Chapter One

Strength of Materials

Introduction
When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. The
body resists deformation. This resistance by which a material opposes the deformation is
known as Strength of Material.
➢ Within the elastic limit the resistance offered by the material is proportional to the
deformation brought out on the material by the external force.
➢ Also, within this limit the resistance is equal to the external force (or applied load).
➢ Beyond the elastic range, the resistance offered by the material is less than the applied
load. In such a case, the deformation continues, until failure takes place.
Within the elastic limit, the resisting force of the material equals the applied load. This
resisting force per unit Area is called Stress
Stress: is the force of resistance offered by a material per unit area
➢ The external force acting on the body is called Load or Force.
➢ Load is applied on the body while stress is induced in the material of the body.
➢ A loaded object remains in equilibrium when the resistance offered by the body
and the applied load are equal.
Where, σ = Stress
P
Mathematically, Stress is written as = P= External force or load, and
A
A= Cross-sectional area

Units of Stress – depend upon the unit of the load (force) and the unit of Area.

➢ In M.K.S units Force has SI unit of Newton N (which is =Kg. m/𝒔𝟐 ) and Area 𝒎𝟐
➢ Hence unit of stress becomes, N/𝒎𝟐 which is known as Pascal, 1 Pa = N/𝒎𝟐
➢ The area is also expressed in 𝒎𝒎𝟐 then the unit of stress becomes as N/𝒎𝒎𝟐

1 N m 2 = 1 N 106 mm 2
1 N m 2 =10−6 N mm 2 which means, 1N mm 2 =106 N m 2
hence, 1N mm 2 = MPa
The large Quantities are represented by Prefixes

Kilo (K) = 103 Mega (M) = 106 Giga (G) = 109 Tera (T) = 1012
The small quantities:

Milli (m) = 10−3 Micro (μ) = 10−6 Nano (η) = 10−9

1
1. Normal Stress(𝛔): - is the stress which acts in a direction Types of Stresses
perpendicular to the area. It is represented by sigma(σ).
➢ Tensile Stress: - is the stress induced in a body, when Shear stress
Normal Stress
subjected to two equal and opposite pulls.
o As a result, there is an increase in length Tensile stress
o The ratio of this length increase to the original
length is known as Tensile Strain (𝜺 ). Compressive stress

Tensile load ( P ) Increase in Length dL

Tension = = =
A Original Length L

➢ Compressive Stress: - is when a body is subjected to

two equal and opposite Pushes.
o As a result, there is a decrease in length Compression
o The ratio of this length decrease to the original
length is known as Compressive Strain (𝜺 ).

Push load ( P ) Decrease in Length dL

= = =
A Original Length L

2. Shear Stress (𝛕): - is the stress created in a body when

subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are acting
tangentially across the resisting section.
➢ As a result, the body tends to shear off across the
section.
➢ The corresponding strain is known as shear strain.

Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins, and

Shear force ( P )
= rivets used to connect various structural members and
A machine components.

Bearing Stress in Connections

Bolts, pins, and rivets create stresses in the members
they connect, along the bearing surface, or surface of
contact.
The bolt exerts on plate A a force P equal and
opposite to the force F exerted by the plate on the
bolt
P P
The bearing stress is given by, b = =
A td

2
 Elasticity and Elastic Limit
➢ When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If the
external force is removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size the body
is known as elastic body.
➢ Elasticity- is the property of a material to return back to their original position after the
removal of the external force.
➢ Each material is elastic when the external force is within certain limit known as elastic limit
of the material.
➢ If the external force exceeds the elastic limit, the material loses its elasticity and even if the
force is removed the material won’t return to its original. There will be residual
deformation in the material.

Hook’s Law: - States that when a material is loaded within the elastic limit, the stress is proportional
to the strain produced by the stress.

This Means the ratio of the stress to the strain is Constant within the elastic limit. This constant
is known as Modulus of Elasticity, also known by Young’s Modulus, Modulus of Rigidity, and
Elastic Moduli)

➢ The ratio of Normal stress to normal strain is known as Young’s Modulus, E (or modulus of
Elasticity).

Normal Stress 
E= =
Normal Strain e

3
➢ Ratio of Shear Stress to the corresponding strain within the elastic limit is known as Modulus of
rigidity or Shear Modulus. (G or C)

Shear Stress 
G= =
Shear Strain 

Factor of safety: - defined as the ratio of Ultimate tensile stress to the working (or permissible) stress.

