Lab 1

Formulas:
The volume of a rectangular prism: VR = L* W*D
where L, W and D - length, width, and depth.
The volume of a cylinder is VC= (L* pi*d2)/4, d=diameter of the circular base, L=length of the cylinder's side.
The density= m/V
Procedure
2 objects: rectangular prism, cylinder
Using ruler and vernier caliper measure length width depth
Volume calculation: for rectangular prism (2 volumes: from caliper and from ruler)– use formulas, then density; for cylinder(5
volumes: before immersion , after and from caliper and ruler (formulas)- then density
Lab 2
A spring is mounted vertically, and its elongation is observed for different loads. From this the force constant of the spring is
obtained. With a known load attached to the spring it is further elongated and released, thus setting the system into simple
harmonic motion. The period of this motion depends on the load and the force constant of the spring.
Hooke's law for a spring and observe how the period of vibration of the spring depends on the load attached to it.
First part: Static method: Hooke’s Law states that the force required to extend or compress a spring by a certain elongation is
directly proportional to that elongation. Mathematically, it can be expressed as F=−kx, where F is the force applied to the
spring, k is the spring constant, and x is the displacement (in our case, elongation).
For force, we use Newton's second law of motion F=mg. , -kx=M’a , a=- kx/m
The restoring force kx is in the opposite direction to the displacement x as shown by the negative sign.
The mass M' acted on by this force is not only that of the load M, but also depends on the mass of the spring Ms. Equation 2.3
indicates that the acceleration of the mass M' for an elongation x of the spring is proportional to the elongation x and is in the
opposite direction. This is the condition necessary for the system to execute simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.)
Period of a Simple Harmonic Vibration
A body executes a simple harmonic vibration whenever the acceleration of the body due to a displacement x is proportional to
and in the opposite direction to the displacement for a S.H.M.
x=Acos(wt+ф)
a= d2x/dt2= d2(Acos(wt+ ф))/ dt2=-w2Acos(wt+ ф)
a=-w2x
amplitude of A, w=angular frequency, ф=phase constant
T=2pi/w, T=2pi*sqrt(M/K)
Part 1: Static Method. Determining k with initial mass
Add different masses and measure the x, evaluate F (mg) 5 % uncertainty, the slope of (x,F) is the k
Part 2: Dynamic Method no initial mass
Different mases, time 100 full oscillations, calculate period (time/100) and T2
T=2pi*sqrt(M/K), T2=( 4*pi2*M)/k
the period (T) of oscillation is directly proportional to the mass (M). As more weight is added, the system takes a longer time to
2
complete 100 oscillations. k=
4 pi , m=slope of the graph
m
Lab 3
A ball at rest is dropped from a height ho, hits the ground with a velocity u1, bounces off the ground with a velocity v1 and
stops at a height hi. The coefficient of restitution e is defined as e= v1 / u1 (v < u , e <1 , energy lost during the bounce)
A collision happens when the ball hits the ground, momentarily changes shape, and loses energy. Some of the energy is
released as sound and heat. The ball then moves upward, reaching a lower maximum height than before, due to the energy
loss. The ball will continue to bounce until it loses all its energy.
The ball at rest at a height ho has a potential energy (mgho) and no kinetic energy. As the ball falls, it loses potential energy
and gains kinetic energy. As the ball hits the ground, all the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy (Ko = ½ mu21). Some
of the kinetic energy is then lost in the momentary shape change of the ball, sound, and heat. The ball bounces off the ground
with a velocity v1, and
kinetic energy (K1= ½ mv12) and stops at a height h1, where all the kinetic energy K1, is converted to
potential energy. The energy conversion while falling gives rise to the following equation: mgho=½ mu21 from which
u1=sqrt(2gho)
The energy conversion while ball: mgh1=½ mv21 from which v1=sqrt(2gh1)
The fracture of energy loss l=(K0-K1)/K0 or l=1-e2
A collision is described as elastic or inelastic. If the ball hits the ground and bounces back to the same height at which it was
released, then the collision loses no energy, has a coefficient of restitution of 1 and is said to be perfectly elastic. If the ball hits
and sticks to the ground, then the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic and has a coefficient of restitution of 0. In our case,
the collision is referred to as inelastic and has coefficient of restitution values between 0 and 1. e= v1/ u1=sqrt (h1/ho ) or e= root
of 2n of (hn/ho )
Taking the log on both sides and using log properties (we use the log so that the n will not be in the degree of the root
anymore), we find that for the nth bounce,
log e = 1/2n (loghn - log ho)
or, rearranging the previous equation,
loghn = 2n loge + log ho
where loghn is y, slope(m) is loge, n is x, b is log(h0).
