I:

R! 111 I 1 1 J 1 1111 I If I fXxp eriments

Section-A
~
Experiment Al } \
.. -- - - - ~--~--,;.._ ~
- . ,,

\ AIM\
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current./

( APPARATUS REQU IRED

• Unknown resistance
• Battery eliminator
o Voltmeter
• Arruneter
• Plug key
o Rheostat

• Connecting wires
• Sand paper~

DESCRIP T ION OF APPARATUS

CA battery eliminator acts as a substitute for accumulators, dry cells and batteries. It is a rectifier of low
voltage in which AC of 220 V is converted into DC of low voltages of the desired v ~
~ plug key is used to open or close a circui:-.) _
01' ammeter is an instrument used to measure current flowing in a circuit. It is always connected in serie~
Q voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference between any two points of a conductor or
in any part of a circuit. It is always connected in parall~ _

THEORY/PRINCIPLE/ FORMULA
(o_hm's Law states that if the temperature of a conductor is kept constant, the current flowing through
the conductor is directly proportional to the potential differ~ce across its en3 /
If I denotes the current flowing through · a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends,
(_then according to _Ohm's law,
I oc V
or V oc I

j = a constant = V
This constant is known as the resistance of the conductor. Its S.I. unit is ohm (Q).

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS xn I 1
\H
.
\ ~ Experi ments
r;.,. '- ' the wire depends upon the following factors:)
.
For a wire of uniform. cross-section~ resistance of . ,J
{ (i) Length of the wire
'tii) Area of cross-section of wire .
(iii) Nature of the material _
(iv) Temperature of the condut~ . . ,olThe sol e of the' graph is given by
~ graph plotted between I and
I • • • • •

V for a conductor will be a Slraighlbn,7 P .

\stope - i)
DIAGRAM
Voltmeter
V
+
Ammeter
A
+
Conductor
(Resistance
wire)

'-1+ 11~1-~(-}-------,N WVV'v

B K Rh

'A
PROCEDURE
Battery Key Rheostat

CL an the ends of ~connecting wires ~ith a sandpaper: Assemble the circui as shown in the figure
ping the key K o n. All the connections should be tight.
te the zero error an Jeas_t count of ammeter an~l~e~_er.
ust the rheostat such at its resistance is maxim~ · .
4. Inse?\ the key K.
5. Recor~the value of current fro the ammeter and the corre ponding value of potentiai difference from
the vol eter. . · \ . · ~
6. ostat for different values ~d obtain the corresponding alues cl
. current and otential difference. . \ ·
7. Plot a graph king V alon~ X-axis anc:t J along Y-a~is.
J

OBSERVATIONS
L Range of ammeter = Q A to ~ A
2. Range of voltmeter = () V to \ 2- V
3. Least count of ammeter c: :V • ( A
4. Least count of voltmeter = _Q,. '2., y
5. Least count of meter scale ,:: ('.) • O~ \ 01
6. Length of the given wire, I 0 Z:- cm

2 I PRACTICAL PHYSICS- CLASS XII - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - -

 Exp erim ents
TABLE
Table for .I/ and /
S.No. Voltmeter Reading, V (volt) Ammeter Reading, I (ampere)

- 1.
. 2. •-·
-=::::,__ J·
r'__!.....:,-4

2 ~
-..,, I .o•2. s;:-'
I
... I

3.
y ,;--,
I 0 ,,
I
~o ,
. ,:---.. ..
4.
. 6 \) 0 •"-~ ~ I
.-
.,
6. ..

7.
. 1,
-
.,.__ __,

,
. .
s.· ..
. .

C GRAPH
The graph between V (along X-axis) and~ (along Y-axis) is as shown.
It is a straight line passing thrc;mgh the origin.

~ -

CALCULATIONs··
Potential Difference (volt)-

~From the graph, 1 ,AB

R = slope = CD = .... Q
$?·

2. Resistance per unit leng~h ~

Rl = ..\~__ ,§._:'Q cm-1 )
\ ..... - ,· • • ,,· ' j • • . . I ~ .

~ SULT
Resistance per unit length of the given wire =

PI\ECAUTIONS
~ - Draw the·· circuit diagram before making the connections. '----,
. ~ l e m;king the connections, ·key shm.tld be open. ·
. Clean· the en~ of the connecting wi s ·w ith · sandpaper before aking the connection s.
4. 11 the connecti't, s and the key.. shoul be tight. ~
5. ter and voltmeter sH uld be carefully record ~d d take~ into n 'Oltnt.
6. Th ammete! _shou~ always be connecte in series in hile the voltme et should be
cted in parallel w the resistance wi . · •
7. Plug · the key only whil recording the obse ations. · · ,,. ·, ·
\

' '1
.
_ _ _ _ _, : , _ _ _ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - PRACTICA ., XII ,. 3 · ·
L pJIYSICB- CLAS~ . .
" .
~II 111111111111111

Q.16. If the connecting wires are thin, will it affect

~ xp erimen ts
Ans. Voltmeter will now be connected in the series '
Al111
the readings of ainmeter and voltmeter? in the circuit.' Resistance of voltmeter being
Ans. Yes, the resistance of thin wires will be high. extremely high (of the order of kilo ohms),
The current will also be reduced. Hence, the th:e current will flow in the circuit will be very
drop of potential across resistance wire will small and _the experiment cannot be
also reduce. performed.
Q.17. How will it affect your result?
Q.19. A student wrongly connects the polarity of
Ans. The result will not change because the ratio · ammeter .i n. the _circuit, what difficulty h~
V / I will be the same.
she will face?
Q.18. In ~dual circuit if the positions of ammeter
Ans. The ammeter will not show any reading and
and ·voltmeter are interchanged, how will it
0

affect the working? - the experiment cannot be performed.

