Simple Harmonic Motion 751

16
Simple Harmonic Motion
Periodic and Oscillatory (Vibratory) Motion
(ii) Harmonic oscillation is that oscillation which can be expressed in
terms of single harmonic function (i.e. sine or cosine function). Example :
y  a sin t or y  a cos  t
(iii) Non-harmonic oscillation is that oscillation which can not be
expressed in terms of single harmonic function. It is a combination of two
or more than two harmonic oscillations. Example :
y  a sin t  b sin2 t .

Simple Harmonic Motion

(1) A motion, which repeat itself over and over again after a regular
interval of time is called a periodic motion (1) Simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic motion, in
which a particle moves to and fro repeatedly about a mean position.
Revolution of earth around the sun (period one year), Rotation of
earth about its polar axis (period one day), Motion of hour’s hand of a clock (2) In linear S.H.M. a restoring force which is always directed towards
(period 12-hour) etc are common example of periodic motion. the mean position and whose magnitude at any instant is directly
proportional to the displacement of the particle from the mean position at
(2) Oscillatory or vibratory motion is that motion in which a body
that instant i.e. Restoring force  Displacement of the particle from mean
moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly about a fixed point in a
position.
definite interval of time. In such a motion, the body is confined with in well-
defined limits on either side of mean position. Oscillatory motion is also F  – x  F = – kx
called as harmonic motion. Where k is known as force constant. Its S.I. unit is Newton/meter and
(i) Common examples are dimension is [MT ].
–2

(a) The motion of the pendulum of a wall clock (3) In stead of straight line motion, if particle or centre of mass of
body is oscillating on a small arc of circular path, then for angular S.H.M.
(b) The motion of a load attached to a spring, when it is pulled and
then released. Restoring torque ()  – Angular displacement ()

(c) The motion of liquid contained in U-tube when it is compressed Some Important Definitions
once in one limb and left to itself.
(1) Time period (T) : It is the least interval of time after which the
(d) A loaded piece of wood floating over the surface of a liquid when periodic motion of a body repeats itself.
pressed down and then released executes oscillatory motion.
S.I. unit of time period is second.
(2) Frequency (n) : It is defined as the number of oscillations executed
by body per second. S.I unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
(3) Angular Frequency () : Angular frequency of a body executing
periodic motion is equal to product of frequency of the body with factor 2 .
Angular frequency  = 2  n
 752 Simple Harmonic Motion
Its unit is rad/sec. 2
y  a sin t  a sin t  a sin 2 n t  a sin( t   )
(4) Phase () : Phase of a vibrating particle at any instant is a physical T
quantity, which completely express the position and direction of motion, of
the particle at that instant with respect to its mean position. (i) y  a sin t when the time is noted from the instant when
In oscillatory motion the phase of a vibrating particle is the argument the vibrating particle is at mean position.
of sine or cosine function involved to represent the generalised equation of (ii) y  a cos  t when the time is noted from the instant when
motion of the vibrating particle.
the vibrating particle is at extreme position.
y  a sin  a sin( t   0 )
(iii) y  a sin( t   ) when the vibrating particle is  phase leading
here,    t   0 = phase of vibrating particle. or lagging from the mean position.

 = Initial phase or epoch. It is the phase of a vibrating particle at t = (4) If the projection of P is taken on X-axis then equations of S.H.M.
0
can be given as
0. t
 2 
x  a cos ( t   )  a cos  t     a cos (2n t   )
t=0  T 
t
0
–a +a –a +a

x = – a sin  t x = a sin  t x = – a cos  t x = a cos  t

Fig. 16.2 (A) (B)

