimetres, in that order. Thus, M12 × 1.75 is a thread having a nominal
major diameter of 12 mm and a pitch of 1.75 mm

fine d=12mm
d=0.25” Class 2 metric
¼-20 UNF –2A M12 x 1.75
20 threads/in. external threads
p=1.75 mm/thread
3.2.2 Screw Classifications (cont…)

Threads can be classified as fine and coarse based on the value of the
thread pitch or as classes and levels based on the tolerance

Unified National Standard ISO (Metric)

Thread Pitch

UNC –coarse coarse

UNF –fine fine
UNEF –extra fine
Tolerance

Class 1 several levels

Class 2
Class 3
3.2.3 The Mechanics of Power Screws
Power Screw Applications
• jacks for cars
• C-clamps
• vises
• Instron material
testing machines
• machine tools (for
positioning of table)

Fig. 3.4: a square-threaded power screw with

single thread having a mean diameter dm, a pitch
p, a lead angle λ, and a helix angle ψ is loaded by
the axial compressive force F.
 Cont…
Fig 3.5: A single thread of
the screw is unrolled or
developed for exactly a
single turn Raising the load Lowering the load

We wish to find an expression for the torque required to raise this load,
and another expression for the torque required to lower the load
For raising the load, we have

F H  PR  N sin   N cos   0 F (sin    cos  )

PR  (3.1)
F V  F  N sin   N cos   0 cos    sin 

For lowering the load, we have

F H  PR  N sin   N cos   0
PL 
F (  cos   sin  )
(3.2)
F V  F  N sin   N cos   0 cos    sin 
 Cont…
Divide the numerator and the denominator of eq 3.1 & 3.2 by cos λ and
use the relation tan λ = 1/(πdm) (Fig. 3.5). We then have, respectively,

F[( l  d m )   ] F[  ( l  d m )]
PR  and PL  (3.2)
1  ( l  dm ) 1  ( l  dm )

Noting that the torque is the product of the force P and the mean radius
dm/2, the torque required to raise the load and the torque to lower the
load are, respectively

Fd m  l   d m  Fd m   d m  l 
TR    and TL    (3.3)
2   dm   l)  2   dm   l) 

The torques are required for two purposes: to overcome thread friction
and to raise / lower the load
 Cont…
In specific instances where the lead is large or the friction is low, that the
load will lower itself by causing the screw to spin without any external
effort. In such cases, the torque TL from Eq. (3.3) will be negative or zero.
When a positive torque is obtained from this equation, the screw is
said to be self-locking
The condition for self-locking is

l
 d m  l or      tan  (3.4)
 dm
An expression for efficiency is also useful in the evaluation of power
Fl
screws. If we let  = 0 in Eq. (3.3), we obtain To 
2
The efficiency is therefore To Fl
e  (3.5)
TR 2TR
 ACME and other threads (Cont…)
The preceding equations have been developed for square threads. In the
case of Acme or other threads, the normal thread load is inclined to the
axis because of the thread angle 2α and the lead angle λ.

Neglecting small angle λ and considering the effect

of the thread angle; the torque for raising the load,
or for tightening a screw or bolt is obtained by
dividing the frictional terms in Eq. (3.3) by cos α

Fd m  l   d m sec 
TR    (3.6)
2   d m   l sec ) 

Acme thread is not as efficient as square thread, because

of the additional friction due to the wedging action, but it
is often preferred because it is easier to machine and
permits the use of a split nut, which can be used to take
up for wear
 Torque due to thrust collar (Cont…)
When the screw is loaded axially, a thrust or collar bearing must be
employed between the rotating and stationary members in order to carry
the axial component. Assuming the force to be concentrated at the mean
collar diameter dc . the torque required to overcome collar friction is
F c d c
Tc  (3.7)
2
Then the total torque required to raise the load is

F  d m  L  
TR  d m  c d c 
 d m  L 
2 (3.8)

Then the total torque required to lower the load is

F  d m  L  
TL  d m  c d c  (3.9)
2  d m  L  

N.B: for ACME and other threads, the thread angle α has to be considered
 3.2.4 Nominal body stresses in power screws
Nominal body stresses in power screws can be related to thread
parameters as follows
The maximum nominal shear stress τ in
torsion of the screw body
16T
  (3.10)
d r3
The axial stress σ in the body of the screw (in
the absence of column action) is
F 4F
  
A d r2 (3.11)