/

( 4.I!'!f _j . - ;. , I • • • / - - • , •

To determine resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and hence determine the
:_ sp~cificresist~~eo:f~t~~.a t~ri, _ __ -·---·- · , r·- -,- .,- - ...-_. ·,.• ,-, ..

APPARATUS REQUIRED
(' • Metre bridge .
"-._ Given ~re of about 1 m length
·'
. • Connecting wfre' ·. .
• Sandpaper-· '· ~-:· '
• Plug key
• Cell or battery eliminator
• Resistance box
. ,·.
• Galvanometer. ,
••• _! : ... • • ... • • • .... ~ -~ '

• Jockey ',
~ Meter scale ,
• Screw gauge ·
• Wire cutter
• Rheost: : ) •

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
~ consists of one metre long constantan wire AC of uniform cross-sectional area on a wooden' n;-o~
board parallel to a metre scale. The two ends of the wire are attached to terminals A ano/ ..ick metal strips

- - - - - - - - - - - , . - - - - - - - - - PRACTICAL PHYSICS- CLASS XII I 5

ELJ 7' Exp er i m e n ts '11 . I fl
bent at~right angles are used t~ provide two gaps between ab imd t d to connecfresisto.rs forming a Wheatstone ·
bridge.~ e terminal D betweeµ the gaps is used for connecting galvanometer end other and of t~e galvanom-
eter is connected to a jockey J_/ ·
THEORY/PRI NCIPLE/FOR MULA
...... . : .... ,. 1,,.·- ....- · ---- • • • -

_(!_he metre bri~ge wor~s o~ the, princip~e of_ Wheat~~ne bridg~: ,· It ~onsists of_ four. resistances P, · Q, R
an~ S co~ected m the circuit~ ~ shown m Fig. (b)'. ~ can be used to ~etermme any one of the four
resistances m terms of the rerflciinmg three. ') · , ·. · ·- .
_- ( For a balaqced bridge-with ·the keys ~ d· K 1 _closed~ no c~rent flows through the galvanometer. In this
coitclition we have; ~- , ) •. ·· . . , - . ,_ ·

.
.
·.
p
Q =
R)
s -
.. . . ·, . .r . .

0 etre ~ridge, a!so call~d slide "':ire bridge, is ~ practical f?rm of Wheat~toi:ie bri_d ge) If R ~d S 'are the
res1Stances m the gaps ab and cd (Fig. a) of the bndge and BIS the balance pomt on<one metre long ·wire
_AC of uniform diameter, we have
·R = Resistance of wire AB.
S_ Resistance of wire BC '·
· ·_ AC = 100 cm_is a constant or-manganin wire of uniform area of cross section ' and resistances of AB and BC
- are proportional to their lengths.

( f = icxi-1
S = Rx(lOO-l)1 . ')' :
. l 1/
~ L
· . .
is the ler-tgth and r be the_radius of the resistanc~ wire· S, then

Where p is the specific resistan~e of the material o - the wir~

S ..:.. pL
- -2 ⇒
nr
5-nr
1
. -L-,
p=-
.

DIAGRAM
R
Unknown ;eslstance V
R.B.

A p B Q C
-----1 ---••+-I•·-- (100 - n --..►,
E
. + ~•r-----~
Lechlanche · -Rh K
cell
. ~ .-, f.~ . '
·" . Fig. (a) Metre Bridge Fig. (~) _
·.. 6 :, I P~9Tl~Al- 'p:e:y~J~S-!.CLASS XII
 lean the ends of the ~nn_ecting wires by means of a sandpaper. Make the cbnnecti.ons
as shown in
th circuit diagram. Ens · re that all .the connections ~:re tight. . ""'
2. In rder to checkw hether the connections are correct,\ : ;;oduce a suitable _res~ tanc2'f
by resistan~e
box. sert the key K. Press e jqckey at end.A and the;\ t C If the deflection m the galvano
meter 1s
in op osite directions, the co ections are correct. If requir'ed, adjust the value of
resistance R in the
resista ce box or check the co , ections. - \ - , .: . \
3. Adjust e value of the resistanc in the resistance box R so th:_~e balance point
is obtained hear the
mid-po· t of the wire AC i.e., be een 40 cm to 60 cm mark. Note the value of R and
position'of the
jockey B. . \ \
4. Change th value of resistance R in t , e resistance box and repeat steR 3. The balancin
g length should .
always be b tween 40 cm and 60 cm. · \
~-··cu~ the res~s anc~ wire at the points ere it l~aves the terminals. easure the length / of the
resIStance wire using a metre scale. "' · ·
6. Measure the dia eter of the wire using a screw gauge. Record the diam ter
of the wire in two ·
mutually perpendicular directions at least at five different positions.

OBSERVATIONS
( A. Unlmown Resist ance
"-_ 1. 'Name of the material of wire = NJ...."~ ~ - ~
2. Standard value of specific resistance from table = \ • _:s;->( \Il)
l O n_
TABLE
s. ResiBtance R in left gap R in right gap
No. from ftSistance Length S' = S" =
box X ('2) length, l 100 - l R(lOO- l) R(l00 -0
(cm) (cm) .l

1.
2.
3.