(1) Same phase : Two vibrating particle are said to be in same phase, if Fig. 16.4
the phase difference between them is an even multiple of  or path (5) Direction of displacement is always away from the equilibrium
difference is an even multiple of ( / 2) or time interval is an even multiple position, particle either is moving away from or is coming towards the
of (T / 2) because 1 time period is equivalent to 2 rad or 1 wave length (). equilibrium position.
(2) Opposite phase : When the two vibrating particles cross their Velocity in S.H.M.
respective mean positions at the same time moving in opposite directions,
then the phase difference between the two vibrating particles is 180 . o
(1) Velocity of the particle executing S.H.M. at any instant, is defined as
the time rate of change of its displacement at that instant.
Opposite phase means the phase difference between the particle is an
(2) In case of S.H.M. when motion is considered from the equilibrium
odd multiple of  (say , 3, 5, 7…..) or the path difference is an odd
position, displacement y  a sin t
 3
multiple of  (say , ,.......) or the time interval is an odd multiple of
2 2 dy
So v   a cos  t  a 1  sin  t   a 2  y 2
2
(T / 2). dt
(3) Phase difference : If two particles performs S.H.M and their [As sin t = y/a]
equation are
(3) At mean position or equilibrium position (y = 0 and  = t = 0),
y1  a sin( t  1 ) and y 2  a sin( t   2 ) velocity of particle is maximum and it is v = a. max

then phase difference   ( t   2 )  ( t  1 )   2  1 (4) At extreme position (y =  a and  = t =/2), velocity of

oscillating particle is zero i.e. v = 0.
Displacement in S.H.M. v2
(5) From v   a 2  y 2  v 2   2 (a2  y 2 )   a2  y 2
(1) The displacement of a particle executing S.H.M. at an instant is 2
defined as the distance of particle from the mean position at that instant. v
v2 y2
(2) Simple harmonic motion is also defined as the projection of   1
a
2 2
a2
uniform circular motion on any diameter of circle of reference.
This is the equation of ellipse. a
(3) If the projection is taken on y-axis. then from the figure Hence the graph between v and y is
Y an ellipse. y
P
N For  = 1, graph between v and y
y a is a circle. a
 = t
X M
X
Fig. 16.5
O
(6) Direction of velocity is either
towards or away from mean position depending on the position of particle.

Y Acceleration in S.H.M.
Fig. 16.3
(1) The acceleration of the particle executing S.H.M. at any instant, is
defined as the rate of change of its velocity at that instant. So acceleration
 Simple Harmonic Motion 753

dv d or
A  (a cos  t)   a sin t   2 y
2
dt dt v   a2  y 2
[As y  a sin t ]
Acceleration
(2) In S.H.M. as Acceleration   2 y is not constant. So A  a 2 sin  t
Amax  a 2 sin( t   ) Amin = 0 |Amax|
equations of translatory motion can not be applied.
T/2 T or = 2a
(3) In S.H.M. acceleration is maximum at extreme position (at y =  a). O
A   2y
T
Hence Amax   2a when sin t  maximum  1 i.e. at t  or
4
 Force F   m  2 a sin  t
t  . From equation (ii) | Amax |   2a when y  a .
2
or Fmax 
Fmax Fmin = 0
(i) In S.H.M. acceleration is minimum at mean position F  m y 2 m  2a
T/2 T
From equation (i) Amin  0 when sin t  0 i.e. at t  0 or O
T
t or  t   . From equation (ii) A min  0 when y  0
2
(ii) Acceleration is always directed towards the mean position and so is
always opposite to displacement Energy in S.H.M.
A (1) Potential energy : This is an account of the displacement of the
i.e., A  y
2a particle from its mean position.
Graph between acceleration
+a (i) The restoring force F = – ky against which work has to be done.
(A) and displacement (y) is a
–a y Hence potential energy U is given by
straight line as shown
x y

   
1 2
Slope of the line = –  2
– 2a U  dU   dW   Fdx  ky dy  ky + U 0

0 0 2
Comparative Study of Fig. 16.6 where U = Potential energy at equilibrium position.
0

Displacement Velocity 1
and Acceleration If U = 0 then U 
0
m 2y 2 [As  2  k / m ]
2
(1) All the three quantities displacement, velocity and acceleration 1 1
show harmonic variation with time having same period. (ii) Also U  m  2 a 2 sin2  t  m  2 a 2 (1  cos 2 t)
2 4
(2) The velocity amplitude is  times the displacement amplitude
[As y  a sin t ]
(3) The acceleration amplitude is  2 times the displacement Hence potential energy varies periodically with double the frequency of
amplitude S.H.M.
(4) In S.H.M. the velocity is ahead of displacement by a phase angle  (iii) Potential energy maximum and equal to total energy at extreme
/2 positions
(5) In S.H.M. the acceleration is ahead of velocity by a phase angle  / 1 2 1 T
2 U max  ka  m  2 a 2 when y  a ;  t   / 2 ; t 
2 2 4
(6) The acceleration is ahead of displacement by a phase angle of 
(iv) Potential energy is minimum at mean position
Table 16.1 : Various physical quantities in S.H.M. at different position :
U min  0 when y  0 ;  t  0 ; t  0
Graph Formula At mean At extreme
position position (2) Kinetic energy : This is because of the velocity of the particle
Displacement
1 1
Kinetic Energy K  mv 2  m  2 (a 2  y 2 )
+a 2 2
y  a sin  t y=0 y=a
T/2 T
O [As v   a 2  y 2 ]