Fig. Geometry of square For a short column the J. B. Johnson buckling

thread useful in finding formula is given by
bending and transverse shear 2
F  S yl  1
stresses at the thread root.    S y    (3.12)
 A  crit  2k  CE
 3.2.5 Nominal thread stresses in power screws
Nominal thread stresses in power screws can be related to thread
parameters as follows
The bearing stress in the tread is
I d r nt ( p / 2) 2  Fp
2F   d r nt p 2 and M 
B   (3.13) c 6 24 4
d m nt p
The orthogonal normal stresses and
The bending stress at the root of
the shear stresses from the coordinate
the thread is
system are
Mc Fp 24 6F 6F
b    (3.14) x  and  xy  0
I 4 d r nt p 2
d r nt p d m nt p
The transverse shear stress τ at the 16T
y 0 and  yz 
centre of the root of the thread d r3
3V 3 2 F 3F 4F
   (3.15) z   2 and  zx  0
2 A 2 d r nt p d r nt p d r
where nt is the number of
Then use appropriate failure theory to
engaged threads design the component
Cont…
A power screw lifting a load is in compression and its thread pitch
is shortened by elastic deformation. Its engaging nut is in tension
and its thread pitch is lengthened.
The engaged threads cannot share the load equally. Some
experiments show that the first engaged thread carries 0.38 of
the load, the second 0.25, the third 0.18, and the seventh is free
of load.

Screw Bearing
Pressure pb
Cont…
Coefficients of Friction for Threaded Pairs

Thrust-Collar Friction Coefficients

 3.2.6 Threaded Fasteners
Bolt and nut is used to
connect the members

Fastner length : L  l  H
length of useful unthreaded portio
ld  L  LT
Length of threaded portion
lt  l  ld

The thread length of bolts, where d is the nominal diameter, is

2d  6mm, L  125, d  48mm  1

2 d  in, L  6 in,
  4
LT  2d  12mm, 125  L  200 LT  
2d  25mm, L  200mm
 2d  1 in, L  6 in

 2
Metric series
Unified series
 Cont…
No separate nut used. Instead, one of the members is threaded

h  t 2 / 2, t 2  d
L 
!

h  d / 2, t 2  d
Fastener length : L  h  1.5d

Length o useful unthreaded portion :

ld  L  LT
Length of useful threaded portion :
lt  l !  ld
 3.2.7 Joints—Fastener Stiffness
When a connection is desired that can be disassembled without
destructive methods and that is strong enough to resist external tensile
loads, moment loads, and shear loads, or a combination of these, then
the simple bolted joint using hardened-steel washers is a good solution.
Such a joint can also be dangerous unless it is properly designed and
assembled by a trained mechanic

It is therefore important to consider the

spring rate of the bolt and the members
which is accounted by the stiffness

The stiffness of the portion of a bolt or

screw within the clamped zone will
generally consist of two parts,
1. that of the unthreaded shank portion
2. that of the threaded portion

A bolted connection loaded in

tension by the forces P
 Cont…
Thus the stiffness constant of the bolt is equivalent to the stiffnesses
of two springs in series

1 1 1 kt k d
   kb 
kb kt k d kt  k d
At E Ad E
But we have; kt  and kd 
lt ld

Then the bolt stiffness becomes where At  tensile - stress area

lt  length of threaded portion of grip
Ad At E Ad  major - diameter area of fastner
kb 
Ad lt  At ld ld  length of unthreaded portion in grip
 3.2.8 Joints—member Stiffness
Both of these stiffnesses of the bolt and the members must be known in
order to learn what happens when the assembled connection is
subjected to an external tensile loading.

There may be more than two members included in the grip of the
fastener. All together these act like compressive springs in series, and
hence the total spring rate of the members is

1 1 1 1 1
    ... 
km k1 k2 k3 ki
The stiffness of the members is rather difficult to obtain, except by
experimentation, because the compression spreads out between the
bolt head and the nut and hence the area is not uniform. There are,
however, some cases in which this area can be determined
 Cont…

Ultrasonic techniques used to determine the pressure distribution at the

member interface shows that the pressure stays high out to about 1.5 bolt
radii. The pressure, however, falls off farther away from the bolt.

