CLASS 12

EXPT NO. 1

OHM’S LAW–RESITIVITYOFTHEGIVENWIRES

AIM:

To determine the specific resistance of the given wires,using Ohm’sLaw.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Battery,voltameter,ammeter,Rheostat,key,givenwires,connectingwires.

FORMULA: V = IR Ω

A linear relationship is obtained between Vand l ,i.e.,the graph

Between V and l will be a straight line passing through the
origin as shown
The slope of the graph is 1/R
R=1/slope of the graph

𝑹𝑨
R=ρl/A…(ii) 𝝆= /l 𝛀𝒎

s.no Symbol Quantity unit

1. V Potential difference V
across the ends of theconductor
2. I The current flowing through the A
conductor
3. R Electrical resistance ofthe conductor 𝛀

4. 𝝆 Specific resistance orresistivity 𝛀𝐦

5. l Length of the unknownresistor m

6. A Area of crossection of the unknown 𝒎^𝟐

resistor
PRINCIPLE:

Ohm’s Law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided that the physical state of
the conductor remains unchanged.
If I is the current flowing through the conductor and V is the potential difference across
its ends, then according to Ohm’s Law
V α I and hence
V=RI… (i)
R α l/A
R=ρl/A…(ii)

V= [ρl/A] I

Vα I…(iii)

PROCEDURE:

Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove any
insulating coating on them.
Connect various components resistance, E
+ - K Rh
rheostat, battery, key voltmeter and ammeter as
shown.
(a) Note whether pointers in milliammeter and +
.
Voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring scale. -

(a)
(b) Note the range and least count of the givenvoltameter and milliammeter.
(c) Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact toone of its extreme ends, so that the
current passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
(d) Note the milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
(e) Once again, insert the key. Shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied
voltage. Note the milliammeterand voltmeter reading.
(f) Repeat the above step for four differentsettings of the rheostat. Record your observation
in a tabular form.
(g) Using the formula R = V/I , the resistance ofthe wire is found graphically.
(h) Using a screw guage the diameter of the wire isfound.
(i) Knowing R , the resistivity of the wire isfound using the formula
(j) 𝝆=𝑹𝑨/l

S.No. PSR HSC CHSC = HSR = TR = PSR

mm HSC ± ZC CHSC × LC + HSR
mm mm

PRECAUTIONS :
1) The voltameter should be connected in parallel and milliammeter in series. It should be
ensured that the current enters the positive terminal and leaves the negative terminal
2) The key should be inserted only while taking reading, as excessive flow of current
causes unnecessary heating of wire.
3) Zero error in measuring instruments should be taken into account.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross section.
2. The length of the resistance wire included may not be correct.

RESULT :
The resistivity of the given wires using Ohm’s law is ------------ ohm m
 2. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire
Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge

Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box, Battery
Eliminator, jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting wires.

Theory:
Wheatstone’s bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s bridge
experiment as shown in figure. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer, then P = R
Q S
which is the condition of balance of bridge. We use this relation to find the unknown
resistance S of the given material of wire.

The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arm BC. A resistance box
from which a known resistance can be taken out is connected across the gap AB. A sensitive
galvanometer followed by a jockey is connected between the points A and C so as to slide
over the wire AC. A cell with suitable rheostat is connected across AC.

Formula : S=R ( 100- L/ L) Ω

Symbol Name of the quantity Unit

S Unknown resistance ohm
R Known resistance ohm
L Balancing length for m
known resistance
100-L Balancing length for m
unknown resistance

𝑙
Observation:
(i) To find the unknown resistance of the given wire:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.NO resistance, R S=R (100𝑙 −𝑙)
(Ω) (cm) (cm) Ω

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean, S= Ω

Procedure:
a) Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R from the
resistance box.
b) Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side.
Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer
should be on the other side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-
sided, adjust R till the deflection is reversed.
c) If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A
towards C.
d) Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance
point.
e) Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l). From
R l
formula, = knowing R and l, S can be found. Repeat the above procedure for
S 100 − l
five different values of R.
 Precaution:
1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly.
2) All connections should be neat and tight.
3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact
for a long time.
5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge.

Sources of error:

1. There may be error due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current flows
for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips and
connecting wires .

Result :
The resistance of the given wire using meter bridge is Ω
 3. Half Deflection method - Resistance and Figure of merit of galvanometer
Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and also to find its
figure of merit.

Requirements: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key (two numbers)
and connecting wires.

Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It has a coil
pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through the coil, it gets
deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The deflection is
proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance and has a small
current carrying capacity.

