CHAPTER 6

STRESS

Everyone of us experiences stress because it is a normal part of life. Some stress is necessary for an
individual to function normally. Stress may be pleasant or unpleasant. The term is commonly used to
describe a feeling or emotion although actually it is not an emotion. It is defined as the process by
which the individual responds to environmental and psychological events that are perceived as
threatening or challenging (Gatchel & Baum, 1983). Some producers of stress such as physical
exercise, various emotional states, and creative activity are usually considered healthy. If the
situation or experience is a positive one for you, you do not generally think of it as stress. It is the
prolonged and unwanted stress that can have undesirable
effects on the individual's mental and physical health and therefore are considered unhealthy.

Ways in Which Stress Can Occur

A person in a physically or mentally demanding or dangerous situation is said to be under

stress. Internal disorders for example, can produce stress responses. Chronic repetition of certain
emotions, such as anger or despair, changes in work or home situations, or a reaction to surgery are
some of the ways in which stress can occur. More than one factor causing stress can be present at
one time.
If the level of stress is particularly high and if it becomes too uncomfortable, there is a need
to reduce the stressor because in such a condition the person's personality is adversely affected.
The young needs to know that stress can make people physically sick. Anyone who has had
to prepare for a big examination knows that stress can lead to a loss of appetite, insomnia or the
inability to sleep, and tension headaches. These are real physical illnesses in which stress is a
contributing factor.

Stress Response
When a person is subjected to stressors, the strength and duration of the stress response
that follows depend on the physical and mental condition of the individual. The response is the same
each time. It is the intensity and period of time that alter. The stress response can be described as a
chain reaction of changes within the body such as quicker breathing, greater production of
adrenalin, faster heartbeat, rise in blood supply to hands and feet, increase in body metabolism,
faster clotting of blood, reduction of blood supply to the stomach and abdomen, increase of blood
flow to the muscles, sharpening of all senses, and tension in the bowels and stomach functions.
Given the above negative effects of stress, there is a need for us to manage our stress or it
will shorten our life.
Effects of Stress
The effects of stress can be complex, but they all involve a certain group of certain body
responses. These responses arose in the course of evolution, as the individuals met situations of
physical danger. In the human body, when danger is perceived (whether real or imaginary), the
pituitary gland releases a hormone called adrenocorticotropic hormone. This in turn triggers the
adrenal glands to release epinephrine or adrenaline and various other hormones that speed up the
heart rate, raise blood pressure, and increase muscle tension. The same effects are observed in
occupational or emotional stress, however inappropriate they may be in such circumstances.
Responses of such kind are usually of short duration but if their effects persist beyond what could be
considered a reasonable length of time, they can also lead in complex ways to the aforementioned
mental and physical problems.

Positive effects of stress

Under certain circumstances, stress is valuable, as for instance, in sports and making
speeches. The stress response develops one's mettle, increases alertness, improves sight,
strengthens muscles, and reduces reaction time. The stress response increases our ability to stand
and fight, to turn and flee, and to mobilize all our resources to achieve whatever we decide to do.
Another positive effect is the zest that stress adds to life by stimulating the senses and the passions.
Many people need challenges in their lives and would be unhappy without them. Stress has a
positive effect if it can be worked off.
Negative effects of stress
Once pressure becomes unbearable, several negative reactions may result such as decline in
work performance like inability to meet deadlines or submitting poor quality work, and work
performance gaps. Since a person under stress is highly emotional, he gets easily irritated and
anxious over things no matter how trivial they may be.

Stress does not only affect a person's mental and emotional state but also his physical
health. Supported by medical findings, it is believed that "... a common cause for almost all diseases
whether it be a heart attack, a mild case of asthma, or just the feeling of being sick... is chemical
imbalance in the body caused by stress." (Worchell & Sebilsky, 1989)
The negative effects of stress are evident when stress remains in the body, usually when
there is no chance to take the necessary steps to release a stress response that is too strong or lasts
too long.
The negative effects of stress show up in the following ways: 1) Unsuitable behavior, 2) Lower
energy and performance level, and 3) Poorer health.

Some negative effects of stress are stated under each category.

Poorer Health.