–a 1 1
(i) Also K  m  2 a 2 cos 2  t  m  2 a 2 (1  cos 2t)
2 4
Velocity
v  a cos  t [As v  a cos  t ]
vmax =a vmin = 0
vmax  Hence kinetic energy varies periodically with double the frequency of
 a sin( t  )
T/2 T 2 S.H.M.
O
 754 Simple Harmonic Motion
(ii) Kinetic energy is maximum at mean position and equal to total c
energy at mean position. where  2  [As c = Restoring torque constant and I = Moment
I
1 of inertia]
K max  m  2 a 2 when y  0 ; t  0 ;  t  0
2 How to Find Frequency and Time Period of S.H.M.
(iii) Kinetic energy is minimum at extreme position. Step 1 : When particle is in its equilibrium position, balance all forces
acting on it and locate the equilibrium position mathematically.
K min  0 when y  a ; t  T / 4 ,  t   / 2
Step 2 : From the equilibrium position, displace the particle slightly by
(3) Total mechanical energy : Total mechanical energy always remains a displacement y and find the expression of net restoring force on it.
constant and it is equal to sum of potential energy and kinetic energy i.e.
Step 3 : Try to express the net restoring force acting on particle as a
E UK proportional function of its displacement from mean position. The final
1 1 1 expression should be obtained in the form.
E m  2 (a 2  y 2 )  m  2 y 2  m  2 a 2
2 2 2 F   ky
Total energy is not a position function. Here we put – ve sign as direction of F is opposite to the displacement
(4) Energy position graph y. If a be the acceleration of particle at this displacement, we have
Energy k 
Total energy (E) a   y
m 

Potential energy (U)

Step 4 : Comparing this equation with the basic differential equation
k k 1 k
of S.H.M. we get  2   or n 
m m 2 m
Kinetic energy (K)
As  is the angular frequency of the particle in S.H.M., its time period
y =– a y=0 y =+ a
2 m
of oscillation can be given as T   2
Fig. 16.7  k
(i) At y = 0; U = 0 and K = E (i) In different types of S.H.M. the quantities m and k will go on taking
(ii) At y =  a; U = E and K =0 different forms and names. In general m is called inertia factor and k is
called spring factor.
a E 3E
(iii) At y   ; U  and K 
2 4 4 Inertia factor 1 Spring factor
Thus T  2 or n 
Spring factor 2 Inertia factor
a E
(iv) At y   ; UK
2 2 (ii) In linear S.H.M. the spring factor stands for force per unit
displacement and inertia factor for mass of the body executing S.H.M. and
Average Value of P.E. and K.E. in Angular S.H.M. k stands for restoring torque per unit angular
displacement and inertial factor for moment of inertia of the body executing
The average value of potential energy for complete cycle is given by
S.H.M.
1 T 1 T1 1
Uaverage 
T  0
U dt 
T  0 2
m  2 a 2 sin2 ( t   ) 
4
m  2a2 For linear S.H.M.