Ultimate Stress
Factor of safety =
Permissible stress

Strain

Longitudinal strain Lateral Strain

➢ When body is subjected to an axial tensile load, ➢ Is the strain at right angles to the
there is an increase in length but at the same time direction of applied load.
decrease in other dimensions of the body at right ➢ When the axial load (P) is applied the
angles to the line of action of the applied load. length of the bar increases at the same
➢ Thus the body is having axial deformation as well time the breadth and the depth of the
as Lateral deformation. bar will decrease.
➢ The ratio of axial deformation to the original 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟
length of the body is known as Longitudinal 𝐿 𝐿
(Linear) strain. Where,
𝛿𝐿 𝛿𝑏 = decrease in breadth
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿 𝛿𝑑 = decrease in depth
Where,
𝛿𝐿 = increase in length

4
Poisson’s ratio: -is material constant which is ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.

Lateral strain
Poisson ' s ratio ( ) =
Longitudinal strain
Lateral Strain = −  Longitudinal strain

The negative sign is for an algebraic expression as lateral strain is opposite in sign to the
longitudinal strain.

Two-Dimensional Stress System

Consider a two-dimensional infinitesimal element subjected to two 𝝈𝒚

mutually perpendicular stresses 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 which are stresses in x and y
directions respectively.
Consider the strain produced by 𝝈𝒙 : - 𝝈𝒙 will produce strain
𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒙
➢ in the direction of x (Longitudinal strain = ) and also
𝑬
𝝈𝒙
➢ in the direction of y (Lateral strain =−𝒗 × 𝑬 ).

Now, consider the strain produced by 𝝈𝒚 : - 𝝈𝒚 will produce strain

𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝒚
➢ in the direction of y (Longitudinal strain = ) and also
𝑬
𝝈𝒚
➢ in the direction of x (Lateral strain =−𝒗 × 𝑬 ).

Let 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 due to the stresses 𝝈𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝈𝒚 ,

𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦
𝒆𝒙 = −𝒗
𝐸 𝐸
𝑒𝑦 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 due to the stresses 𝝈𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝈𝒚,
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥
𝒆𝒚 = −𝒗
𝐸 𝐸

Three-Dimensional Stress System

Consider a three-dimensional infinitesimal element and

y
let 𝑒𝑥 , 𝑒𝑦 , and 𝑒𝑧 be the total strains in the x, y, and z
𝜎𝑦
respectively. Then,
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑥
𝒆𝒙 = −𝒗 −𝒗
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 x
𝒆𝒚 = −𝒗 −𝒗
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 z
𝒆𝒛 = − 𝒗 − 𝒗
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
5
Problem 1.1 a rod of 150cm long and of diameter 2cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20kN. If the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ; determine, (i) the stress, (ii) the
strain, and (iii) the elongation of the rod.

Given; L=150cm D = 2cm

D=2cm=20mm
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(𝐷/2)2 = 𝜋(20/2)2 = 314.16𝑚𝑚2
P P
P =20kN
E =2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
L=150cm
Solution;
i. Stress(σ); iii. Elongation (change in length or
Tensile load ( P ) 20, 000 N deformation)
= = 2
= 63.662 N / mm 2
A 314.16 mm dL
e=
L
ii. Strain(e);
dL = e  L
 63.662 N / mm 2
= 0.000318 150cm = 0.0477cm
e= = = 0.000318
E 2 105 N / mm2

Problem 1.2 Find the minimum diameter of steel wire, which is used to raise a load of 4000N
if the stress in the rod is not to exceed 95MN/𝑚2 .

Given; Required:
P =4000N 𝑫𝒎𝒊𝒏 =?
σ = 95×106 N/𝑚2 but, (𝟏𝟎𝟔 N/𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 )
= 95 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

Solution;
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) = 𝐷
4
Stress,
P 4000 N  4000 N 4
= 95 N / mm 2 = D2 = D = 42.1
A A 4 95 N / mm 2 

D = 7.32mm

6
Problem 1.4 A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was obtained from
the test:

i. Diameter of bar 3cm=0.03m

ii. Gauge Length of the bar 20cm
iii. Load at elastic limit 250kN
iv. Extension at Load P=150kN 0.21mm
v. Maximum Load 380kN
vi. Total Extension 60mm
vii. Diameter of the rod at failure 2.25cm
Determine (i). the young’s Modulus, (ii) the stress at elastic limit, (iii) the percentage elongation and
(iv) the percentage decrease in area.