1. Unsuitable 2. Lower Energy and 3. behavior:

Performance level

Loser behavior Reduced concentration Heart and circulatory diseases

Short temper Increased forgetfulness
Bad smoking, Poor judgment Ulcers
eating, and drinking
habits
More frequent Prone to feelings
mistakes of tiredness Infectious diseases
Less flexibility Skin diseases
Stress can also adversely affect the immune system, lowering body resistance to a wide range of
other health problems. Mental states such as severe melancholic depression are closely linked with
stress-inducing anxiety.
Stressors
Stressors are the events that cause stress. It is important that we learn to control stress and live with
it. The first step in learning to control stress is to find out what your stressors are, that is, what
stresses you personally.
Stressors can be divided into physical, social, and psychological.
1.Physical stressors. The following are examples
of physical stressors:

Heat Traffic
Cold Violence
Noise Own illness
Fire Poor working conditions and equipment

2. Social Stressors. There are four main causes of social stress: I) Social, economic and political
situations; 2) Family; 3) Job and career; and 4) Interpersonal and environmental stressors.
a. Examples under social stressors are the following:
Unemployment
Cost of housing
Crime
b. Examples of social stressors found within the family are:
Sharing of workload
Jealousy or sibling rivalry
•Sex roles
Different values
Death or illness in the family
Different lifestyle
Money problems
c.After one has graduated and finds a job, one may experience the following stressors:
Deadlines
Muddled communications
Travelling time
Interruptions
Competitions
Power struggles
d.The following are examples of interpersonal and
environmental stressors:
Different values
Obligations
Waiting time
Poor service
Smokers/ Non-smokers
•Driving habits
Social expectations
3. Psychological stressors.
 Frustration occurs when one's strivings are thwarted by obstacles that block progress toward
a desired goal.
Conflicts are also psychological stressors. A conflict is the simultaneous occurrence of two or
more important but incompatible needs or motives. College students experience conflicts when they
are confused whether to have a college education or to get married.
Pressures. Stress may not only stem from frustrations and conflicts but also from pressures
such as to achieve goals or to behave in particular ways. In general, pressure forces a person to
change the direction of a goal-oriented behavior.
A college student may feel impelled under severe pressure to make good grades because of
his parents' demand or because of a desire to gain admission to graduate school.
In some instances, pressure seriously taxes one's adjustive resources and if it becomes
intense it may lead to a breakdown.

It is apparent that a given situation may involve elements of all three types of psychological
stressors.
Stress Signals
Just as it is helpful to know our stressors, it is also good to learn to recognize the signals in us
which tell us that we are overstressed. These signals can be mental, physical, emotional, or
behavioral.
A stress signal acts as a red light or warning bell to tell us that action is needed to prevent
more serious problems from developing. The trouble is that we do not always recognize the warning
signs right away and even if we do see them, we do not always act quickly enough. The longer we
delay taking action on a warning, the more likely we are to damage our health and the more difficult
it will be to achieve a cure.
For instance, the best time to treat a stomach ulcer is before you get one or the first time
you get a feeling of acid indigestion. It is advisable to prevent the cause instead of treating the
symptoms.
The following are examples of stress signals:
1. Physical
Change in breathing rhythm
Tense and aching muscles
Headaches
Sweating
Cold hands and feet
Changes in appetite
Stomach problems, heartburn
2. Mental
Lack of concentration
More frequent mistakes
Forgetfulness/ absent-mindedness
Tendency to over-react
Poorer judgment
3. Emotional
Irritation/ short temper
Nervousness
Depression/silence
Emotional outbursts/crying
 4. Behavioral
Insomnia
Increased drinking/smoking/eating
Absenteeism
Clumsiness
How to Cope with Stress
There are three major ways of coping with stress: cognitive, informational, and behavioral.
Cognitive Responses
Cognitive coping involves reappraisal, raising self-esteem, and developing self-efficacy. In a
disappointing and stressful situation, the amount of stress experienced is as much a function of the
way we interpret the event as it is due to the event itself. Stress could be reduced by reexamining
the situation and identifying its positive aspects. Reappraisal does not involve denying the situation
or the disappointment; it does involve looking at the good as well as the bad. Researchers report
that maintaining a sense of humor and perceiving the lighter side of stressful situations reduce the
negative reactions to stress (New and Blisett, 1988). Change, whether positive or negative, may be
stressful; however, the stress is lessened if we are able to predict and control the situation.