The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection method. The circuit
is shown for this method. Key K1 is inserted and deflection θ is determined with a suitable
value of R. Now K2 is inserted, S is adjusted for 𝜃/2 . If E is the emf of cell and I be the
current in circuit, the galvanometer resistance,
RS Ω
G=
R−S
Figure of merit of galvanometer:
It is defined as current required for producing deflection of 1 division. It is measured in
ampere/div. When a high resistance R is taken out from resistance box, a current I flows in
the circuit and it produces a deflection θ, using this values k can be calculated using this
formula 𝑘 = 𝐸/(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃

Symbol Name of the quantity Unit

G Galvanometer resistance ohm
S Shunt resistance ohm
R Known resistance ohm

Ѳ Deflection produced Div

E Emf of the cell V
K Figure of merit A/div
 Observation:

Galvanometer resistance
S.no Resistance Deflection in θ/2 𝑹𝑺
Shunt R -S G=
𝑹−𝑺
(Ω)
R(Ω) Galvanometer S(Ω) (Ω)
θ (divisions)

Mean (G) = Ω

Procedure:
a) Make the connections as shown.
b) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the K1 only.
d) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum
(say 30div)
e) Note the deflection. Let it be θ i.e., θ = 30 div.
Now, insert the key K2. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S,
such that deflection in galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained, θ / 2.
i.e., θ / 2 = 15 div
f) Note the value of S.
g) Repeat the above steps for various values of R.
h) Calculate G using the formula 𝑅 𝑆
𝑅−𝑆
i) Knowing G , K can be calculated using the formula Figure ofMerit,

k= 𝐸 (A/divisions)
(𝑅+𝐺) 𝜃
 Precautions:
a) All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

b) Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.

c) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or else a small
resistance can damage the galvanometer.

Sources of error:

1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.

2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct.
Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and nay have contact resistance
Result:
Using half deflection method
1). The resistance of galvanometer is found to be Ω.

2). Figure of merit of galvanometer is A/division.

4. Frequency of AC mains with a sonometer

Aim : To find the frequency of the ac mains using a sonometer and an electromagnet.
Apparatus required: Sonometer having a soft iron core, an electromagnet, a step down
1
transformer, hanger with kg slotted weights, meter scale, stand for electromagnet,
2
weighing machine.
 1 T
Formula: Frequency of ac mains using a sonometer, fAC = Hz.
2l µ

Where, l = resonating length, in metre,

T = Tension in the string, in newton and

µ = linear mass density of the wire( i.e., mass per unit length of wire )
M
µ= kg m-1 where M = mass of the wire in kg, L = length of the wire in m.
L

Theory: Frequency of ac is defined as the number of ac cycles per second, fAC.

An electromagnet is made by passing electric current in a coil wound around a piece of soft
iron. This is nothing but a current carrying solenoid with soft iron as its core. The core acquires
magnetic properties on passing electric current through the solenoid and loses magnetism on
switching off.
If AC of frequency fAC is passed through this electromagnet, the polarity of the ends of
electromagnet changes (N pole to S pole or vice versa) once in every cycle of AC. If the
electromagnet is held close to the string of a sonometer wire, near its centre, the string will
be attracted towards it when the electromagnet is magnetized and thrown away when it is
demagnetized. Thus the sonometer wire will vibrate under the electromagnet. As the string
will be attracted by electromagnet whether there is a north pole or south pole on its near end,
the frequency of vibration of string ( ν ) will be equal to the frequency of the ac fed to
electromagnet.

1 T
So, fAC = ν = Hz.
2l µ

Procedure:

1. Check if pulley is frictionless.

2. Place sonometer parallel to one edge of the working table, such that, the pulley remains
projected out of the perpendicular edge. See that there are no kinks in the string of
sonometer and its one end is rigidly fixed. Pass string over pulley such that it
1
stretches horizontally over the box of sonometer and attach a hanger of kg weight
2
on its free end.
3. Connect the electromagnet to the secondary of step down transformer and plug primary
of the transformer in ac mains. Hold the electromagnet in a stand and bring it close to
the sonometer wire just above the centre of its length.
4. Switch on the mains and adjust the wedges on the sonometer, starting from minimum
separation till you get maximum amplitude of oscillation of the sonometer wire. At
this resonance condition, rider flies off. Note the resonating length of the sonometer wire
between the wedges and also note the load suspended on the string.
1
5. Increase the load on the hanger in steps of kg weight and measure the resonating
2
length. Take atleast 3 observations with three loads 1.5kg, 2kg and 2.5kg.
6. Switch off ac supply and take out sonometer wire. Measure its mass M and length L.
M
Then find its linear mass density µ = kg m-1
L
𝟏
7. The value of 𝝑 can be calculated using the formla 𝝑 = √𝑻/µ
𝟐𝒍

Diagram:
 Observation:

S.No Mass of Tension Resonating √𝑇/𝑙

hanger and T=mg length ,l
weights m (N) (m)
(Kg)

1.
2.
3.
4.