Mean value of uknown resistance, S =: 51 + 52 + ~; +~ = _-0_•_':2

__~_ Q

B. Diameter of Wire
,-
1. Pitch of screw ·gauge = ·.\ :Qjmm
2. Total number of divisions on the circular scale =\ .~

3. Least count (LC) of the screw gauge =

= ~.9.C Pitch
divisions

_ _ _ _...._,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ PRACTICAL PHYSICS-

CLASS Xll f 7
 Exp eri: me n
4. Zero error
.
=
~
± .. ....... . mm
t~ n !=I 111 111 111 1 l
5. Zero correcti on = + ..1 .... mm

TABL E
I

Table for Diameter r

S. No. Linear scale '-... "'-.N o. of circula r scale ~ a'~tion Observed

reading, "'- divisio ns to be added diamet er
a (mm) coincid ing (n) b =. n x LC (mm)
'
= a +b (mm)

' r
'
2.(a)
(b)

5.(a)
(b)

.::us,
M · . observe d diamete r;~
ected diamete r,
x~i
:~
: :~
: :
·.·'.~~· ~~
z~ ec~
. - .... .......... ... cm
~ h •of fue wire, , L = ....S..\l. cm ~
/ C)\LCULATI □NS , '
"---spe cifi·c· resistanc e of the materia l of tpe give~ ~ire,

p ,:;;, S. nr 2 I...;- I
,
. ,'
. L
,. : . . . ·r~~nt
~ .~
,. · , - L ,,,,),(Jl ohm-m_ )
._. _ "\

~
P==T
~;:ce:
SULT ' ' I '
~e marer~I of ~e g,ven wire -
' - I, ,5 ' X l\l
1.,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,, ohm-: )

~ p r a w the ~ircuit diagram before making connections. , t •-• ,.

~ l e a n the ends of the .cor0ect ing wire~ before making connections.
~The conn ~s should b~eat and tight.
4. Tfte.-Flugs of ~esist ance box'-should lm--tight."

8
I PRACTICAL pHYSI CS-CL ASS XII
 I I I I I I
Q .11. How can you rem ove the end error in inte rcha nged , will it affe ct t.h e balanced
the
experiment of metre bridge? cond ition ?
Ans . The end erro r can be rem oved by repe ating
' .
. .
Ans . No, the bala nced cond ition will stiH hold .
.

the expe rime nt by inter chan ging the . know n goo d.

and unkn own resistances and taking the 1:1ea n Q.14. . Nam e two pract~cal form s of Wheatstone
of the resistance dete rmin ed. · brid ge. . .
Q.12. Whe n is a Whe atst one brid ge said to be, Ans . The practical form s of ·a Whe atsto ne bridg
e
balanced? are (l) Met re brid ge (iz) Post Office Box .
Ans . Wheatstone brid ge is said to be bala nced whe n Q.15 . A t what posi tion of the ·jock ey on metr
e ·
no curr ent flow s thro ugh the galv anom eter brid ge, the results are mos t accurate?
arm of Whe atsto ne brid ge. · Ans .--. The resu lts are mos t accurat~ whe n balan
ce
. Q.13 . In a metre bridge experiment, if the positions . point-'is obta ined at the mid- poin t of bridge
of the cell and galv ano met er are wire . The end resis tanc es of copp er strip s
prod uce least effect. ··

~ PARATUS REQUIRED
• Metre brid ge
• Galv anom eter
• Resi stanc e box
• Jockey
• ·Two resis tance coils / wire s
, Conn ectin g wire
• ··san dpap er
• Curr ent sour ce ) .·"

DESCRIPTION ar'A ~PA RA TUS

Sam e as in Exp. No. A2

(!H ED RY /PR INC IPL E/F D~U LA

. - --
I

Serie
· s Com. bina
· tion
b. Whe
tiDn"n)Th
resistances (R R
. ). ·
1' 2, ·•• are conn ected end
know n as sene s com ma / •
to end in a circuit, the comb inati on 1s
e eqwv alen t resistance of this com bina tion is give n by
1 O I PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII ==
 .. . ( _Rs= R1+R2+ ... /
-The current remams the same as 1t passes through various components and the voltage drop across each of
the· component resistor is proportional to its resistance value.
- · V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and so on.
Parallel Combination When ~ ;terminal of all the res~tors R1, R2, ... is connec~'\ to the positive _
terminal offue voltage source and e other terminal to its negative terminal then the resistor-s are connected
in parallel. \ · · . -

. <,\ ' .,.

The equivalent resistance J\ of para~el combination of ~es1stances is given by;

·.,
.
l f-\ .1_+~+
R · R R ...
, 1 2
·

, .\v , ,
The voltage drpp a~ss each indiv.idual ~ sistor is the same as the a , plieµ voltage but the current ~ each
individual resistor q.ividessin inverse proportfonal to its resistance value\ ' , \ •

I1 =. R, 2 = R, and so on.
1 2
For two resistors in parallel ~ombination,
•.
- R1R2 .
'. ~ = Rl + R2 .
~The value of unknown resistance (5) using metre _\;,ridge may be determined by the formula,
/ (100-11.)
S .= ,,R -l - -~ . -
· -
where R is resist~ce introduced tn arm AD of metre bridge, and
l is balancing ·length of metre bridge wire for which the galvanometer shows null deflection.
Q· For series combination of three _resistors ·
, 51 = r1 + r2 + ~ 3
3. For p~el combin~·onof thr resis~s
~ 1.. = .!.+..!.+..!.
52 . '2 r3
· DIAGRAM
+ - K

~
II""'·----- P
l - -- -""""'""1---1--
a
(100 - /) ----<a.ii
C

Circuit to determine the resistance of se~ies combination of r ~nd r1 •

1

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PRACTICAL PHYSICS- CLASS XII I 11

 K
+ -
L - - - - - -.....- - - - - - - - - - - - ,

R•

,,
I

pI _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,___.