Informational Responses
Uncertainty caused by lack of information contributes to the stress of the situation. A study
found that cancer patients who believed their condition was incurable delayed treatment two and a
half times longer than people with the same disease who believed it was curable (Safer et. al., 1979).
Seeking out information and gaining a better understanding of the stressful situation can be an
important step in coping with stress.
Behavioral Responses
The following are suggested:
1. Sleep well, eat well, avoid harm, and exercise regularly.
2. Develop and maintain a relaxation program.
3. Do things you enjoy. Develop hobbies.
4.Be part of a social network and know that you
can rely on others to help in time of crisis. Social support plays a major role in coping with
stress.
5. Learn to set aside problems temporarily.
6.Have a clear picture of your life goals.
a. Check your priorities; update your value system.
b. Develop trust in God.
7. Nurture your faith dimension.
a. Have regular meditation and prayer.
b. Seek God's will and yield to it.
8. Take a break or a vacation.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Filipinos who are hit by the worst disasters such as floods, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions or
experience shock usually suffer from a series of acute stresses called posttraumatic stress disorder.
 Psychologist Mory Framer, Ph. D., says that disasters "rob us of our healthy sense of
omnipotence and make us confront our own mortality." Recent studies show that a trauma may
cause changes in the sympathetic nervous system. It makes victims extremely anxious, emotionally
detached or angry; they begin to have uncontrollable thoughts, undeserved self-blame, and
nightmares.
To fight the aftershock of disasters, victims should talk to trusted people about their
experiences. They should also be informed that posttraumatic stress is common and
natural.

EXERCISES
Purpose: To identify your stressors and decide which stressors have the strongest effect on
you
What to do: 1. Make a list of all the stressors which affect you negatively. Consider all the categories
and see if you need to include something from each of them. Think about your work and your
private life.
2. Then tick the most significant ones. Try to number them in order of priority.

Physical
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Social, economic, and political
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Family
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Job and Career
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Interpersonal and environmental
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Once you have identified your stressors, you have taken the first step towards doing
something constructive about them.

SUMMARY
The term stress is commonly used to describe a feeling or emotion. It is the process by which
the individual responds to environmental and psychological events that are perceived as
threatening. A person in a physically or mentally demanding or dangerous situation is said to be
under stress. Stress can make people physically sick.
 The effects of stress can be complex. It may be either positive or negative. Many people
need challenge in their lives and would be unhappy without it. The negative effect of stress shows up
in unsuitable behavior, low energy and performance levels, and poor health. It is important that we
learn to control stress and live with it. Events that cause stress are called stressors.

There are three major categories of coping with stress: cognitive, informational, and
behavioral responses. Cognitive coping involves reappraisal which is looking at the good as well as
the bad. Maintaining a sense of humor and perceiving the lighter side of stressful situations reduce
the negative reactions to stress. Seeking out information and getting a better understanding of the
stressful situation can be an important step in coping with stress.
Behavioral responses to stress such as sleeping well, doing things you enjoy, developing
hobbies, learning to set aside problems temporarily, and taking a break are ways of coping with
stress.
QUESTION
1. Describe how you felt when you experienced a stressful situation.
2. How did you handle the stressful situation?
3. How did the stressful situation affect you? positively? negatively?
4. What are some coping mechanisms you applied in meeting the stressful situation?
 CHAPTER 7
MOTIVATION
Every human experience involves a causative factor that produces a kind of
response. Motivation is often considered as an answer to the question of why an action is
performed.
In Chapter 1 personality has been defined as "the overall pattern, or the integration
of a person's structures, modes of behavior, attitudes, aptitudes, interests, intellectual abilities and
many other distinguishable personality traits."
In explaining the behavior of people, we start our description with reference to
some kind of active driving force: the individual seeks, the individual wants, the individual fears. In
addition we specify an object or condition toward which that force is directed: he seeks vy. realth, he
wants peace, he fears illness. The study of the relationship between these two variables, the driving
force and the object or the condition toward which that driving force is directed, is the study of the
dynamics of behavior, or motivation. Motivation cannot be observed directly but must be inferred
from the behavior. The property that organizes behavior and defines its end states is called a motive.