Mean,c= Hz.

Calculation:

Length of the sonometer wire, L = m

Mass of sonometer wire, M = Kg

Mass per unit length of sonometer wire (i.e., linear mass density)

M
µ= = Kg/m
L

Precautions:
1) Sonometer wire should be horizontal and free from kinks.
2) Magnet should remain in the middle of vibrating segment and close to wire.
3) Resonance position should be noted when wire has maximum amplitude
of oscillation.
Sources of Error:
1) Slotted weights may not have fixed value.
2) Pulley may not be frictionless.
3) Sonometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section

Result:
The frequency of ac mains by using the sonometer is = Hz.
 5-FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX MIRROR
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Source box, screen, convex mirror, convex lens, lens stand, scale etc.

FORMULA:
F = 𝑹/𝟐

FORMULA EXPANSION:
F – Focal length of convex mirror – cm
R – Radius of curvature of the convex mirror – cm

THEORY:
An object O placed in a front of a convex lens between its F and 2F forms an inverted
and real image at C. When a convex mirror is placed such that its centre of curvature
coincide with C, the rays after refraction passes through the convex lens fall normally on
it. The rays are reflected back along the same path and forms an image at O. The distance
PC measures the radius of curvature of the convex mirror. therefore f= R/2.
PROCEDURE:
• Find the rough focal length of the convex lens by focusing a sharp, clear and inverted image of
a distant object on the screen.
• Fix the source box and adjust the position of the convex lens ,such that it is between f and 2f .
• Adjust the position of the screen for a well defined image. Mark the position as C.
• Insert the convex mirror between C and convex lens, and adjust the position of the convex
mirror to get a well defined image parallel to the source box.
• Measure the distance between C and convex mirror as R (radius of curvature)
• Repeat the experiments for various position of the convex lens, and measure R in each case.

s.no Position of Distance f=R/2

the convex between C
lens and convex cm
cm mirror (R)
cm

PRECAUTIONS:
Parallax shouldbe removed.
The convex lens used should not be thick.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax may not be removed perfectly
The lens of smaller focal length may be used.

RESULT:
The focal length of the convex mirror using convex lens is -----cm.

6. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by u –v graphical method.

Requirements: Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with object.

Theory: When a ray of light, parallel to principal axis is incident on a convex lens, after
refraction, it passes through focus. Another ray which passes through optical centre goes
straight and these refracted rays meet and produce real inverted images. The nature and size
of image depends on position of object.
1 1 1
Focal length formula is = − where u is object distance in cm, v is image distance
f v u
in cm and focal length of lens in cm. From the graph the x component OA will be equal to y
component OB, which is 2f.

Formula :

From the graph :

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm

Object Image
S.No Lens position distance, distance,
u v
(cm) (cm)
1 2f-8
2.. 2f-6
3. 2f-4
4. 2f-2
5. 2f+2
6. 2f+4
7. 2f+6

Procedure:

a) Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant
object on the wall. The distance between the convex lens and the screen is the
approximate focal length of the lens.
b) Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the object.
c) Place white screen behind the lens.
d) Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is obtained.
e) Note the position of the object, and image of the lens.

f) The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance between the image
and the lens is v.
g) Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-8), (2f-6), (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f+2) and (2f+4)
(2f+6) positions from theobject.
h) Plot a graph , with u along the negative x-axis, and v along y-axis.
i) Draw a perpendicular bisector to the curve.
j) From the point where the bisector touches the curve draw perpendiculars to the x and
y axis, it is found to be equal.
k) The distance of u and v from the origin is same and it is equal to 2f
l) Thus the focal length of the convex lens is found graphically.

Precautions:

a) Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce
a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should correspond with
centre of curvature.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from image to view the image clearly.
 Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

Result:
The focal length (f) of given convex lens

2) By u-v graph, f=_ cm

. 7 - FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS USING CONVEX LENS:

AIM:
To find the focal length of the concave lens with the help of convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Source box, screen, lens, lens stand, scale etc.,
FORMULA: 𝑓 = 𝑢𝑣 /𝑢 − 𝑣

PRINCIPLE:
A concave lens always produces a virtual, erect , diminished image for any position of the
object. Therefore , it is clear that its focal length cannot be determined directly. However it can
be determined indirectly by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the concave
lens and producing a real image.The convex lens L1 converges the light rays starting from the
object AB to form a real and inverted image at position ‘I’. If a concave lens L2 is inserted
between L1 and ‘I’ , for concave lens L2 image ‘I’ behaves as a virtual object for the lens L2 ,
which produces a real inverted image at I1.The focal length of the concave lens is given by;
1 1 1
= − 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = 𝑢𝑣/u-v;
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Here both u and v are positive, and since u is found to be less than v , f is always negative.