The average value of kinetic energy for complete cycle m m Displacement

T  2   2
1 T 1 T1 1 k Force/Displacement Accelerati
on
Kaverage 
T  0
K dt 
T  0 2
m  2a 2 cos 2  t dt  m  2a 2
4
Simple Pendulum
Thus average values of kinetic energy and potential energy of
harmonic oscillator are equal and each equal to half of the total energy (1) An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass body
1 1 (bob) suspended by a weightless, inextensible and perfectly flexible string
Kaverage  Uaverage  E  m  2 a 2 . from a rigid support about which it is free to oscillate.
2 4
(2) But in reality neither point mass nor weightless string exist, so
Differential Equation of S.H.M. we can never construct a simple pendulum strictly according to the
For S.H.M. (linear) Acceleration  – (Displacement) definition.
(3) Suppose simple pendulum of length l is displaced through a
d 2y
A  y or A   2 y or   2 y small angle  from it’s mean (vertical) position. Consider mass of the bob
dt 2 is m and linear displacement from mean position is x
d 2y k S
or m 2
 ky  0 [As   ]
dt m

d 2
For angular S.H.M.    c and   2  0 T
dt 2
l

P
y
mg sin  
O mg mg cos 
Fig. 16.8
 Simple Harmonic Motion 755

1
(4) Effect of g : T  i.e. as g increase T decreases.
g
(i) As we go high above the earth surface or we go deep inside the
mines the value of g decrease, hence time period of pendulum (T) increases.
Restoring force acting on the bob
(ii) If a clock, based on simple pendulum is taken to hill (or on any
x other planet), g will decrease so T will increases and clock will become
F  mg sin or F  mg  mg
l slower.

Arc OP x (iii) Different graphs

(When  is small sin  ~   = = )
Length l l g
1
F mg T 1
   k (Spring factor) g 1
x l T
g
g
Inertia factor l
So T  2  2
m  2 T
Spring factor mg / l g T
Fig. 16.10
Factor Affecting Time Period of Simple Pendulum (5) Effect of temperature on time period : If the bob of simple
(1) Amplitude : The period of simple pendulum is independent of pendulum is suspended by a wire then effective length of pendulum will
amplitude as long as its motion is simple harmonic. But if  is not small, sin increase with the rise of temperature due to which the time period will
increase.
   then motion will not remain simple harmonic but will become
oscillatory. In this situation if  is the amplitude of motion. Time period
0
l  l0 (1    ) (If  is the rise in temperature, l0  initial
length of wire, l = final length of wire)
l  1 2 0     2 
T  2 1  2 sin    .......   T0 1  0  T l 1
g  2  2    16    (1    )1 / 2  1   
T0 l0 2
(2) Mass of the bob : Time period of simple pendulum is also
independent of mass of the bob. This is why T 1 T 1
So  1    i.e.   
T0 2 T 2
(i) If the solid bob is replaced by a hollow sphere of same radius but
different mass, time period remains unchanged.
Oscillation of Pendulum in Different Situations
(ii) If a girl is swinging in a swing and another sits with her, the time
(1) Oscillation in liquid : If bob a simple pendulum of density  is
period remains unchanged.
made to oscillate in some fluid of density  (where  <) then time period
(3) Length of the pendulum : Time period T  l where l is the of simple pendulum gets increased.
distance between point of suspension and center of mass of bob and is
As thrust will oppose its weight hence mg eff.  mg  Thrust
called effective length.
(i) When a sitting girl on a swinging swing stands up, her center of Vg  
or geff.  g  i.e. geff.  g 1  
mass will go up and so l and hence T will decrease. V  
(ii) If a hole is made at the bottom of a hollow sphere full of water
geff.   Thrust
and water comes out slowly through the hole and time period is recorded  
till the sphere is empty, initially and finally the center of mass will be at the g 
center of the sphere. However, as water drains off the sphere, the center of
mass of the system will first move down and then will come up. Due to this T' g  mg
   1
l and hence T first increase, reaches a maximum and then decreases till it T geff.  
Fig. 16.11
becomes equal to its initial value.
(2) Oscillation under the influence of electric field : If a bob of mass
(iii) Different graphs m carries a positive charge q and pendulum is placed in a uniform electric
T2 T field of strength E
T
(i) If electric field directed vertically upwards.
Effective acceleration
l  T2 l  T2 l  T2 QE
qE 
geff.  g  
m l E
l l
l
Fig. 16.9

mg
Fig. 16.12
 756 Simple Harmonic Motion

l
So T  2
qE
g
m
In this case effective acceleration geff.  g 2  a 2
(ii) If electric field is vertically downward then
qE l
geff.  g  T  2 1
and   tan (a / g)
m  T (g 2  a 2 )1 / 2
l 
l E If simple pendulum suspended in a car that is moving with constant
T  2
qE speed v around a circle of radius r.
g
m
l
mg + QE T  2
2
Fig. 16.13  v2 
g 2   