r•
Circuit to determ ine resistance of parallel combin ation of r1 and 2

/
PROCEDURE ✓
~
' the given resista nce wires br coils as r 1 and r 2 • Conne ct the wires or coils one by one in the
1. Mark
xperim ent to get valt es of r1 and r2•
circuif ~ in exper iment no. A.2. R~ea t steps 1 to 4 in the )
2. Conne ct fuEt
resista nces r 1 and r 2 in s~ ies in the right gap of the,
metre bridge . Re~br d the balancing
ance of the series ~omb inatio n of
length for three differ ent value s of R~ alcula te r 5 , the resist
r 1 and r2 • ~ .. : ,
of the
'
metr~
\ _
/ ridge. Recor d tfie balancing
\

3. Conne ct the resista nc, r 1 and r 2 in parall el in ~e right gap

. \ ,
length for three differe nt values of R to calcula~ p·

OBSE RVA TION S

Lengt h Lengt h Resist ance Mean

Resist ance S. No. Resist ance
conne cted from the box AB= l BC= (100 - l) r= ( 1cx;-1} R resistance
(ohm)
R (ohm) (cm) (cm) (ohm)
iJ ,
1. \ "- v\ ~ 1/

\~ > '1 =
r 1 only
2.
'
) ,. ~ .so
5'5
~Q '#~,;;-(, )•> 3
3, 2- V\ S'"
-r2 only ,-~ ~~
~
. c;:-
T2= j,•:;
?- r =
r1 and r2
-~ ss,. £
in series

'1~'2
~
~
in parall el
?

"'
---
12 f PRAC TICA L PHYS ICS- CLAS S XII - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
 Exp erim ents
CALCULATIONS
In series Experimen tal value, r 5 ~ .?....~ ... ohm
Theoretical value, r' 5 = r1 + r 2 = \1.~.':.\ ohm
Difference (if any) = .......Q.~..~ ...... ohm

0\
In pari llel Experlll:1ental val~e, r P = ....... . .... ... .... ~hm

~ eoreticaivalue,\ ;:: ~
Difference (if a~ \

~ SULT .. , , ;
1. As the theoretical and experimental values of r 5 agree within the limits of experimental error, the law
of series combination of resistances is verified.
2. As the theoretical and experimental values of r P agree within the limits of experimental error, the law
, of parallel combination of resistances is verifi: : ) . ·

PRECAUTIONS
Same~as-in-Exp~N o:-A2.

SD~CE S OFf RR'{R

Sam~s in Exp.)Jo. A\

I •) (tt a,,.f 44ll____________________________

Q.t. If a resisitance is connected in series with R, Q.4. \V)ly does the resistance decrease in parallel
will the reading of ammeter increase or combination?
I.
I
; decrease? · Ans. Because, larger cross-section is available to
; Ans. The reading in ammeter will decrease as net . the charge carriers for their propagation.
resistance in the circuit increases. Q.5. If two bulbs are connected to the same
Q.2. If a resistance r is connected in paralled to R, supply in series will they glow brighter?
. . will the reading of ammeter increase or Why?
decrease? Ans. No, they will glow with lesser brightness.
Ans. Ammeter reading will increase as the total . Beacuse, in series connection resistance will ,
will
r,esistance become less than r and R both. increase, current will get reduced and hence
Q.3. Why does the resistance increase in series less heat/light will be produced per second.
combination? Q.6. Give one example each of (i) series
Ans. Because the charge carriers now have to cross combinati on of resistors; (ii) . parallel
longer distances. · combination of resistors.

PRACTICAL PHYSICS -CLASS XII I 13

~ \ Ex Peri m en t ~ I JI LI I·1lllll llRl
-++fl ·
y,,;,E-ir_
·
.
b' · the cell its internal resistance i,
Ans. On distur mg . ' . . .
may change. . .
·V E i and r stand for temun- · al potential
Wh hange in the internal resistance
en , ' 11 rent drawn from . Q.14. Is there any c . I d ·rcu1"t?
difference, -=emf 0.f a ce ' cur . . ·
II .
of ace . m open and c . c1
ose
the cell an~ internal r~sistance respective!~.
Why the cell shc:,uld not be distur~ed dunng Ans. N o, it remains same.
Q.13.
the experiment? .

r AIM l ·-· ----- -··- - · . .,· _, ,

~ ~ ; : ~ ete~ine the resistance of~ moving coil-'galvanometer by half-deflection method

L_~~~-1~-~~i~~fi~
. ' . . -~. ;- . .
~f m~ri;;) .~ __ __._. __ , _--.....,,. ,.· . .__ _ . ,.' :" ,--··· .,
t APPARATUS JU:QUIRED..
"- . • Moving coil galvanometer
' • High resistance box
• Low .resistance box
•..• Lechlanche cell
~ Two one-way k~ys
• Connecting wires
• S~dpaper) · , .,,

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
(:_Galvanometer is a device which is ,.;•detect the used Presence
or io ineasme small ~ t in a circuit. /J
weston-type galvanometer is commonly-used in laboratory. When a current is passed through the galvanometer,
its c?il experiences ·• t o ~ As a result of it, the . hau
spring gets twisted and consequently pointer shows •
reacbng on its scale~.s e~ve galvanometer should give full scale deflection for a small current depending on_
ifs resistan,, .. ' ' . .. •• . . . e . .