Solution:
From the given the area can be obtained easily,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) = 4 𝐷2 = 4 (0.03)2 = 7.068 × 10−4 𝑚2
i. Young’s Modulus,
 P 150 103 212.21106 N / m2
E= = = = −4
= 212.206 106 N / m2 E=
e A 7.068 10 0.00105
dL 0.21 mm E = 202.1109 N / m2
e= = = 0.00105
L 20 10 mm

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕

ii. The stress at the elastic limit = ,
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Pelsatic lim 250 103

 Elastic = = −4
= 353.706 106 N / m2
A 7.068 10
𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
iii. The percentage of elongation =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍(𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)
× 100

60 mm
% Elongation =  100 = 30%
200 mm
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂−𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒓𝒆
iv. The percentage of decrease in area = 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
× 100

(32 − 2.252 )
% Area decrease = 4 100 = 43.75%
 2
3
4

7
 Problem 1.5 The safe stress, for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of
2.1 × 103 𝑘𝑁 is 125 MPa. If the external diameter of the column is 30cm, determine the
internal diameter.

Given:
Safe stress (is a stress which is within elastic limit), D=0.3m
𝜎= 125× 106 Pa
d=?
P=2.1×106 N
𝐷𝐸𝑥𝑡 = 30𝑐𝑚 = 0.3𝑚 Just D=0.3m
𝑑𝐼𝑛𝑡 =? Just d=?

Solution:
Area of cross-section of the hollow column
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑 2 ) = (0.32 − 𝑑 2 )
4 4
From the stress equation

=
P 2.1106 N  2.1106 N
125 106 N / m2 = (0.32 − d 2 ) =
A  4 125 106 N / m2
(0.32 − d 2 )
4 d = 𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 =0.2619m

Problem 1.6 The Ultimate Stress, for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of
1.9MN is 480N/𝑚𝑚2 . If the external diameter of the column is 200mm. determine the internal
diameter. Take the factor of safety as 4.

Given: 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝜎𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 480N/𝑚𝑚2 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
P = 1.9×106 N
480N/𝑚𝑚2
D = 200 mm 4=
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Factor of safety = 4
𝑑𝐼𝑛𝑡 =? Just d=? 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝝈 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

1.9 106 N  1.9 106 N

=
P 120 N / mm =
2
(2002 − d 2 ) =
 120 N / mm2
d =140.85mm
A (2002 − d 2 ) 4
4

8
 Analysis of Bars of Varying sections

Consider a bar of different cross-sectional areas subjected to an axial load P.

➢ Each section is subjected to the same load P.
➢ The stresses, strains and the change in lengths will be different on each section.
➢ The total change in length will be sum of the change in length of individual section.

Section 3 Where,
Section 2
Section 1
• P = axial load applied
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 • 𝐴𝑖 = Section i Area
P P • 𝐿𝑖 = Length of Section i
• 𝑖 = the number of the section
• 𝐸 = Young’s Modulus of the
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 material

The stress induced in each section will be,

Stress in section 1, Stress in section 2, Stress in section 3,
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝝈𝟏 = = 𝝈𝟐 = = 𝝈𝟑 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 𝐴1 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2 𝐴2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 3 𝐴3

𝝈
The strains (e) developed in each section will be obtained from the stress-strain 𝒆 = 𝑬,

Strain in section 1, Strain in section 2, Strain in section 3,

𝝈𝟏 𝑃 1 𝑃 𝝈𝟐 𝑃 𝝈𝟑 𝑃
𝒆𝟏 = =( )× = 𝒆𝟐 = = 𝒆𝟑 = =
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴1 𝐸 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐸 𝐴3 𝐸

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝑳
But, Strain (e) is 𝒆 = = , hence,
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑳

Strain in section 1, Strain in section 2, Strain in section 3,

𝑑𝐿1 𝑃 𝑑𝐿2 𝑃 𝑑𝐿3 𝑃
𝒆𝟏 = = 𝒆𝟐 = = 𝒆𝟑 = =
𝐿1 𝐴1 𝐸 𝐿2 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐿3 𝐴3 𝐸
Deformation (dL) in section 1 Deformation (dL) in section 2 Deformation (dL) in section 3
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝐿1 = ( ) × 𝐿1 𝑑𝐿2 = ( ) × 𝐿2 𝑑𝐿3 = ( ) × 𝐿3
𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐴3 𝐸

9
The Total change in length (deformation) of the bar,

𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝐿1 + 𝑑𝐿2 + 𝑑𝐿3

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝐿 = ( 𝐿1 ) + ( 𝐿2 ) + ( 𝐿2 )
𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸

𝑃 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑑𝐿 = ×[ + + ]
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3

The above equation is when the sections are of the same material, but if the material types for
the sections is different the equation will be,
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑑𝐿 = 𝑃 × [ + + ]
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3

Problem 1.7 An axial pull of 35,000 N is acting on a bar consisting of three lengths as shown
I figure below. If the Young’s Modulus = 2.1×105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 , Determine:

(i). Stresses in each section and (ii). Total extension of the bar.