Ito suggests the use of Rotscher’s pressure-cone method for stiffness

calculations with a variable cone angle. This method is quite complicated, and
so here we choose to use a simpler approach using a fixed cone angle
 Cont…
Referring to the previous figure, the contraction of an element of the
cone of thickness dx pdx
subjected to a compressive force P is d   (a)
EA
The area of the element is
    
2 2

 2

2  D d
A   ro  ri    x tan       
2   2  

 Dd  Dd 
   x tan    x tan   
 2  2 
Substituting this in Eq. (a) and integrating gives a total contraction of
P t dx
E 0 x tan   D  d  / 2 x tan   D  d  / 2


Using a table of integrals, we find the result to be


P
ln
2 tan   D  d D  d 
Ed tan  2 tan   D  d D  d 
 Cont…
Thus the spring rate or stiffness of this frustum is

P Ed tan 
k  If the members of the joint have
 ln
2 tan   D  d D  d  the same Young’s modulus E with
2 tan   D  d D  d  symmetrical frusta back to back,
then they act as two identical
With α = 30◦, this becomes springs in series. Thus km = k/2.
Using the grip as l = 2t ,dw =D =
0.5774Ed
k 1.5d as the diameter of the
ln
1.155t  D  d D  d  washer face, and α = 30◦; we find
1.155t  D  d D  d  the spring rate of the members to
be
This equation must be solved 0.5774Ed
separately for each frustum in the k
 0.5774l  0.5d 
joint. Then individual stiffnesses 2 ln 5 
are assembled to obtain km  0.5774l  2.5d 
 3.2.9 Bolt Strength
In the specification standards for bolts, the strength is specified by
stating ASTM minimum quantities, the minimum proof strength, or
minimum proof load, and the minimum tensile strength
The proof load is the maximum load (force) that a bolt can withstand without
acquiring a permanent set. The proof strength is the quotient of the proof
load and the tensile-stress area.

Bolts in fatigue axial loading fail at the fillet under the head, at the
thread runout, and at the first thread engaged in the nut

Nuts are graded so that they can be mated with their corresponding
grade of bolt. The purpose of the nut is to have its threads deflect to
distribute the load of the bolt more evenly to the nut. The nut’s
properties are controlled in order to accomplish this. The grade of the
nut should be the grade of the bolt
Specifications for metric fasteners
 3.2.10 Tension Joints—The External Load
Consider what happens when an external tensile load P is applied to a
bolted connection. It is to be assumed that the clamping force (called
the preload Fi), has been correctly applied by tightening the nut before
P is applied. The nomenclature used is

The load P is tension, and it causes the

A bolted connection loaded in connection to stretch, or elongate, through
tension by the forces P some distance δ
 Cont…
We can relate this elongation to the stiffnesses by recalling that k is
the force divided by the deflection. Thus

or

and

where is called the stiffness constant of the joint

The resultant bolt load is

and the resultant load on the connected members is

 3.2.11 Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
Having learned that a high preload is very desirable in important bolted
connections, we must next consider means of ensuring that the preload
is actually developed when the parts are assembled
If the overall length of the bolt can actually be measured with a
micrometer when it is assembled, the bolt elongation due to the
preload Fi can be computed using the formula   Fi l ; Then the nut is
AE
simply tightened until the bolt elongates through the distance δ.

The elongation of a screw cannot usually be measured, because the

threaded end is often in a blind hole. It is also impractical in many cases
to measure bolt elongation. In such cases the wrench torque required
to develop the specified preload must be estimated

Then torque wrenching, pneumatic-impact wrenching, or the turn-of-

the-nut method may be used
 Cont…
Although the coefficients of friction may vary widely, we can obtain a
good estimate of the torque required to produce a given preload by

where dm is the average of the major and minor diameters. Since

tan λ = l/πdm, we divide the numerator and denominator of the first
term by πdm and get

The diameter of the washer face of a hexagonal nut is the same as the
width across flats and equal to 1.5 times the nominal size. Therefore the
mean collar diameter is dc = (d + 1.5d)/2 = 1.25d. Above equation can
now be arranged to give
 Cont…
We now define a torque coefficient K as the term in brackets, and so

Then the torque required for preload can be written as

Torque Factors K
 3.2.12 Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Preload
The tensile stress in the bolt can be found as

The limiting value of σb is the proof strength Sp. Thus, with the
introduction of a load factor n,

Here we have called n a load factor rather than a factor of safety,

though the two ideas are somewhat related

Any value of n > 1 in ensures that the bolt stress is less than the proof
strength
 Cont…
It is recommended for both static and fatigue loading that
the following be used for preload:

Gasketed Joints
If a full gasket is present in the joint, the gasket
pressure p is found by dividing the force in the
member by the gasket area per bolt. For N bolts;
A rough rule for bolt spacing
around a bolt circle is
To maintain adequate uniformity of pressure
adjacent bolts should not be placed more than
six nominal diameters apart on the bolt circle Db is the diameter of the bolt circle
 3.2.13 Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints
Most of the time, the type of fatigue loading encountered in the analysis
of bolted joints is one in which the externally applied load fluctuates
between zero and some maximum force P
For such cases;
and
The alternating component of the bolt stress is

The mean stress is equal to the alternating component plus the minimum stress

where

Then we can use one of the failure theories discussed in the previous chapter to
design the joint for fatigue condition. Note we have to use stress concentration
factor and the modified endurance limit in the analysis
Cont…
 3.3 Bolted, Riveted or Pin joints in shear
Bolted, Riveted and pin joints loaded in shear are treated exactly alike in design
and analysis. The figure below shows the various means by which such
connection might fail

Modes of failure in shear loading of a

bolted or riveted connection:
(a) shear loading;
(b) bending of rivet;
(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) Shear of rivet;
(d) tensile failure of members;
(e) bearing of rivet on members or
bearing of members on rivet;
(f ) shear tear-out;
(g) tensile tear-out

(e) (f) (g)

Bolted & riveted joints in shear
1. Failure by bending
The calculation of the bending stress in this manner
is an assumption, because we do not know exactly
how the load is distributed to the rivet or the relative
deformations of the rivet and the members.
Therefore, its effect is compensated for by an
increase in the factor of safety.

2. Failure by Shear
the stress in the rivet is
where A is the cross-sectional area of all the rivets in the group
3. Failure of members by tension
The tensile stress is

where A is the net area of the plate, that is, the area reduced
by an amount equal to the area of all the rivet holes
 Cont…
4. failure by crushing of the bolt or plate

The type of stress induced is called bearing stress and is given by

where the projected area for a single rivet is A = td. Here, t is the thickness
of the thinnest plate and d is the rivet or bolt diameter

5. Failure by Edge shearing, or tearing of plate

In structural practice this failure is avoided by spacing the rivets

at least 1.5d away from the edge. Bolted connections usually
are spaced an even greater distance than this for satisfactory
appearance, and hence this type of failure may usually
be neglected
 3.4 Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading
Let A1, A2, A3, … An be the respective cross-sectional areas of a group of pins, or
hot-driven rivets, or tight-fitting shoulder bolts;
Under this assumption the rotational pivot point lies at the centroid of the
cross-sectional area pattern of the pins, rivets, or bolts
1. Using statics, we learn that the centroid G is located by the coordinates x and y
where xi and yi are the distances to the ith area centre:

A1 x1  A2 x2  A3 x3  ...  Ai xi
x 
A1  A2  A3  ...  Ai


Ax i i

A i

A1 y1  A2 y2  A3 y3  ...  Ai yi
y 
A1  A2  A3  ...  Ai


Ay i i

A i
 Cont…
2. Introduce two forces P1 and P2 at the centre of gravity ‘G’ of the rivet system.
These forces are equal and opposite to P as shown in Fig

3. Assuming that all the rivets/bolts are of

the same size, the effect of P1 = P is to
produce direct shear load on each
rivet/bolt of equal magnitude

Therefore, direct shear load on each rivet/bolt

4. The effect of P2 = P is to produce a turning moment of magnitude P × e

which tends to rotate the joint about the centre of gravity ‘G’ of the rivet
system in a clockwise direction. Due to the turning moment, secondary shear
load on each rivet is produced
Cont…
In order to find the secondary shear load, the following two assumptions are
made
(a) The secondary shear load is proportional to the radial distance of the rivet under
consideration from the centre of gravity of the rivet system.
(b) The direction of secondary shear load is perpendicular to the line joining the centre
of the rivet to the centre of gravity of the rivet system..