(3) Pendulum in a lift : If the pendulum is suspended from the  r 
ceiling of the lift.
(i) If the lift is at rest or moving down ward /up ward with constant Some Other Types of Pendulum
velocity.
(1) Infinite length pendulum : If the length of the pendulum is
l comparable to the radius of earth then
T  2
g 1
T  2
1 1
1 g g  
and n  l R
2 l Fig. 16.14
(ii) If the lift is moving up ward with constant acceleration a 1 1 l
(i) If l  R , then  so T  2
l R g
l a
T  2 1 1
ga (ii) If l  R( ) then 
l R
1 ga
and n  R 6 .4  10 6
2 l so T  2  2  84.6 minutes
Fig. 16.15 g 10
Time period decreases and frequency increases and it is the maximum time period which an oscillating simple
(iii) If the lift is moving down ward with constant acceleration a pendulum can have
R
T  2
l
a (iii) If l  R so T  2  1hour
ga 2g
(2) Second’s Pendulum : It is that simple pendulum whose time
1 ga period of vibrations is two seconds.
and n 
2 l l
Fig. 16.16 Putting T = 2 sec and g  9.8 m / sec 2 in T  2 we get
Time period increase and frequency decreases g
(iv) If the lift is moving down ward with acceleration a  g 4  9 .8
l  0 .993 m = 99.3 cm
a =g 4 2
l
T  2  Hence length of second’s pendulum is 99.3 cm or nearly 1 meter on
gg
earth surface.
1 gg For the moon the length of the second’s pendulum will be 1/6 meter
and n  =0
2 l g
[As g moon  Earth ]
Fig. 16.17
6
It means there will be no oscillation in a pendulum.
(3) Compound pendulum : Any rigid body suspended from a fixed
Similar is the case in a satellite and at the centre of earth where
support constitutes a physical pendulum. Consider the situation when the
effective acceleration becomes zero and pendulum will stop.
body is displaced through a small angle . Torque on the body about O is
(4) Pendulum in an accelerated vehicle : The time period of simple given by
pendulum whose point of suspension moving horizontally with acceleration
a
O I
a 
G l

 CM I0
a
mg
 g Fig. 16.19
geff.

Fig. 16.18
 Simple Harmonic Motion 757
(v) Spring constant depend upon radius and length of the wire used in
spring.
  mgl sin …(i)
(vi) The spring constant k is inversely proportional to the spring
where l = distance between point of suspension and centre of mass length.
of the body.

Spring constant (k)

If I be the M.I. of the body about O. Then   I …(ii)
1
d 
2
d 2 k
From (i) and (ii), we get I  mgl sin as  and are l
dt 2 dt 2
d 2 mgl
oppositely directed    since  is very small
dt 2 I Length of the spring (l)
d 2 Fig. 16.20
Comparing with the equation    . we get
2
1 1
dt 2 k 
Extension Lengthof spring
mgl I
  T  2 That means if the length of spring is halved then its force constant
I mgl becomes double.
Also I  Icm  ml 2 (Parallel axis theorem) (vii) When a spring of length l is cut in two pieces of length l and l 1 2

such that l1  nl2 .

 mk  ml
2 2
(where k = radius of gyration)
If the constant of a spring is k then spring constant of first part
K2 k (n  1)
l k1 
mK 2  ml 2 l l
 T  2  2  2 eff n
mgl g g
Spring constant of second part k 2  (n  1)k
l = Effective length of pendulum = Distance between point of
eff

suspension and centre of mass. k1 1

and ratio of spring constant 
Table 16. 2: Some common physical pendulum k2 n

Body Time period Spring Pendulum

Bar A point mass suspended from a mass less spring or placed on a
frictionless horizontal plane attached with spring (fig.) constitutes a linear
l, m 2l harmonic spring pendulum
T  2
3g