Section 3
Section 2
Section 1

∅1 =2cm ∅2 =3cm ∅3 =5cm

35000N 35000N

Solution: 20cm 25cm 22cm

Area of Section 1, Area of Section 2, Area of Section 3,

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝝅 𝝅
𝐴1 = (𝐷1 )2 = (200)2 𝐴2 = (𝐷2 )2 = (250)2 𝑨𝟑 = (𝑫𝟑 )𝟐 = (𝟐𝟐𝟎)𝟐
4 4 4 4 𝟒 𝟒
𝐴1 = 10,000𝜋 𝑚𝑚2 𝐴2 = 15,625 𝜋 𝑚𝑚2 𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝝅 𝒎𝒎𝟐

i. Stress in each Section

Stress in Section 1, Stress in Section 2, Stress in Section 3,
𝑃 35000𝑁 𝑃 35000𝑁 𝑃 35000𝑁
𝜎1 = = 𝝈𝟐 = = 𝝈𝟐 = =
𝐴1 10,000𝜋 𝑚𝑚2 𝐴2 15,625𝜋 𝑚𝑚2 𝐴2 12100 𝜋 𝑚𝑚2
𝝈𝟏 = 1.114 𝑁/ 𝑚𝑚2 𝝈𝟐 = 0.713 𝑵/ 𝑚𝑚2 𝝈𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟏 𝑵/ 𝒎𝒎𝟐

10
ii. Total Extension of the bar
The total change in length of the bar is given by the equation,
𝑃 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑑𝐿 = ×[ + + ]
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3

35000 200𝑚𝑚 250𝑚𝑚 220𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝐿 = 5
×[ + + ] = 0.167 × [0.636 + 0.0051 + 0.0058]
2.1 × 10 10000𝜋 15625𝜋 12100𝜋

𝒅𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒎

Problem 1.8 A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminum bar is shown in
figure below. Assuming that the bards are prevented from buckling sideways, calculate the
magnitude of Force P that will cause the total length of the member to decrease 0.25 mm. The
values of elastic modulus for steel and aluminum are 2.1× 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and 7×104 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
respectively.

Given: Total decrease in length dL=0.25 mm

Steel section, let P
𝐿1 = 30 𝑐𝑚 = 300𝑚𝑚
Steel bar
𝐴1 = 5𝑐𝑚 × 5𝑐𝑚 = 25 𝑐𝑚2 = 25 × 104 𝑚𝑚2 30 cm
5 cm× 5cm
𝐸1 = 2.1 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Aluminum section, let
𝐿2 = 38 𝑐𝑚 = 380𝑚𝑚 Aluminum bar
38 cm
2 4 2
𝐴2 = 10𝑐𝑚 × 10𝑐𝑚 = 100𝑐𝑚 = 100 × 10 𝑚𝑚 10 cm× 10 cm

𝐸2 = 7 × 104 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

The deformation of an object with different materials in the section is

given by,
𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑑𝐿 = 𝑃 × [ + ]
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2

But the required is the magnitude of the force P, hence,

𝑑𝐿 0.25
𝑃= =
𝐿 𝐿2 300 380
[𝐴 1𝐸 + 𝐴 𝐸 ] [ + ]
1 1 2 2 25 × 2.1 × 104+5 100 × 7 × 104+4

P =2.244× 𝟏𝟎𝟓 N

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 Thermal Stresses
➢ Are the stresses induced in a body due to change in Temperature.
➢ Occur when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered and the body is not allowed
to expand or contract freely.
➢ But if the body is allowed to expand or contract freely, no stresses will be setup in the
body.

Consider a body which is heated to a certain temperature

If the rod is free to expand, the extension of the rod is given by, Where,
𝒅𝑳 = 𝜶. 𝑻. 𝑳
L= original length
Original Length Increase in Length
T= Rise in temperature
E= Young’s Modulus

L α = Co-efficient of linear expansion

dL
dL= Extension of the rod due to
Now suppose compressive force P is applied at th free end and rise of temperature
the length changes from (L+dL) to (L) as shown in figures
below,
Then,
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑒) =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝐿 𝛼. 𝑇. 𝐿
𝑒= = = 𝛼. 𝑇
𝐿 𝐿
But, stress is given by 𝜎 = 𝑒. 𝐸
P
hence, Thermal stress is 𝝈 = (𝜶. 𝑻). 𝑬
L

Problem 1.9 A rod is 2 m long at a temperature of 10℃. Find the expansion of the rod when
the temperature is raised to 80℃. If this expansion is prevented, find the stress induced in
the material of the rod. Take E = 1.0×105 MN/𝑚2 and α = 0.000012 per degree
centigrade.