T~RIN~IP1~~ . - . . . '
~ galvanometer works on.lhe _principle that a ·coil placed in a. uniform .magnetic ·field experien~
• ·• .
J". .
!' ·tpo!U' I •

..,1 h ri art electric current set up m the coil)

is - . .

l': galvanonieter is said to be sensi~~eurutu_u qu-tent.)

w~ -ti·
shO\\'S large deflf/C!ion for a small ;,,m,r;(~fuematica!ly'. i~
·ty is expressed as . d. eflection per . . · · . . . .· · .,
. . . . ,,
sens1 v1 . , . ./ ,

.. 22 I r,JLAcTICAL PHYSics-tIJis.s ~1 .
,.J:... - - - - - --~ -·•,.
 .
i.e. ~urren t sens1tlv1ty,
.. . 1
5
Deflection =-
= ---=---
Current
ey
I
~ galvanomet~r shoul~ have low r~sistan~: ) .
(!1gure of Men~: ~e ~gure of ment of a galvanometer is defined as the current .reqUired to produce a
deflection of one,·d1v1s1on m the galvanometer) , . _ .,
The figure of merit (k) of a galvanometer,..is- given by

(:_= 0/+G) _) ,
where E = e.m.f. of the cell
.____ _--1 R i----_.
8 = Galvanometer deflection -in divisions
'

R = Resistance in the circuit (from··the resistance ·box)

--·_,)
Fig 1
G = Resistance of galvanometer
~The resistance ~f the galvanometer is calculated by the formula: /
..... - . -- '

-,. G= RS )
R-S
·• -
where R = Resistance introduced~by' high resistance box to produce deflection 8.
i / i __ J '
S = Resistance introduced by low resistance box to get half deflectio~ 8/2.

E High Resistance Box

K1
f'\
~ ·
~
+ I -
~---< [K)o---(• ,__~
R

Low Resistance Box

R2
-~21 - - - -- )
s
-~._Fig. 2 . . .. -. ~ ,, r ••

t . .. .. _· J ~ ~ • ~ , .._ ..... .

. I rAssemble the circ · ·t.. as shown in the figure a cleaning the ends of co
paper.
eep the keys K1 and
3- 'I1 ist all the keys in the esistance boxes !{ and S to ure that they are all tight.
I
4- 'Intr uce a high ~esistance om the .resist~nce box Ran , insert key K , Adjtist the va
1
\ · large e~ection, say 30 divis ns, in the galvanometer. · , •
\ S. Record e deflectio~· 0·of the . lvanometer and the valµ of ;e_si~ance R.
I
I
I
6· Now insert the key K • Keeping tH value of R fixed, adjust
2 v~lue of S so that the deflection of the e
I
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______:__ _ _ _ PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS I 23
I
i
~~I

1=-:-·
 Expe rimen ts

·,____ galvanometer is half of the previous deflection i.e., J• Note the deflection ~ the gal~anometer ~
the value of resistance S .
•-7. Repeat steps- 3 to 6 for five differe~t value of R and 0 to g~t different observations.

(_OBSERVATIONS ___.-
1. Emf of the cell, E = ''v\ volt)
. T~E
J_"- (A) Table for G

S. No. Resistance, Galvanomete r Resistance, Half deflection, G=_B§_

R -S
R (ohm) deflection, 8 (div.) s (ohm) 8/2 (div.)
(ohm)

·i:
2.
3 •.

Mean G =

(B) Table for K ·-

~ =
· - '"r=""-~----- E=._M_ .~_._of_th_e C_e_11_(_E)_=_.._···_··_··_v_o_lt_--.---_ _ _ _,,, _:__,__~---:-
. -21
1
S. No. Resistance introduced Galvanometer Figure of
in the resistance bo~ R (ohm) deflection, 8 (div.) k- E (am
- 8(R+G)
1. -~·s.. vv<J ~ • -cfv.ro ):2.
2.
·-- 3.
· ,- l?- <fO 0 <l ,. <S liV \ ~
4.
5.
-\ g_vv o ~ -- ~ \3,. ~

-Mean, k =

~ CULATIONS
l. Mean value of resistance of galvanometer , G = G1 +G2 +~3 +G4 +Gs = ~ Q · _ 'v\
2. Me~ ~alue of figure of merit galvanometer, k = k, + k2 + k3 + k 4 + k
· 5 5 () • \ ;:,"'> X. \ 'O
= _ _ amp/div. )

241 PRACTICAL PHYSICS- CLASS XII ----·_ _ __;___ _ _ _ _ _..:..,___ _ _ _ __

.
 Exp erim ents
( RESULT .
"" The resistance of the galvan~meter = ......\ ~ ~ . l · .- )

. Qo> \3V\ X\0-

Figure of ment pf the galvanometer, k = ··~···········••-: amp / div.

PRECAUTIONS
~ raw the circuit diag,ram before making the connections.
-- \,/~ l e making the connections, keys K 1 and Ki should be removed.
3~ sert key K1~ after taking out a high resistance from R.
4. Clean the ends ol\the connecting ~ i:res with the Sndpape r before making the connections.
5. All _~ connections)nd keys should ~ tight. \ l
SOURCES OF ERROR
i\.1ne emf o~ battery may 'h.ange during I"'
expe~en t.
2. dilibration of ~ sistance in res~ ance boxes may not b~ cotrect.
3. P!u)s in resistanc~ boxes may no~ e tight and ~ ay have';,,n~ \ resistance .

_1 :;t♦z a,,.f ga____________________________

Q.1. What is meant by figure of merit of a Q.5. How is current sensitivi ty related to
i galvanometer? , figure of merit?
I
'· Ans. It · is the amount of current required to ' Ans. The figure of merit is reciprocal of current
produce a deflection of one division ·and is sensitivity, i.e.! Figure of merit = f.
given by k _= (R;G)8 Q .6.· Why constantan and manganin are used
i to make standard resistances?
t Q.2. Define current sensitivi ty of a
I galvanometer. Ans. These materials have high resistivit y
f
1
Ans. It is defined as deflection produced by unit and low te,mperat ure coefficie nt of

I curi-et, i.e., Current se~itivity Is = r resistance .