Let
F1 , F2 , F3 ...  Secondary shear loads on rivets/bolts 1,2,3,...
l1 , l2 , l3 ...  radial distances of the rivets/bolts from the
center of gravity G of the rivet/bolt system
From assumption (a)
F1  l1 ; F2  l2 and so on
F1 F2 F3
or    ....
l1 l2 l3
l2 l
 F2  F1 and F3  F1 3 ...
l1 l1
 Cont…
We know that the sum of the external turning moment about the centroid due to
the eccentric load and of internal resisting moment of the rivets must be equal

P.e  F1l1  F2l2  F3l3  ...

l2 l3
 F1l1  F1 l2  F1 l3  ...
l1 l1


F1
l1
 
l1 2  l2 2  l3 2  ...

From the above expression, the value of F1 may be calculated and hence F2 and F3
etc. are known. The direction of these forces are at right angles to the lines
joining the centre of rivet to the centre of gravity of the rivet system, and should
produce the moment in the same direction (i.e. clockwise or anticlockwise) about
the centre of gravity, as the turning moment (P × e).

5. The primary (or direct) and secondary shear load may be added vectorially to
determine the resultant shear load (R) on each rivet /bolt.
 Cont…
The resultant shear load (R) on each rivet /bolt is

R Ps 2  F 2  2Ps F cos

where  is the angle between the primary or direct shear load (Ps )
and the secondary shear load (F)

When the secondary shear load on each rivet is equal, then the heavily loaded
rivet will be one in which the included angle between the direct shear load and
secondary shear load is minimum. The maximum loaded rivet/bolt becomes the
critical one for determining the strength of the joint

Then, the maximum shear stress in the rivet will be

Rmax 4 Rmax
 
A d 2
3.4 Welded joints – design of permanent joints

Riveted permanent joints were common as the means of fastening

rolled steel shapes to one another to form a permanent joint. But two
developments relegated riveting to lesser prominence

1. the development of high-strength steel bolts whose preload

could be controlled
2. the improvement of welding, competing both in cost and in
latitude of possible form
A weldment is fabricated by welding together a collection of metal
shapes, cut to particular configurations. During welding, the several
parts are held securely together, often by clamping or jigging. The
welds must be precisely specified on working drawings, and this is
done by using the welding symbol.
 3.4.1 Weld types and symbols
Arc- and gas-weld symbols

Fillet welds. (a) The number indicates the leg size; the arrow should point
only to one weld when both sides are the same. (b) The symbol indicates
that the welds are intermittent and staggered
Weld symbols (cont…)
The circle on the weld symbol
indicates that the welding is to
go all around

Butt or groove welds:

(a) square butt-welded on
both sides; (b) single V with
60° bevel and root opening
of 2 mm; (c) double V; (d)
single bevel.
Weld symbols (cont…)
Special groove welds: (a) T joint for thick plates; (b) U and J welds for
thick plates; (c) corner weld (may also have a bead weld on inside for
greater strength but should not be used for heavy loads); (d) edge weld
for sheet metal and light loads
3.4.2 Design of Butt and Fillet Welds
A typical butt joint

For either tension or compression The average stress in a butt weld

loading, the average normal stress is due to shear loading is

Note that the value of h does not include the reinforcement

Design of Butt and Fillet Welds (cont…)
A typical transverse fillet weld At angle θ the forces on each
weldment consist of a normal
force Fn and a shear force Fs .

Using the law of sines for the

triangle in the bottom figure,

Solving for the throat length t gives

FBD of portion of the welded joint

 Design of Butt and Fillet Welds (cont…)
The nominal stresses at the angle θ in the weldment, τ and σ , are

The von Mises stress σ′ at angle θ is

The largest von Mises stress occurs at θ = 62.5◦ with a value of

The corresponding values of τ and σ are

The maximum shear stress occurs at θ = 67.5◦

with a corresponding values of τ and σ

For conservative and safe design of fillet weld,

the shear stress is taken critical and given as
Design of Butt and Fillet Welds (cont…)
The net result of photoelastic and finite element analysis of the stresses o
transverse fillet weld geometry
Stress distribution in fillet
welds:
(a) stress distribution on
the legs as reported by
Norris;
(b) distribution of principal
stresses and maximum
shear stress on the
throat as reported by
b Salakian
a

Parallel fillet welds

3.4.3 Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion
a cantilever of length l welded
to a column by two fillet welds
The reaction at the support of a
cantilever always consists of a
shear force V and a moment M
The shear force produces a
primary shear in the welds of
magnitude

where A is the throat area of all the welds

The moment at the support produces secondary shear or torsion of the welds,
and this stress is given by the equation
where r is the farthest distance from the centroid of the weld group
to the point in the weld of interest and J is the second polar
moment of area of the weld group about the centroid of the group
 Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion (cont…)
The throat area of both welds together is

the second polar moment of area

of weld 1 about its own centroid is

In a similar manner, the second polar moment

of area of weld 2 about its centroid is

The centroid G of the weld group is located at

we see that the distances r1 and r2 from G1 and G2 to G, respectively, are

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion (cont…)
Now, using the parallel-axis theorem, we find the second polar moment of area
of the weld group to be