Terms synonymous with motive are needs, drive, urges, desires, goals, aspirations,
and purposes. Man's wants, desires, drives, and urges are the explanation of a person's behavior.
Food, water, air, excretion, rest, activity, and exercise are needs which when craved for are
transformed into desires. Needs and desires may not be in harmony with each other all the time.
A woman may desire a new pair of earrings to add to her collection ofjewelry. A child may desire
chocolate candy after eating ice cream. This means a desire may be very strong, while the need for it
can be very low.
A need is "a general state of deficiency or lack ( e.g., food) or state of deprivation within an
organism. Drives are the state of uncomfortable tension that spur activity until a goal or incentive is
reached." (Kalayon and Aquino, 1985.)
Wants and urges are instinctive. They are primitive unless modified by will power, determination and
self-control, training and experiences. They may be transformed into desirable behaviors. The sex
urge can become an expression of love and affection with someone dear to you.
Classification of Motives
Motives can be classified into two:
1. Physiological motives which are sometimes called survival motives are those directly related
to
no' 'nal body functions such as the need for food. water, air, rest, excretion, exercise, peace.
2. Psychological motives, which are sometimes called psychosocial needs, are those that arise
from interaction with other people such as the need for affection, belongingness, achievements,
social recognition, self-actualization, self-esteem and acceptance.
The physiological has something to do with the normal functioning of the body system while
psychological is concerned with the psychic or mental and emotional functioning of the individual.
Physiological needs may easily be satisfied, while psychological needs may be unsatisfiable.
The motivational needs of human beings are hierarchical in nature because physiological
needs must be given first priority over psychological needs like safety, belongingness, love, self-
fulfillment, and self-esteem.
A person cannot think of the welfare and love for others if his basic needs are not met.
The basic bodily needs always supersede the needs influenced by social factors. The proper
and normal functioning of the body systems should be attended to before a person is able to
understand, to learn, to appreciate, and adapt to new situations. The value of play, curiosity,
enthusiasm, gregariousness, sympathy, and cultural arts are nothing when the stomach is empty and
when one is troubled as to where to get the next day's meal for his family and where to gather his
family members for the night.
Motivation and Incentives
Motivations are both internal and external. External incentives may come in the foinis of
prizes, money, promotion, medals, plaques, diplomas, certificates, and citations.
When incentives are present, the individual is stimulated and motivated. In a classroom,
learning is rather slow when motivations are not accompanied by incentives. There is the strong
force to overcome the line of least resistance in developing the habit of reading. In the course of
time, when the individual discovers the joy in reading, he develops an increasing desire for
knowledge. Thus he widens his vocabulary and increases his self-confidence. Only then are external
incentives no longer needed and are replaced by internal motivations.
Factors Which May Influence Motivation
Complicated individuals that we are, our desires and goals in life are multi-directed,
depending on once priority in life, each one will have his own superseding considerations.
These considerations are influenced greatly by certain factors given below:
1. Interest. A person will always give vent to whatever is his interest in life. A doctor who sacrificed a
great deal of his pleasures in life while studying for the medical course cannot attain success in his
profession if he is more inclined toward politics.
Ultimately he will seek gratification in becoming a politician sooner or later.
2. Power and Authority. Some people are born to have a strong desire to be on top of other
people. Having high intelligence, great self-confidence, and belief in one's capacity are the elements
that drive people to seek power and authority.
For some people, power and authority become their projections in life. If they miss some aspects
of life, power and authority become their substitutes for success.
3. Personal Growth. Life is a continuous process of becoming, of growing and developing.
Motivation is the driving force which gives "buoyancy" in
going through the stage-by-stage struggle in attaining our objectives in life.
Life is stagnant without struggle and there is
no struggle without motivation. When motivation is lost, life becomes a vacuum.
4. Self-fulfillment. This is the stage when the goals in life are attained. This can only take place at a
normal pace at 45 years and above. This is the period when one has a family, a career, and many
material possessions. One may have achieved status, power, authority, and success. All of these
become possible when motivations, external and in-
ternal, become widely used positively by the individual.