Symbol Expansion Unit

f Focal length of the given m
concave lens
u Object distance, distance m
between concave lens and
first image
v Image distance, distance m
between concave lens and
second image
PROCEDURE:
• To determine the rough focal length of convex lens.
• Mount the lens on the stand
• Go out in open and face it towards a distant object or building.
• Obtain a clear image of it on the screen.
• Measure the distance which gives the approximate focal length of the convex lens.

• To determine the focal length of concave lens.

• Mount the convex lens on the stand
• Using the source box and keeping the convex lens in front of it , a clear image is found.
• A concave lens whose focal length to be calculated is introduced between the screen and
the convex lens.
• The distance between the concave lens and the screen is measured as ‘u’ the image on the
screen is blurred at that time.
• The screen is pulled back to get a clear image.
• Measure the distance between screen and concave lens as ‘v’.
• The experiment is repeated for different values of ‘u’ and the corresponding values of’ v
‘are measured and tabulated.
• The value of ‘f’ is calculated from the formula
• 𝑓 = 𝑢𝑣/u-v.
 S.No. Object Image u–v 𝑓 = uv/ u-v
Distance distance cm cm
u (cm) v (cm)

PRECAUTIONS:
The lens must be clear and should have suitable combination.
The optic centres of lenses should be in a straight line.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. Image formed by convex lens may not be found correctly.

2. The removal of parallax might not be perfect.

RESULT:
The focal length of the given concave lens using convex lens is------- m
 08 PN Junction diode

Aim: To study the I-V characteristics curve of a p n junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Requirements: A pn junction diode, a battery, a high resistance rheostat, voltmeter,
milliammeter, one way key and connecting wires.
Formula:

Theory: A pn junction is a semiconductor device obtained by putting in contact a p-type

semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor. The one piece device so obtained is also called a
junction diode. A junction diode is based on two different ways.
Forward biasing: In forward biasing, the p-type of crystal is connected to the +ve of the
battery and n-type to the –ve of the battery. In forward biasing, current increases as the
forward voltage is increased. The current increases slowly in the beginning and then
sharply. The forward current flows only if the initial forward voltage is greater than a
certain minimum voltage. This is represented by the knee voltage or cut-in voltage.
Reverse biasing: A p-n junction is said to be reverse biasing if the p-type crystal is
connectedto –ve terminal and n-type is connected to +ve terminal of the bias battery.
Now a very small current (µA) flows due to minority carriers. This current is called
saturation current because it is found to be independent off reverse bias voltage. At a
certain reverse voltage the current suddenly increases, due to the breaking of the
covalent bonds. This reverse voltage a which current shoots up to maximum is called the
reverse breakdown voltage.
Procedure:

Forward characteristics:
1). Make the connections as shown.

2). Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter
and milliammeter will show a zero reading.
3). Move the contact towards the positive of the battery to apply the forward bias voltage.
VF = 0.1V. The current remains zero.

4). Increase the forward bias voltage in steps of 0.1 V , The current will still be zero.
This is due tojunction potential barrier.

5). Increase VF in steps and note the corresponding milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
6) At VF = 0.4V, the current increases suddenly. This represents the forward bias cut-in
voltage.

7) Draw a graph between I and V, by taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.

Reverse biasing:

For plotting reverse I-V characteristics the circuit is modified as shown. The voltmeter as
before is connected across the p-n junction. The milliammeter is replaced by microammeter
as shown.

Observations:

Least count of Voltmeter = V

Least count of milliammeter = mA

Least count of microammeter = µA
 (i) Forward bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Milli ammeter

Reading (mA)

(i) Reverse bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Micro ammeter

Reading (µA)

Procedure: Same as in forward bias. The microammeter readings are noted corresponding
to different voltmeter readings. Here the voltameter readings are increased in steps of 1V,
A graph between V and I is plotted by taking V along –X axis and I along –Y axis.

Precautions:
1). Measuring instruments must be of proper range.
2) Make all connections neat , clean and tight.
3) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use.
4) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown.
Sources of error:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.

2. Each time the pointer of ammeter ( milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
 3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.

RESULT:
The V-I characteristics of a pn junction diode was drawn and studied using V-I curve for
The given pn junction diode in forward and reverse bias condition.

*****************