The cubes of the weld widths are small and can be neglected. Setting the weld
widths b1 and d2 to unity leads to the idea of treating each fillet weld as a line.
The resulting second moment of area is then a unit second polar moment of area

The advantage of treating the weld size as a line is that the value of Ju is the
same regardless of the weld size. Since the throat width of a fillet weld is 0.707h,
the relationship between J and the unit value is

in which Ju is found by conventional methods for an area having unit width. The
transfer formula for Ju must be employed when the welds occur in groups
Torsional Properties of Fillet Welds
Torsional Properties of Fillet Welds (cont…)
Torsional Properties of Fillet Welds (cont…)
 3.4.4 Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending
Figure below shows a cantilever welded to a support by fillet welds at top and
bottom. A free-body diagram of the beam would show a shear-force reaction V
and a moment reaction M.

A rectangular
cross-section
cantilever welded
to a support at the
top and bottom
edges

The shear force produces a primary The moment M induces a throat

shear in the welds of magnitude shear stress component of 0.707τ in
the welds. the unit second moment
of area to be
where A is the total throat area
Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending (cont…)

The second moment of area I, based on weld throat area, is

The nominal throat shear stress is now found to be

The model gives the coefficient of 1.414, in contrast to the predictions

of 1.197 from distortion energy, or 1.207 from maximum shear. The
conservatism of the model’s 1.414 is not that it is simply larger than
either 1.196 or 1.207, but the tests carried out to validate the model
show that it is large enough
Bending Properties of Fillet Welds
Bending Properties of Fillet Welds(cont…)
3.4.5 The Strength of Welded Joints
Minimum Weld-Metal Properties

Stresses Permitted by the AISC Code for Weld Metal

 The Strength of Welded Joints (cont…)
*The American Welding Society (AWS) specification code numbering system for
electrodes. This system uses an E prefixed to a four or five-digit numbering
system in which the first two or three digits designate the approximate tensile
strength. The last digit includes variables in the welding technique, such as
current supply. The next-to-last digit indicates the welding position, as, for
example, flat, or vertical, or overhead

*The factor of safety n has been computed by using the distortion-energy theory.
†Shear stress on base metal should not exceed 0.40Sy of base metal

Fatigue Stress-Concentration
Factors, Kfs
 Chapter 4
Design of Mechanical Springs
Some applications of springs
 4.1 Introduction
Springs are flexible machine components which are capable of storing energy

Spring designing is a complex process. It is an interactive process which

may require several iterations before the best design is achieved. Many
simplifying assumptions are made in the design equations. When more
unusual or complex designs are required, designers should rely on the
experience of a spring manufacturer

In general, springs may be classified as

wire springs, flat springs, or special-shaped springs,

Wire springs include

helical springs of round or square wire, made to resist and deflect
under tensile, compressive, or torsional loads.
Flat springs include
cantilever and elliptical types, wound motor- or clock-type power
springs, and flat spring washers, usually called Belleville springs
4.1.1 Types of Springs
Cont…
4.1.2 Glossary of Spring Terminology
TERMS DESCRIPTION
active coils those coils which are free to deflect under load
baking heating of electroplated springs to relieve hydrogen
embrittlement
buckling bowing or lateral displacement of a compression spring; this
effect is related to slenderness ratio L/D.
closed ends compression spring ends with coil pitch angle reduced so that
they are square with the spring axis and touch the adjacent coils
ground ends the first and last coils are ground to provide a flat bearing surface
deflection motion imparted to a spring by application or removal of an
external load
free angle angular relationship between arms of a helical torsion spring
which is not under load
free length overall length of a spring which is not under load
natural lowest inherent rate of free vibration of a spring vibrating
frequency between its own ends
Glossary of Spring Terminology (cont…)
TERMS DESCRIPTION
pitch distance from center to center of wire in adjacent coils
in an open-wound spring
total number the sum of the number of active and inactive coils in a
of coils spring body.
solid height length of a compression spring when deflected under
load sufficient to bring all adjacent coils into contact.
spring index ratio of mean diameter to wire diameter
4.2 Design of Helical Springs
Parameters that are determined during the design
•Number of coils
•Wire diameter (d)
•Coil diameter (D)
•Lengths (Free, Assembled, Solid or shut height)
• Working deflection
 4.2 Design of Helical Springs
Consider a round-wire helical compression spring loaded by the axial
force F. We designate D as the mean coil diameter and d as the wire
diameter. Now imagine that the spring is cut at some point, a portion of it
removed, and the effect of the removed portion replaced by the net
internal reactions