Motivation of Behavior
A useful and distinctive way of viewing motives has been suggested by Abraham H. Maslow.
He views human motives as arranged in an ascending hierarchy of steps extending from the basic
biological needs to the most complex social and personal desires. As the needs in the lower level in
the hierarchy are fulfilled, the needs at higher level become strong and active (prepotent) and
motivate the person. For example, a starving person experiences a very strong need for food, but
may feel little need to be admired by others. After food has been made constantly available and
normal social life has been resumed, this same person may then find that the need to be admired
has become a predominant one.
Abraham Maslow (1970) proposes two (2) general need systems: basic and meta needs.
 The basic needs are :
1. The physiological needs, which are the need for food, water and air, and so on.

2. The safety needs, which are those needs that are manifested in people's efforts to
maintain a
sociable, predictable, orderly, and non-threatening environment.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Secondary
Self-actualization needs
Esteem and prestige needs
Belongingness and love needs
Safety and security needs
Physiological needs Primary

The illustration above page is a representation of Maslow's "hierarchy of needs." As those needs at
the bottom are satisfied, the ones above become proportionately more important.
If you examine the diagram carefully, you will notice that it forms a hierarchy; that is, the needs are
shown in ascending order of emergence. Those at the bottom are of initial importance. In this
theory, however, an individual does not gain complete satisfaction at one level and then go on to
another. Maslow's hierarchy is a kind of ideal description of the way needs emerge. As gratification
at one level occurs, the next level or levels become proportionately more important. The order itself
is not necessarily rigid, and in some instances, the levels may be reversed.
3. Love and belongingness or the need to develop relationships involving reciprocal affection; the
need to become a member of a group.
4. Self-esteem. Cultivating and maintaining this need
will be attended to only after the lower-level ends are satisfied. While people need food, they are
not likely to be concerned with love or with self-
esteem.
The highest need in Maslow's system is our tendency towards self-actualization.
Self-Mtualization
The self-actualization motive is the cause of most
neuroses.
Maslow made some interesting observations on an experiment he carried out with healthy non-
neurotic prominent people whom he had identified as being self-actualized. Here are some of his
observations.
1. They have a more efficient perception of reality and a more comfortable relation with it.
They have an unusual ability to detect the spurious, the fake and the dishonest in personality and to
judge people correctly and efficiently.
2. They can be described as relatively spontaneous in behavior. Their behavior is marked by
simplicity and naturalness and by lack of artificiality or striving for effect.
3. They are problem-centered rather than ego-centered.
4. They positively enjoy solitude and privacy to a greater degree than the average person. They find
it easy to be aloof, reserved, and calm.
5. They are propelled by growth motivation rather than by deficiency motivation.
6. They have deeper and profound interpersonal relations than any other adults and are
capable of
greater love.
7. They are more democratic.
8.They show a special kind of creativeness or originality. They are specially endowed with a drive and
capacity to do the unusual.
All meta-needs supersede the basic needs and will be attended to only when the basic needs are
reasonably satisfied. A person who is hungry will set aside whatever he is doing to give way for his
effort to go to a distant canteen to satisfy his hunger and to relieve himself of the tension of hunger.
The meta-needs include aesthetic and cognitive urges associated with such virtues as truth and
goodness, acquisition of knowledge and appreciation of beauty, order,
and symmetry.
Maslow's theories are based on Clark Hull's drive theory which states the following:
1. A need will always dominate man's behavior.
2. A hierarchy of needs exists.
3. Satisfied need no longer motivates.
If employees are not properly motivated, their work objectives suffer and are not realized. They will
have personal conflicts with supervisors; in the outputs will be restricted; and there will be high
wastage of materials and time, high absenteeism, and unofficial stoppages of work.
At the opposite end of the scale are the people who are highly motivated. They will be creative in
their jobs and will have sound relationships with their supervisors. They are more willing to accept
and be committed to the objectives of the organization.
A meta-need is a factor for growth. Psychologists consider meta-needs to be central to the healthy
experiences of being human. These needs may lead to the accurate perception of human conditions.