Ring m k

R 2R
T  2
g
m
Fig. 16.21
Inertia factor m
Disc Time period T  2  2
Spring factor k
R
3R
T  2
2g 1 k
and Frequency n 
2 m
(1) Time period of a spring pendulum depends on the mass suspended
1
Spring System  T  m or n  i.e. greater the mass greater will be the inertia
m
When a spring is stretched or compressed from its normal position (x = and so lesser will be the frequency of oscillation and greater will be the time
0) by a small distance x, then a restoring force is produced in the spring period.
because it obeys Hook’s law
(2) The time period depends on the force constant k of the spring i.e.
i.e. F  x  F   k x 1
T or n  k
where k is called spring constant. k
(i) It’s S.I. unit Newton/metre, C.G.S unit Dyne/cm and dimension is (3) Time of a spring pendulum is independent of acceleration due to
[MT ]
–2

gravity. That is why a clock based on spring pendulum will keep proper
(ii) Actually k is a measure of the stiffness/softness of the spring. time every where on a hill or moon or in a satellite and time period of a
spring pendulum will not change inside a liquid if damping effects are
(iii) For massless spring constant restoring elastic force is same every neglected.
where
(iv) When a spring compressed or stretched then work done is stored
in the form of elastic potential energy in it.
 758 Simple Harmonic Motion
(4) Massive spring : If the spring has a mass M and mass m is (iii) If n springs of different force constant are connected in series
M having force constant k 1 , k 2 , k 3 ....... respectively then
suspended from it, effective mass is given by m eff  m  . Hence
3 1 1 1 1
    ........
m e ff k S k1 k 2 k 3
T  2
k k
If all spring have same spring constant then k S 
(5) Reduced mass : If two masses of mass m and m are connected by n
1 2

a spring and made to oscillate on horizontal surface, the reduced mass m is m m(k1  k 2 )
(iv) Time period of combination T  2  2
r

1 1 1 kS k1k 2
given by   so that
m r m1 m 2 (2) Parallel combination : If the springs are connected in parallel as
k shown
mr
T  2 m1 m2
k
k1
Fig. 16.22
(6) If a spring pendulum, oscillating in a vertical plane is made to k1 k2
oscillate on a horizontal surface, (or on inclined plane) time period will m
remain unchanged.
(7) Equilibrium position for a spring in a horizontal plain is the k2
position of natural length of spring as weight is balanced by reaction. While m
in case of vertical motion equilibrium position will be l  y 0 with
ky 0  mg k2
k1
k1
m m
l R k2
ky0 l + y0
m Fig. 16.25
(i) In parallel combination different forces acts on different springs
but extension in springs are same
mg
(ii) Spring constants of combination k P  k1  k 2
m (iii) If n springs of different force constant are connected in parallel
Fig. 16.23
If the stretch in a vertically loaded spring is y 0 then for equilibrium having force constant k 1 , k 2 , k 3 ....... respectively then
m y0 k P  k1  k 2  k 3  …
of mass m, ky 0  mg i.e. 
k g If all spring have same spring constant then k P  nk
m y
So that T  2  2 0 m m
k g (iv) Time period of combination TP  2  2
kP (k1  k 2 )
Time period does not depends on ‘g’ because along with g, y will also o

y m Various Formulae of S.H.M.

change in such a way that 0  remains constant
g k (1) S.H.M. of a liquid in U tube : If a liquid of density  contained in a
Oscillation of Spring Combination vertical U tube performs S.H.M. in its two limbs. Then time period
(1) Series combination : If two springs of spring constants K1 and L h
T  2  2
K 2 are joined in series as shown then 2g g
h
k1 where L = Total length of liquid column,
k1 k2
h = Height of undisturbed liquid in each limb (L=2h) Fig. 16.26
m
(2) S.H.M. of a floating cylinder : If l is the length of cylinder dipping
k2 in liquid then

l l
m Time period T  2
g
Fig. 16.24
(i) In series combination equal forces acts on spring but extension in
springs are different.
(ii) Spring constants of combination Fig. 16.27
(3) S.H.M. of a small ball rolling down in hemi-spherical bowl
1 1 1 k k
   ks  1 2
k s k1 k 2 k1  k 2 R r
T  2 R
g