Q.7. The resistance coils in a resistance box are
Q.3. What is voltage sensitivity? doubly wound as shown. Why ?
Ans. Deflection per unit voltage, i.e.,
I Voltage sensitivity V, = t.
! Q. 4. How are current sensitivi ty and voltage
/ sensitivity related with each other?
Ans. Voltage sensitivity
1
·,.
II
= Current sensitivity
Resistance of galvanometer coil· Ans. This winding makes the resistance coil non-
I or V=1 -------- .
,_
1ind uc;:tiv~.
_ _ _.:___.___ s G

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _....:.....__ _ _ _ _ _ PRACTICAL PHYSIC S-CLAS S XII I 25

-- ----
 -~~~ L
~,.
/~.
Experiment (~7(ii~ 6-J'-. ~ "s,. >
· __ ~~ --~~:.~.::_'" ~=:•,:,~Yc;;,2~E}~~ - ~~ fflc- 1rni t4®t PAU itJM 'fi _ _ 4
(' AllVl
~ " i
l. - .. . .
-- .
:. -To convert a galva nome ter into a voltm eter of a given range and
t--, ~-.. ;.-:r._... ,;-:.-;--:-•-;,t-:.:-.::.:-.....-- --
to verif y
•-:-"/'C.--:-: - ~-·.,; :-:· ... ~;:~-~ ·;,,"'·H:;_1:·~!:.J"'.',.C~::::,::f> _:·-<.•,~!'-~~;~'.\r~~;,r'°'~~""'-:\;_lt;;>t,:'-~-;-c - ..,
the·s·am9
-. ~ - ~ -. ,. . .. - .. - .. --·;:;_>3""-!'e?~:'""_,,-

C
<."-"'

APPARATUS REQUIRED
, r ,(
---- • Galva nome ter . • Voltm eter of given resista nce
• Batte ry • Two resista nce boxes ·
• High resistance rheost at • One-w ay key
• Conne cting wires • ,Sand paper, )

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS ·
.Q. voltmeter is an instru ment which is used to measu re the drop of poten tial betwe en two point sJt is
· alway s connected in parallel to the condu ctor or source of poten
tial differ ence whose poten tial difference is to
be measu red in such a:;) a y that the curren t enters it at the termi nal mark ed positi ve and
· ~erminal mark~d negative. leaves it at the
· _ __ .
~THEO!\Y/PRINCIPLE/FORMULA . .
- - . .
in:~.
. - ...-~.-- .• . ~- - . -- - · , ·-. -'Pt

~ ~~-a nome ter can be conve rted a voltm eter by conne cting a high res~ta nce. in ~ as shown in
-

~ Ig is the cU:rrent for full scale deflection of the galvan omete r then,
we · have ·. ·.
. V "·= I (R + G)
g .
.
. . I
. ,---------
I R
----- --~' I
9 I

V-G)
• --gl
. --.-1\/ \.f\l\J' \I\J"-- --l G
. R . = Ig
. ~--- ---- V _____ __ 1_
Voltmeter
DIAG RAM
B K
.------ 1+ ~ 1-.......---( ( ) - - - - - - - ~

A Rh ·
p

G
+ -
----- --'V.>-- ---- '
Circuit diagram for verifica tion ·•
. CAL PHYSICS..;....CLASS XII ....,.·---- :--_ :.__ _ _ _ _ _ _
..30 I PRACTI .
_ _ _ __
 Experime nts ~
PROCEDURE
.. '
1. Determine the figure of merit (k) and the resistance (G) f'-of the galvanometer by half deflection
_ method as described in experime~t no. A.6. ~ '\ .
2. Note the number of divisions (N) on one side-of zero of the galvanometer scale· and find tRe current
Jg for full scale deflecti~n as \.. - \ \
Jg -kN \ _
' ~
3. Calculate the · series resistance R required for_conversion of the galvanometer to voltmeter of range
o.-Vvoltsas v \ . \ _ ~
R = -- G \

4. Connect the galvanomete:\ n series with a resistance box. Introduce resistance R from the resistan~e
box. The galvanometer is now converted to a . voltn:\eter of range O - .V volts.
Verification
· 5. As§emble the circuit ·a J shown in figure.
6 ' i -

:~~:=ula~
.::::~:u::::: ::v::~t::;i: :d::1:::o::1::~o:v:rtv:l~:-::1; ~~~t:r~
. ~
0

\ ' . " N ,
the error in\ the converted instrument. "-.
7. Rep~at the s~~p ,6 above for differerit values of potential differ~ ce by adjusting the slider con~aot of
the rheostat. -· \ -r
- ·

OBSERVATIONS
1. Resistance of the galvanometer, G = f () n )(, \ 'Q ~ ;;;-
2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k = \,. b S:- Q
3. Range of ~oltmeter = o to ;? Q V
4. Current for full scale deflection, Jg = A

TABLE
S. No. Voltmeter reading,
. Converted voltmeter reading Error ·
V1 (volt) V1 - V2 (volt)
Division V2 (volts)

1. \c 2 ,0
\
2.
~ -2.
~ ~ -
3.
'0
'
·-

CALCULATIONS

Resis~ce to be connected in series with' the g~van~meter, R = j -G = \ -~ q

• I • g

- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - = - - - - - PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII I 31

 E x P e r ·i m e n t s
RESULT
The series resistance req uire d to con · to vol tme ter of ran ge ......... :. volt
th ·ven galvanometer m
ver t e gi . .
(R) = \.fa{l Q.
.

PR ECAUTJ.QNS~
--- --~ - ~~- · f king connections.
/ ,The end s of the connecting· wir d
es sho ul be c1eaned be ore ma
0- The connections sho uld be tight.
. .