Children acquire their achievement motive when they are encouraged to take risks and to be
independent and self-sufficient at an early age. They develop the desire for a higher status for
themselves.
Varied Theories of Motivation
Edward Tolman was more interested in the effects of incentives and on internal cognitions
about them. In the experiments with rats, he found out that the level of performance was higher
when the incentives from the environment are enlarged, more attractive, and more tasty. However,
there was also learning even when there were no external incentives.
John Atkinson, in his analysis of the achievement need, found out that there is a need to
seek success and a need to avoid failure. People who fear failure set for themselves very easy goals.
Sometimes, however, they tend to set very difficult tasks so they can avoid being blamed for their
failures.
Matina Horner found that many women have a "fear of success" motive. Efforts and ability
are both internal factors but people with a high achievement motive attribute success to internal
factors while low achievement people attribute success to external factors and attribute failure to
lack of ability.
McDougall believed in instincts which are called native properties that dominate man and
animals. They are the prime movers of human activities.
According to Sigmund Freud, the self-preservation instinct of an individual is motivated by
sexual instincts; Alfred Adler, on the other hand, claims that it is due more to a desire for power and
superiority as a reaction to one's feelings of inferiority.
Exponents Combs and Snygg (1959) advanced the theory that the fundamental need of man
is the preservation and enhancement of his phenomenal self. Gaudencio Aquino (1985) defines
phenomenal self to include those of the total situation in which the individual perceives himself, as a
distinct being, separate but a part of other aspects of the environment. The self is not in a vacuum
but is perceived as part of a personal environment.
The need theory of Henry Murray states that when a man's need is aroused, he is under a state of
tension but when it is satisfied, his tensions and anxieties are relieved and satisfaction ensues.
Gordon Aliport maintained that there is functional autonomy of motives in the sense that when
motives are attained, they snowball into more and more other motives. There is the emergence of
some other new motives like higher promotions from the first positions that he originally aspired for
at the beginning of employment. Higher positions will entail increased salaries, and higher status and
social recognition from peers and subordinates.
Yerkes-Godson's law of motivation states, "The level of task performance depends on the level of
arousal or perfoiniance." This means that the optimal level of arousal for simpler tasks is relatively
higher, while the optimal level of arousal for more complex tasks is relatively lower.
The expectancy value theory of Berent (1977), states, "Our actions result from a conscious or
unconscious estimation of the probability of a certain outcome, multiplied by the strength of the
value which is placed on the outcome." This theory focuses more on the incentives found in the
environment.
SUMMARY
Motivation is often considered as an answer to the question of why an action is performed.
For every behavior of men, there must be a reason. A person's wants, drives, desires, needs, and
urges are the driving forces that explain why he can have the will power and determination in doing
something. For example, someone cannot be disturbed from his office work unless he is hungry that
he is willing to walk to another wing of the building where the canteen is located. A politician cannot
sweat out a campaign trail and empty his lifetime earning if he is not highly motivated to get a
position in the Congress or Senate. Parents, because of their instinctual desire to provide the best
education to ' their children, are willing to sacrifice a life of comfort.
Physiological and psychological motivations are the two classifications of motives.
Basic needs belong to the physiological and love, affection, recognition, power, authority, statues,
etc., belong to psychological needs.
A person cannot think of the other persons' welfare and love for others if his basic needs are not
met.
Motivation and incentives are two different things. External incentives may come in the form of
prizes, money, promotion, medals, plaques, diplomas, and citations. Internal incentives are the
satisfactions one derives from getting good grades, and the pride and honor parents get when their
children graduate from college.
In motivation, there is tension within the individual and the forces which drive the individual to exert
efforts to attain his goals. There is a release, of tension as soon as goals are met, thus enhancing the
individual's motives for greater satisfaction.
QUESTION
1. Differentiate motive from drive.
2. What are some factors which influence motivation?
3. What is meant by incentive?
4. Does Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs apply to us Filipinos?
5. What are the explanations for a man's behavior?