The equilibrium of the cut portion

would contain a direct shear force F
and a torsion T

The maximum stress in the wire may

be computed as

(4.1)

Substitution of τmax = τ , T = FD/2, r = d/2, J = πd4/32, and A = πd2/4 gives

(4.2)
 Cont…
Now we define the spring index, which is a measure of coil curvature

With this relation, Eq. (4–2) can be rearranged to give

(4.3)
where Ks is a shear-stress correction factor and is defined by the equation

For most springs, C ranges from about 6 to 12. Equation (4–3) is quite general
and applies for both static and dynamic loads
The use of square or rectangular wire is not recommended for springs unless
space limitations make it necessary. Springs of special wire shapes are not made in
large quantities, unlike those of round wire; they have not had the benefit of refining
development and hence may not be as strong as springs made from round wire. When
space is severely limited, the use of nested round-wire springs should always be
considered. They may have an economical advantage over the special-section springs, as
well as a strength advantage
Stress Distribution
 4.2.1 The Curvature Effect
Eq (4–1) is based on the wire being straight. but, the curvature of the wire
increases the stress on the inside of the spring but decreases it only
slightly on the outside. This curvature stress is important in fatigue
because the loads are lower and there is no opportunity for localized
yielding. For static loading, these stresses can normally be neglected
because of strain-strengthening with the first application of load.

Suppose Ks in Eq. (4–3) is replaced by another K factor, which corrects for

both curvature and direct shear. Then the factor is given by either of the eqs. ;

(4.4)

(4.5)

The first eqn. is called the Wahl factor, and the second, the Bergsträsser factor.
Since the results of these two equations differ by less than 1 percent, Eq. (4–5) is
Preferable.
 4.2.2 Deflection of Helical Springs
The deflection-force relations are quite easily obtained by using
Castigliano’s theorem. The total strain energy for a helical spring is
composed of a torsional component and a shear component

(4.6)

(4.7)

where N = Na = number of active coils. The spring rate, also called

Then using Castigliano’s theorem, to find the scale of the spring, is
total deflection y gives k = F/y, and so
(4.8)
(4.10)
Since C = D/d, Eq. (4.8) can be rearranged to yield

(4.9)
4.3 Compression Springs
The four types of ends generally used for compression springs are shown
below. A spring with plain ends has a noninterrupted helicoids; the ends
are the same as if a long spring had been cut into sections. Springs
should always be both squared and ground for important applications,
because a better transfer of the load is obtained

Fig.
Types of ends for compression
springs:
(a) both ends plain;
(b) both ends squared;
(c) both ends squared and
ground;
(d) both ends plain & ground

Table below shows how the type of end used affects the number of coils and
the spring length. Note that the digits 0, 1, 2, and 3 appearing in the table are
often used without question
 Cont…

Formulas for the Dimensional Characteristics of Compression-Springs.

(Na = Number of Active Coils)
4.4 Spring Stability
Buckling and Surge of Compression Springs
• A problem for long
skinny springs
• Rod inside is
sometimes used to
eliminate, but wear
and friction result
• Depends on ratio L0 /D
• Surge is another
problem that occurs
with excitation near
the natural frequency
 Spring Stability
Compression coil springs may buckle when the deflection becomes
too large. The critical deflection is given by the equation

where &

The effective slenderness ratio is given as

Then the condition for absolute stability is

the end-condition constant α

4.5 Spring Materials
Springs are manufactured either by hot- or cold-working processes,
depending upon the size of the material, the spring index, and the
properties desired
In general, pre-hardened wire should not be used if
Winding of the spring induces residual stresses through bending, but these are
normal to the direction of the torsional working stresses in a coil spring. Quite
frequently in spring manufacture, they are relieved, after winding, by a mild
thermal treatment.
Cont…
Cont…
 Cont…
The ultimate strength of a spring is estimated based on the wire
diameter of the spring as follows