Fig. 16.28
 Simple Harmonic Motion 759
R = Radius of the bowl (iii) Frequency of free oscillation is called natural frequency because it
depends upon the nature and structure of the body.
r =Radius of the ball
(4) S.H.M. of a piston in a cylinder +a

h
Mh
T  2 y 0
t
PA
M
M = mass of the piston Gas
–a
A = area of cross section
P A Fig. 16.33
h = height of cylinder (2) Damped oscillation
P = pressure in a cylinder Fig. 16.29 (i) The oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on decreasing with
(5) S.H.M. of a body in a tunnel dug along any chord of earth time are defined as damped oscillation
(ii) In these oscillation the amplitude of oscillation decreases
exponentially due to damping forces like frictional force, viscous force,
R R hystersis etc.
T  2 = 84.6 minutes
g (iii) Due to decrease in amplitude the energy of the oscillator also goes
on decreasing exponentially
Fig. 16.30
(6) Torsional pendulum : In a torsional pendulum an object is +a
suspended from a wire. If such a wire is twisted, due to elasticity it exert a
restoring toque  = C.
In this case time period is given by y 0
t
Wire
I l
T  2
C –a
where I = Moment of inertia a disc Disc Fig. 16.34
(iv) The force produces a resistance to the oscillation is called damping

r 4 force.
C = Torsional constant of wire = Fig. 16.31
2l If the velocity of oscillator is v then
 = Modulus of elasticity of wire and r = Radius of wire Dumping force Fd   bv, b = damping constant
(7) Longitudinal oscillations of an elastic wire : Wire/string pulled a (v) Resultant force on a damped oscillator is given by
distance l and left. It executes longitudinal oscillations. Restoring force
md 2 x
dx
 l  F  FR  Fd  Kx  Kv  b  Kx  0
F   AY   dt 2 dt
 l  Wire
(vi) Displacement of damped oscillator is given by
Y = Young’s modulus l
x  x m e bt/2m sin( t   ) where    angular frequency of
A = Area of cross-section
l the damped oscillator =  02  (b/2m )2
m ml
Hence T  2  2
k AY Fig. 16.32 The amplitude decreases continuously with time according to

Free, Damped, Forced and Maintained Oscillations x  x m e (b/2m )t

(vii) For a damped oscillator if the damping is small then the
mechanical energy decreases exponentially with time as
1
E Kx m2 e  bt /m
2
(3) Forced oscillation
(i) The oscillation in which a body oscillates under the influence of an
external periodic force are known as forced oscillation
(ii) The amplitude of oscillator decrease due to damping forces but on
account of the energy gained from the external source it remains constant.
(1) Free oscillation (iii) Resonance : When the frequency of external force is equal to the
(i) The oscillation of a particle with fundamental frequency under the natural frequency of the oscillator. Then this state is known as the state of
influence of restoring force are defined as free oscillations resonance. And this frequency is known as resonant frequency.
(ii) The amplitude, frequency and energy of oscillation remains (iv) While swinging in a swing if you apply a push periodically by
constant pressing your feet against the ground, you find that not only the oscillations
can now be maintained but the amplitude can also be increased. Under this
condition the swing has forced or driven oscillation.
 760 Simple Harmonic Motion
(v) In forced oscillation, frequency of damped oscillator is equal to the then the general equation of Lissajou's figure can be obtained as
frequency of external force.
x 2 y 2 2 xy
(vi) Suppose an external driving force is represented by   cos   sin2 
a12 a22 a1a2
F(t) = F cos  t
0 d

2
The motion of a particle under combined action of x2 y2 2 xy  x y 
(a) Restoring force (–Kx) For  = 0° :    0     0

a12 a22 a1 a2  a1 a2 
(b) Damping force (–bv) and
(c) Driving force F(t) is given by ma  Kx  bv  F0 cos d t 
x

y a
y  2 x a2
2
a1 a2 a1
d x dx
 m2  Kx  b  F0 cos  d t a1
d2 dt This is a straight line passes through origin
The solution of this equation gives x  x 0 sin(d t   ) with a
and it's slope is 2 .
a1
F0 /m ( 2   02 ) Fig. 16.36
amplitude x 0  and tan  
( 2   02 )  (b  /m )2 b / m Table 16.3 : Lissajou's figures in other conditions
1
where  0 
K
= Natural frequency of oscillator. (with  1)
m 2
(vii) Amplitude resonance : The amplitude of forced oscillator depends Phase Equation Figure
upon the frequency  d of external force. diff.( )
 x 2 y2 2 xy 1 Oblique ellipse
When    d , the amplitude is maximum but not infinite because of   
4 a12 a22 a1a2 2
presence of damping force. The corresponds frequency is called resonant
a2
frequency ( 0 ) .
a1
x0