CHAPTER 8

EMOTIONS AND MENTAL HEALTH

Breckenridge and Vincent (1981) said that emotional well-being is a primary factor in a child's mental
and personality development. A child inherits not only physical structure but also the psychological
structures of emotional
and mental potentiality called psychological constitution.
This world is a complex place to live in. The tempo of change is fast and sometimes drastic. Changes
may be in terms of technology, population explosion, politics, educational growth, or moral values.
The emotional coping mechanisms of people toward change need a high degree of resiliency and
tolerance. As there is the constant need for the coping skill; it is in this regard that the psychological
constitution of a man is put to the test.
Abraham Sperling, (1976) defines an emotion as a "state of agitation," "distribution of equilibrium,"
"an intense, random and disorganized response to a stimulus."
A person without emotional stress is calm and serene. Emotional stimulus and instigation are but
normal occurrences in this excitable world. It is only when one's feelings and emotions are excessive
that emotions become detrimental. Negative and positive emotions must be in moderation if they
are to influence and pervade our behavior,
health, and personality.
Watson, the behaviorist, claimed that fear, rage, and love are the three basic emotions
around which complex adult emotions were evolved. A child is born with emotions of fear for noise,
strange men, animals, dark plates, and high places. The inborn reactions of
rage respond to particular stimuli of unpleasantness in the environment.
The infant's response to hunger, pain, restraint, or falling is called anger or rage. The pleasant
stroking of the mother, the family's smiles and kisses and giving of comfort develop the love instincts
of the child. All through
the years of caring, attachment between the family and the child develops.
Basically, emotions are instincts. The instincts to live and to survive lead the new-born baby to grope
for his food from the mother's breast even if no one teaches him. He will suck anything put into his
mouth in order to live. From his crib, he will show contentment when Physiologically satisfied; anger
overwhelms him when his needs and wants are not met. In a young child, jealousy may take the
form of bed-wetting, pretense of illness, refusal to eat, sucking of the thumb, or ignoring others. In
an older child, the negative effects of jealousy are quarreling, teasing, gossiping, boasting, ridicule,
and sarcasm. Each child utilizes the method that gives him the greatest satisfactions. During
childhood when his toys are lost or destroyed, he will show hatred toward his playmates but he can
display appreciation, admiration, and love to people who are kind to him.
Adolescence is the stage when he experiences the first taste of love. Sometimes it is devastating to
someone when love becomes an experience of bitterness.
The importance of play to children cannot be underestimated. They are the vehicles for releasing
tensions. When a child plays, he is given the opportunity to release fear, resentment, and
frustrations resulting from
parental prohibitions and control.
facial expressions accurate indicators of emotions? Although there are facial expressions for
each kind of emotion, they are not however dependable indicators of emotions. Some people are so
happy that tears flow from their eyes, while some people, in spite of internal grief during the burial
of a loved one, cannot cry. Some magnify their emotions by exaggerating their reactions through
facial expressions, while others hide their emotions by inhibiting their feelings.
Emotions and Feelings Differentiated
Feelings and emotions are moving powers of human beings. Anxieties, enthusiasm, apprehension,
desires, and the pleasantness and unpleasantness of life experiences elicit the powers of emotion.
Positive emotions result in the effectiveness and efficiency of individuals. Negative emotions result in
the ineffectiveness and inefficiency of individuals.
Can you imagine what this world would be like if people did not have emotions? If people had
uniform reactions, this world would be dull, and without challenge and variety at all.
Emotions are stronger than feelings. While feelings concern the external sensations of pain and
pleasure through the external senses of the body, emotions are strong and intense, integrated and
focused on the object of the emotions. They are so internalized that they integrate body and mind.
Feelings are the simple pleasurable or painful aspects of mental processes or bodily conditions. In
the James-Lange theory, emotions are caused by perceived objects or situations, penetrate the
organized system of the body, then consolidated into reactions as a consequence of the interwoven
impact of various external senses. They intensify and then physiologically manifest themselves in the
individuals.

Classifications of Emotions
There is a wide spectrum of emotions.
1. Personal emotions are based on self, such as self-assertion, self-preservation, self-control,
self-assurance, self-adequacy, self-sufficiency and self-esteem.
2. Social emotions are the strong feelings people have because they are part of the society
they move in. Sympathy is the most fundamental of them all. Empathy is the desire to share with
others the sensitivity an individual feels toward others. Love for the family, patriotism,
philanthrophy, competition, rivalry, pride, brotherhood, and the desire to lead others are some of
the social emotions people have as grown-up individuals. Other examples are love, recognition,
friendship, belongingness, compassion, and sympathy.
3. Intellectual emotions are based on love for the truth. People possess intellectual emotions when
they develop guiding principles and philosophies, systems of values and high moral standards.
Novelty and loftiness of ideals are good examples.
4. The aesthetic emotions are wholly influenced by the cultural background. The finer taste as an
outcome of one's exposure to refinements and one's finesse depends on his lifetime experiences,
education and training. The emotions of awe, admiration, appreciation and gratitude can only
belong to someone who can transcend the material aspects of living toward something beyond
these. Examples are admiration, elation, appreciation, sacrifice, heroism, and patriotism.