Strengths is in units of kpsi and MPa in, when d is measured in millimeters, then A
is in and when d is measured in inches, then A is in

Although the torsional yield strength is needed to design the spring and
to analyze the performance, spring materials customarily are tested only
for tensile strength perhaps because it is such an easy and economical
test to make. A very rough estimate of the torsional yield strength can be
obtained by assuming that the tensile yield strength is between 60 and
90 percent of the ultimate tensile strength

Then the distortion-energy theory can be employed to obtain the

torsional yield strength
Cont…
This approach results in the following range for steels

For music wire the torsional yield strength is given as

4.6 Helical Compression Spring Design for Static Service
The preferred range of spring index is 4 ≤ C ≤ 12, with the lower indexes
being more difficult to form (because of the danger of surface cracking)
and springs with higher indexes tending to tangle often enough to require
individual packing
The recommended range of active turns is 3 ≤ Na ≤ 15.

A helical coil spring force-deflection characteristic is ideally linear.

Practically, it is nearly so, but not at each end of the force-deflection
curve. nonlinear behaviour begins as the number of active turns
diminishes as coils begin to touch
Thus, the maximum operating force should be limited to

Where ξ ≥ 0.15 is the Robust linearity Fs is the force at solid height

In addition to the relationships and material properties for springs, we now have
some recommended design conditions to follow, namely
 Cont…

where ns is the factor of safety at closure (solid height)

When considering designing a spring for high volume production, the
figure of merit can be the cost of the wire from which the spring is
wound. The fom would be proportional to the relative material cost,
weight density, and volume:

Spring design is an open-ended process. There are many decisions to be

made, and many possible solution paths as well as solutions. Today, the
computer enables the designer to create programs in many different
Formats such as the one given in the following flow chart
 Cont… Design Strategy
Make the a priori decisions, with hard-drawn steel wire the first choice
(relative material cost is 1.0). Choose a wire size d. With all decisions
made, generate a column of parameters:

Substituting values of α and β and simplifying yields above quadratic

equation in C.

The larger of the two solutions will yield the spring index
Cont… particular design flow chart
 Cont… particular design flow chart

then determine
Cont… particular design flow chart
Produce data for various wire diameters d and select the best result
considering the various constraints
 Cont… particular design flow chart

then determine
 Cont…Designing Springs
Requirements Design Choices
• Functionality • Index C
– Stiffness • Material
– Lengths • Wire and coil
– Diameter diameter
– Forces • Number of turns
• Reliable operation • End treatment and
– Static factor of safety constraint
– Fatigue factor of safety • Set and shot peen
– Buckling and surge
Constraints (other)
• Manufacturability • Bend radius
 4.7 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs
Springs are almost always subject to fatigue loading. In many instances
the number of cycles of required life may be small, say, several thousand
for a padlock spring or a toggle-switch spring. But the valve spring of an
automotive engine must sustain millions of cycles of operation without
failure; so it must be designed for infinite life

To improve the fatigue strength of dynamically loaded springs, shot

peening can be used. It can increase the torsional fatigue strength by 20
percent or more.
In constructing certain failure criteria, the torsional modulus of rupture Ssu is
needed

Helical springs, on the other hand, are never used as both compression
and extension springs. In fact, they are usually assembled with a preload
so that the working load is additional.
 Cont…
The worst condition, then, would occur when there is no preload, that is,
when τ min = 0.

Now, we define

The midrange shear stress is

Then the shear stress amplitude is given by the equation

Then we can use one of the failure criteria discussed in chapter two
 Helical Extension Springs
• Similar in most ways to
compression springs
• Usually wound to be closed
coil at zero force
• Thus a preload is required
to stretch any, i.e. y=k(F-Fi )
• Spring hook is a source of
failure in bending and
torsion
• No set is used
• One coil not considered
active
 End Hook Stresses
Bending stress:

16DF 4 F
 A  Kb  2
d 3
d
4C12  C1  1 2 R1
Kb  ; C1 
4C1 (C1  1) d

Torsional stress:

8DF
 B  K w2
d 3
4C2  1 2 R2
K w2  ; C2 
4C2  4 d
 Torsional Springs
• The wire in a torsional spring is primarily in
bending
• Spring constant is rotary M=k
• Loading should act to wind up coil
• Design process resembles compression
springs