~ .. The e.m.~ of ~e
cell s~ould be cons~ . , .
4~ '>.!esist~ bp x sho~ eof hig h res 1st ~ce ran ge .
.,

SOURCES OF ERROR
· 1.~ e emf ofil i-e battery ma~ ange. .
~
1, .:.....
2 _ Pl~ in resist~ oxes mOy tight and ma y lia 'l~nta ct res ~ anc
3. The r~ istance of th~ oils in the e.;,_
resls\_ance box ma y not be ~ e as
Inafked'\ "-

"'

Q.2 . What is the principle of galv

anometer?
Ans. It wo rks on the pri nci ple tha Q.7 ., A:· gal ~an om et~ r is con ver
t a cur ren t ted int o (i) an
car ryin g coil pla ced in a uni form _ammeter (ii) a milliarnmeter. Wh
mag net ic ich of the ·
field experiences a torque. two wil l hav e hig her resistance?
Q.3 . Should galvanometer have An s. Mil liam me ter.
a low or a hig h
resistance? Q.8 . Wh at is the res ista nce
of an ideal ·
, Ans. A gal van om ete r sho uld ammeter?
hav e · a low
res~tance: ' ' ..
An s. Zer o.
Q.4. How. can ,we convert a galv
anometer to an Q.9. Ho w can a gal van om ete r·
amm eter? be ·c onv ert ed .
· into a voltmeter?
Ans. A gal •,
van om eter can be con ver ted into
an ,· Aq s. A gal van om ete r· can be
ammeter of a given ran ge by con nec con ver ted into 8
ting a vol tme ter by con nec ting a hig h
sui tab le low res ista nce (ca lled shu resistance
nt) in in series wit h it.
parallel with the galvanometer.
Q.5. S~o uld a11; ammeter have a Q.10. Sho uld a vol tme ter hav e a
hig h resistance '
low or a .hig h
i resistance and why? . · ,or low resi stan ce and wh y?
· -· 1 · • ·· : , ·
, Ans . An am me ter sho uld alw An s. A :ol tme ter sho uld alw ays
ays hav e a low hav ~· a high ;
res ista nce as 6th erw ise it wil l red resi stan ce as oth erw ise it wil l red
uce the 1 uce the :
cur ren t it is sup pos ed to measure. pot ent ial dif fer enc e it is sup pos
mea sur e. ed to i

32 I PRACTICAL PH YS ICS -CL AS S XII - - - - - -

- - - ~ ----"_ _ _ _. .,;. . _~
IIU ti l11_1UI l 1111 v~ X p er i m en ts AJ 11 j
,~.11.
r::;
How is a voltmeter conn ected in the
circuit?
An;~ Th~y ~ e ~~n~;aled~der the plate inside the ~
box. ~

f Ans. A voltmeter is always connected in Q.14. What purpose i s s erved by thick metal
parallel. blocks at the top of the box?
! Ans. They provide a very low resistance
! .

;Q.12. What is the resistance of an ammeter?

1

i conducting path as if no resistance is

I Ans. The resistance R of ammeter is given by
I connected.
R = G x 5 as it is a paralleL.c ombination of G Q.15. For converting a galvanometer into · an
G+S ammeter (or voltmeter), what information
and S. about the galvanometer you need?
; Q.13. Where do the resistances lie in the resistance Ans. (i) Resistance of the galvanometer.
box? ·
{fi)_figure of merit <?f the galyanometer. _

- ,

Experfment t;;i)V ~?=- -:--:;> (;

c~~l;,_.:__~~~~~2~~~~~~- .

~p~::~:u::!gnetic
• Step -down · transformer
wire ·· • Horse-shoe magnet or electromagnet
• Screw gauge ·

DEs.Q_: :;;;1;:g~~::~TtJs
an ~temating ~ent.is passed _in the ·c9il of the ~ectromagnet, .the magnetis~tion pro~uced in the core
is proportional -to ~tantaneous value of the currenU{!_!_he electomagnet is held close to the middle of the
sonometer wire, the wire will be attracted twice dtfthlg each cycle towards the electroma~The attractive
force experienced by the wire will be proportional to the magnetisation produced in the core of the electro-
magnet. Since in each cycle~e wire will be pulled twi~e and hence at resonance, if will vibrate with a fr~
quency w~ch-• is f;wice the frequency of alternating_cwr~ ·. _ __ ... · ' . · . - ·

.,, THEORY/PRINCIPLE/FORMULA .
\ A ~~rent carrying conductor_placed in a m~gnetic field _experiences~·force. If the conductor carries
::e:~~~ c~ent, the di~e~tion of the force will be r~versed and the wire will oscillate with frequ~cyof _

' -The ~uency n of thefondamental mode of_vibrati~n of a streciched string, fixed at two en~: is given

n=lrr; ) . . - - ✓
21V~ . . "': .
------:-------------:-
. . . . .:-~ PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII I 33
"'"
. .., j ·- 1.
 E xp er i m e n ts
. . T. . the tension in the wir e and m is the
we . the leng th of the vib rati ng stnn g. is mass per UJlit
h re l lS .
length. . ., ,
. . · gth m und er a tension T, the frequen
( For a wire of length l and mass per um 1 cy of vibration of~
t ~n . , .
wir~ is given by .
1
. §.). r, ·
.
•

V = ~ = 2l ~m
. . 1
or
f - -xT
.
·· - 4im
·· .
· )
~ graph betw een T along X-aXlS and l Y~axis wou ld be a stra ight line.
2
cµong .
. . 1
(_Toe slope of ~e graph is n2m ·
4
(
· 1 1 ' '
So, n == 2 .Jm xslo p; · )
. .. ·
/ n 1 1
Graphically the frequency of AC, V == 2 == 4 ,Jm x slope ·.
I