Negligible damping
 x
2
y
2 a2 a1 = a2
2 2
 2
1 (Circle)
Low damping a1 a2
F0/K High damping a1
a1  a2
(Ellipse)

0
Fig. 16.35 3 Oblique ellipse
(viii) Energy resonance : At    0 , oscillator absorbs maximum x 2 y2
 
2 xy 1

4 a12 a22 a1a2 2
kinetic energy from the driving force system this state is called energy
resonance. a2
At resonance the velocity of a driven oscillator is in phase with the
driving term. a1
The sharpness of the resonance of a driven oscillator depends on the
damping.
In the driven oscillator, the power input of the driving term in  x y Straight line
 0
maximum at resonance. a1 a2
a2
(4) Maintained oscillation : The oscillation in which the loss of a
 y 2 x
oscillator is compensated by the supplying energy from an external source a1
a1
are known as maintained oscillation.
Super Position of S.H.M’s (Lissajous Figures)
If two S.H.M's act in perpendicular directions, then their resultant For the frequency ratio 1 :  2  2 : 1 the two perpendicular S.H.M's
motion is in the form of a straight line or a circle or a parabola etc. are
depending on the frequency ratio of the two S.H.M. and initial phase
x  a1 sin(t   ) and y  a2 sint
difference. These figures are called Lissajous figures.
Different Lissajou's figures as follows
Let the equations of two mutually perpendicular S.H.M's of same
frequency be

x  a1 sin t and y  a2 sin( t   )

 = 0, , 2  = /4, 3/4  = /2

Figure of eight Double parabola Parabola
  If y1  a sin t and y 2  b cos  t are two S.H.M. then by the
superimposition of these two S.H.M. we get y  y1  y 2
 y  a sin t  b cos  t  y  A sin( t   ) this is also the

equation of S.H.M.; where A  a2  b 2 and   tan 1 (b / a)

 = 5/4, 7/4  = 3/2
Double parabola Parabola  In the absence of resistive force the work done by a simple
pendulum in one complete oscillation is zero
Fig. 16.37
 If  is the angular amplitude of pendulum then
Height rises by the bob h = l (1 – cos)
Velocity at mean position

 Suppose a body of mass m vibrate separately with two different v  2 gl(1  cos  )
l cos  l
springs (of spring constants k and k ) with time period T and T
1 2 1 2 Work done in displacement
respectively. T1  2
m
and T2  2
m W  U  mgl(1  cos ) B
k1 k2
K.E. at mean position l (1-cos) h
If the same body vibrates with series combination of these two
KEmean  mgl(1  cos )
A v
springs then for the system time period T  T1  T2
2 2
Tension in the string of pendulum
If the same body vibrates with parallel combination of these two
mv 2
T1T2 At mean position : TA (max)  mg  =(3mg – 2mg cos )
springs then time period of the system T  l
T1 2  T2 2
At extream position : T = mg cos
 The pendulum clock runs slow due to increase in its time period
whereas it becomes fast due to decrease in time period.
 If infinite spring with force constant k, 2k, 4 k, 8k ..........
respectively are connected in series. The effective force constant of the
spring will be k / 2 .
 Percentage change in time period with l and g.
If g is constant and length varies by n%. Then % change in time
T n
period  100   100
T 2
If l is constant and g varies by n%. Then % change in time period
T n
 100    100
T 2
(Valid only for small percentage change say 5%).
 Suppose a spring of force constant k oscillates with time period T. If
it is divided in to n equal parts then spring constant of each part will
T
become nk and time period of oscillation of each part will become .
n

If these n parts connected in parallel then k eff  n 2k . So time period of

T
the system becomes T ' 
n
 If a particle performs S.H.M. whose velocity is v 1 at a x 1 distance
from mean position and velocity v 2 at distance x 2

v1  v 2
2 2
x 2 2  x1 2
 ; T  2
x 2  x1 v1 2  v 2 2
2 2

v1 2 x 2 2  v 2 2 x1 2 v1 2 x 2 2  v 2 2 x1 2
a ; vmax 
v1  v 2 x 2  x1
2 2 2 2