Graph : bounce height(y) vs bounce number(x) ,log hn vs bounce number
Uncertainty for log hn =(LOG(hn+uncertainty of hn)-LOG(hn+uncertainty of hn))/2
Lab 4
Apparatus: photogate timer, pendulum of various masses and lengths and a meter stick
A simple pendulum involves a mass swinging at the end of a massless string. To use accurate approximations, the bob should be
a point mass, and the string should be much less massive than the bob.
Part 1
The period of oscillation (T) for a simple pendulum is given by T = 2π*sqrt(L/g), where L is the length of the pendulum (the
result is valid for mall initial oscillation angles <30) ( we found the Ts)
Period of oscillation is independent of the mass of the bob but directly proportional to the length of the string, as predicted by
the formula T = 2π*sqrt(L/g). (we used different masses with the same length and then a mass with different lengths)
Part 2
By measuring the periods of oscillation at different initial angles and calculating the gravitational potential energy and kinetic
energy, we observed that the change in gravitational potential energy was approximately equal to the kinetic energy, in line with
the law of conservation of energy.
Gravitational energy is calculated as Ug=mgh, considering the object’s mass (m) and height (h). To calculate h , we use the
given formula Δh=L(1-cos a) ,where L is the length measured in the lab, a is the angle between the string when the pendulum is
at rest and when it is displaced from the equilibrium position. Kinetic energy is determined using the formula Ek= (1/2) *mv2
To find Ek, we use the formula Ek=(1/2)*m(dʹ/Δt)2, where dʹ is found by d-3.2*10-3(d is the distance between the position of
the bob when the photogate beam is first interrupted and the position when the bob is out of the beam – practically the
diameter of the bob). The total mechanical energy results from the sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
While the pendulum oscillates, there is a continual interchange between kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
As the pendulum is released from its starting position, initial potential energy diminishes until it reaches the equilibrium
point and then increases as it swings up on the other side Meanwhile, since the pendulum begins at rest, kinetic energy initiates
at zero and rises until reaching the equilibrium position. Beyond this point, kinetic energy decreases as the pendulum swings
upward. Throughout this process, the total mechanical energy within the system remains constant.
Lab 5
When an object moves along a circular path, a force is needed for it to maintain a stable trajectory (so that the object won’t be
ejected out if this circle). An object that moves at a constant speed in a straight line has no acceleration. If this object keeps its
speed constant but moves in a circle, its velocity vector is not constant: its direction is changing. This change in direction is
expressed as a centripetal acceleration (ac) oriented towards the center of the circle, which varies according to the speed (v) of
the object and the radius (r) of its trajectory ac= v2/r. A force directed towards the center of the rotation must create the
centripetal acceleration. In our case, this centripetal force will be created by the tension of a wire pulling the object inwards.
Since force and acceleration respect Newton's 2 law, F = Ma, the centripetal force (Fc) can be written as: Fc= Mac=M*v2/r
We measured the average of many measurements of both the centripetal force and the mass' speed. The average of many
measurements has a smaller uncertainty than the individual measurements since the wide variations seen on individual
measurements end up canceling each other out. The uncertainty on the average x of n measurements is x=σx/ sqrt(n) , σx -the
standard deviation of the set of measurements.
Uncert(F)= σF/sqrt(n) , graph: F vs V2. , Fc=mv2/r where y=Fc , x=v2

Procedure LAB 2 Part 1: Static Method. Attach the spring to the pillar with its smaller diameter end up. Hang up the 0.2 kg bob (with the
pointer) on the spring. Let it reach its position of equilibrium, i.e. the position where the mass can simply stay static (at rest). 4 9. 5
On the meter stick note the position of the pointer and consider this to be the initial zero-elongation position (no mass added to the initial 0.2
kg mass). Attach an additional mass of 0.05 kg and measure the elongation indicated by the pointer on the meter stick when the mass reaches
its position of equilibrium. Part 2 Measure the period using a stopwatch for the 0.20 kg, 0.30 kg and 0.40 kg masses. To do this, place a mass on
the end of your spring; let it reach its position of equilibrium, i.e. the position where the mass can simply stay static (at rest). Pull the mass down
vertically for a small distance (no more than 5 cm) and then, release it. With your stop-watch, measure the time of 100 full oscillations; the
period will simply be this time divided by 100. LAB 3 A ball is dropped through a vertical glass tube onto a piece of hardened steel from which it
rebounds. Hold the bottom of the smallest diameter steel ball level with the top of the glass tube and carefully release it. Mark the position of
maximum reached after the 1" rebound by means of a rubber band slipped over the tube. Make sure that you are placing the rubber band in
the same way as height was measured for the initial height (initially, the ball is level with the top of the tube, so at maximum height, it should be
level with the rubber band in the same way.)