DIAGRAM ·

I •-, '•• • I •

Sonometer '-- --+ ~ Hanger

t::::::::I:~ -t- Weights

6V

~Stepdown
~ trans~ormer

220 V, AC mains

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in
2. S .
the figure. Place ho a
shoe mag net ~ver the wire as sho ~•
d a suitable weight, ;ay \ kg, from the
hanger and itch on tht/ ~c sup pl . ·.
3. Ad t the position of the woode wed .
ges A and B so that th wire beg ins to 111
a e amplitude. The wire in this ·ase resonate :vib rate · one looP_~f!d
s with AC sup . To test the reso nan
of the wed ges unti l flies off. Rem emb , keep a!:"~
ride r n the wire and adjust 'the p ition
mag n should be placed in the mid er e hor se-· -
of the wedges. •
4. ' Mea sure the r~s~natin~ length A~ b adj~st_
betw een ing pos itio n of we ges init iall y whe
. 18 mcreasmg and again w n 1t 1S decr n
easing. Ensure at the -wire vibra
loop .
S. Increase the ad by half kg each
time an repe at steps 3 and 4 to et , ~
different weig . Record at least five the reso nati ng 1 gthS
differ nt observations for differ t valu
.• Take a suitable es of rension.
6 gth (say 1 m) of the wire. ind its mass usin
g a serIBi ·ve physical balance·

34 I PRACTICAL pJIYS~CS-:--CLASS XII

 OBSERVATIONS
Mass of wire, M 1 = .............. ~.·. g
Length of wire, L = ............... .. cm
Mass per um.t 1ength o f the wrre,
. m - M1 -
- T ·- ............ g cm-1 = ... :.'.'"""' kg.>
: -m - 1. )

Load suspen ded, Tensio n applie d, Resonating length Mean length,

M (kg) T = Mg (N) AB (cm) l (cm) V= -1 ✓Mg
-(Hz )
21 m
· Increasing Decreasing
1. ., \~~~ $2: '\ lA1-, ~ s=: 1)4' 0 > . ) G'~J
2. \ ,,,., ~ b ~~-1 ~1> ~~-• .2 _.: '\) s-::-
3.
' 4-.
.-~ ';;\ , ~-> >.~•~- s,~ 3 _ 5 ~/
~\
·Mean , v = ........ Hz

G~H
-~<YV f b
\ . , / ' ~ a graph betwee n T and 12.

't
f (cm)

. T(N) - .

We g~t a ·straigh t line.

(' CALCULATIONS : . .. .

"" .L ~ ~ 6'J Hz.

Find the frequency, v-~ = \
2_ Determ ine the !?~ fthe graph. Use this value of the slope to determ

(' -~sU::rnating cur / . · · ·

. • ine the frequency of

\ ~ ~~
,-, -:;r; ~·~;a.:. sUp~l~, . \_~ . Hz
l · . True frequency= 50 Hz
\ % age error = ..()..... ••;)

I I'

\ . , I
- - - - - - - - -··_-.~-_···. . .:.:. . ::'----'-'-.. ._ _!,_l- - - - PRACTICAL
-.,- .
;
pffYSI CS- CLA~S -XII I 3S -. -
1
I,
! .,_ • . ,1'j .
I I I I I I 'R:.. .ti X JJ \ I: ;& ...... - -- - - -

1
\ 'i,RECAUWJNS _\ b kinks in the wire.
. d there should e n O ' ·
/ The wire should be uniform an . d . the middle of the wedges.
/ 1_. should be place m .
.A"': The horse-shoe magnet ti' limit of the wire.
_,,,,,, d t ceed the e1as c .
3. TJ;le te~io~ shoul no e~d also be tak~n-into account.
) Weight of the hanger sho ', . ',
~ \ t " wire should b~ non-magnetic. ' \
5. The sonome er , \ . · J
6. Th\ magnet should\not touch' the\ wrre. -
7. The \ edges should \cave sharp edges.

SOURCES OF ERROR
. hts ma not h~v~ s_tand~rq value mar~ed on thetp.. •. ••t> •,
1. The slotteq__w,e1g . t• ,.· } 1• ,..-,_ :,,7~. • ,, ..
r Knife edg~~"di~y'"i~ot .be sharp. - I j,
· \. -_ - .
• ''i_-·•' :
-;, i• :t'., ... ·
~-v ,· ... , ·,,
3. Pulley .may not be frictionless. •

4. Sononi.et~r wire inay not be of uniform cross-section. 1

5. The relation v = .!. fr holds for .a perfectly elastic string which we cannot realise in practice.
'21 Vm

Q.1. What are

different types of electric current? Q.8. What ·are different types of wave motion?
Ans. Direct current ·and alternating current.
Ans. Transverse wave and longitud inal wave.
Q.2. What is meant by alternating current?
· Q.9. State the princip le of · superpo sition of
Ans. It is the current which· reverses its direction
of flow ctlter regular intervals of time. wa,ves.
·
Q.3. What is meant by direct current? Ans. It states .that the resultan t displacement at a
Ans. The cu~rent which continuo usly flows in point due to two or more waves passing
1/ same direction is called direct current. simultan eously through a medium is the
Q.4. What is time period? How is it related to vector :sum of the displacements due to the
frequency? individual waves.
Ans. The time taken by a particle to complete one Q.10. What type of waves are produce d in the
full vibration is called time period. sonometer wire?
Frequency is reciprocal_of the· time period.
Ans. Stationary transverse waves.
Q.5. What is the product of frequency and time
period of a body? Q.11. Why are these wav~s called stationary (or
Ans ...The product is 1. standing) waves? ·'
Q.6. What is sound? Ans. Because the wave patten{ does-·not' tt~~el ill :
Ans .. It is a form of energy which produce s the medium with time. 1 •
. sensation of hearing in us.
Q.12. What are free vibrations?
Q.7. What is wave motion? ·
Ans. The vibrations of a body are said to ·be free /
Ans. The motion of .disturba nce through a
medium is called wave motion. if they ·are maintained without the help of '.
any external force.