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Given:
L= 2 m ∴ Rise in Temp, 𝑻 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 80 ℃ − 10 ℃ = 70 ℃
Initial Temperature, 𝑇1 = 10 ℃ E = 1.0×105 MN/𝑚2 = 1.0×105 ×106 N/𝑚2 = 1011 N/𝑚2
Final Temperature, 𝑇2 = 80 ℃ α = 0.000012

Solution
:(i). The expansion of the rod due to temperature rise, (ii). The Stress in the material of the rod if
𝒅𝑳 = 𝜶. 𝑻. 𝑳 thermal expansion is prevented,
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐 × 70 ℃ × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝝈 = 𝜶. 𝑻. 𝑬
𝒅𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐 × 70 ℃ × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝝈 = 𝟖𝟒 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝟖𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

Problem 1.10 A Steel of 3 cm diameter and 5 m long is connected to two grips and the rod is
maintained at a temperature of 95℃. Determine the stress and pull exerted when the
temperature falls to 30℃. If (i). the ends do not yield, and (ii). The ends yield by 0.12cm

Given:
d = 3 cm= 30mm ∴ Fall in Temp, 𝑻 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 95℃ − 30 ℃ = 65℃
L = 5 m= 5000mm E = 2.0×105 MN/𝑚2 = 2.0×1011 N/𝑚2
Initial Temperature, 𝑇1 = 95 ℃ α = 0.000012/℃
Final Temperature, 𝑇2 = 30 ℃ 𝝅 𝝅
𝑨 = ( ) × 𝒅𝟐 = ( ) × (𝟑𝟎)𝟐 = 𝟕𝟎𝟔. 𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟒 𝟒

Solution
:(i). When the ends do not yield (ii). When the ends yield by 0.12 cm
𝝈 = 𝜶. 𝑻. 𝑬 (𝜶.𝑻.𝑳−𝜹)
𝝈= ×𝑬
11 2
𝑳
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐 × 65 ℃ × 2.0 × 10 N/𝑚
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐×65℃×𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎−𝟏.𝟐𝒎𝒎
2 = × 𝟐 × 106 N/𝑚𝑚2
𝝈 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝑴𝑷𝒂 or 𝝈 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔N/𝑚𝑚 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎

But, 𝑷 = 𝝈 × 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔N/𝑚𝑚2 × 𝟕𝟎𝟔. 𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝝈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

∴ 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝒌𝑵 But, 𝑷 = 𝝈 × 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖N/𝑚𝑚2 × 𝟕𝟎𝟔. 𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐

∴ 𝑷 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒌𝑵

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Statically Indeterminate Problems
a structure is statically indeterminate when the static equilibrium equations – force and moment
equilibrium conditions – are insufficient for determining the internal forces and reactions on
that structure.
Based on Newton's laws of motion, the equilibrium equations available for a two-dimensional
body are:

∑ 𝐹⃗ = 0: the vectorial sum of the forces acting on the body equals zero. This translates to
∑ 𝐻 = 0: the sum of the horizontal components of the forces equals zero;
∑ 𝑉 = 0: the sum of the vertical components of forces equals zero;
⃗⃗⃗ = 0: the sum of the moments (about an arbitrary point) of all forces equals zero.
∑𝑀

In the beam shown below, the four unknown reactions are 𝑉𝐴 , 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑉𝐶 , and 𝐻𝐴 . The equilibrium
equations are:

∑𝑉 = 0 𝑉𝐴 − 𝐹𝑉 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶 = 0
∑𝐻 = 0 𝐻𝐴 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝐹𝑣 × 𝑎 − 𝑉𝐵 × (𝑎 + 𝑏) − 𝑉𝐶 × (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) = 0
Since there are four unknown forces (𝑉𝐴 , 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑉𝐶 , and 𝐻𝐴 ) but only three equilibrium equations,
this system of simultaneous equations does not have a unique solution. The structure is
therefore classified as statically indeterminate.
To solve statically indeterminate systems (determine the various moment and force reactions
within it), one considers the material properties and compatibility in deformations.

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