How Powerful Is Emotion?

Emotion can propel man into action It is a strong power which drives man to carry heavy objects in
times of fire and in times of war, in times of calamities and in times of emergencies.
Emotions provide inspiration to do and accomplish things which could hardly be attained under
normal situations. Most often man finds himself doing something not through the dictates of his
mind but through the impulse of his emotions. The body system follows the emotions blindly and
unconsciously when emotions overpower someone.
Emotions provide the color of the environment the individual moves in. His perception of the world
depends on the kind of emotion which overwhelms him, thus limiting or expanding his world
accordingly.
A person should know how to manage his emotions. He should know how to properly direct and
tailor his emotions toward his goals. Positive emotions such as love and curiosity should be properly
directed. Emotions may be compared to water which given the right canals will not overflow and will
not devastate humanity.
Effects of Emotions
Emotions are accompanied by glandular, muscular, mental, and physical effects on the human
organism. Usually, a person with intense emotions would have either a reddish face or a pale face,
hair standing all over the body, profuse perspiration, trembling of the legs and joints; or
uncontrollable tears.
Unpleasant emotions cause the excessive secretions of glands which effect the normal functions of
the body such as digestion, respiration, and excretion. They also cause tenseness of the muscles,
higher breathing rate, and faster heartbeat. The posture becomes unstable and shaky.
Strong emotions can block the learning process. Unmanageable strong emotions can retard
growth and development of the mind. It can thwart the learner's acquisition of knowledge.
However, pleasant emotions like love, joy, happiness, and satisfaction can arouse the enthusiasm of
persons, accelerate the learning process, and may result in the fulfillment of the person.
Emotions make life colorful. Time is short and its passing unnoticed when people are in love. Positive
emotions motivate a man into action when he is happy over success. The span of life is shortened
because of negative emotions. As the Bible has put it, "Envy and anger shorten
one's life, worrying brings on premature old age." (Sirach 31:24)
Control of Emotions
Self-control is the difference between man and the brute creation. Man is capable of controlling
emotions since he is endowed with the intellect and the will. Self-control is the ability to regulate
oneself in every situation. It is the ability to do an act with a balanced mind. A person having this
quality thinks well before he speaks. When he speaks, he uses his reasoning so as not to say mean
words. Unlike
animals, man must be able to overcome any impulse. This can be done by self-control.
There are certain practices that need to be followed
in order to have poise and self-control. Rivera et. al. (1973) offer the following advice:
Refrain from gambling and other vices.
Avoid unwholesome habits such as drinking liquor, smoking, overeating, etc.
3. Control your temper and language.
4. Take criticisms calmly and good-naturedly.
5. Cultivate the habit of denying yourself some of the luxuries of life.
6. Shun all forms of vice, and endeavor to help in checking and eliminating them.

Mental Health
Everyone wants a sound healthy mind as he wants a sound healthy body. Mental health
results when an individual balances his needs, desires and aspirations against realities in the
environment. To be able to do this, he must have an objective assessment of himself as a social
being, as a professional or whatever calling he has and in whatever status he is in. He must then plan
a program of action calculated to improve his personal adjustment, to modify his habits, his self-
concept and his emotional reactions, and to improve his social interactions. Frequently the roots of
all human problems are so deeply imbedded in the past that a person sometimes needs help to
make the causes surfaces, or else, his efficiency and performance in life are seriously impaired.
In one’s life span, various forms of problems, such as ab adolescent’s problem, choice of a
career, choice of mate, occupational problems, marital problems, adjustment wit in-laws, and
financial problems pose such a threat and insecurity that only a person with strong self-confidence
can overcome them. These multifaceted forms of problems need the thorough deliberations of a
mentally and emotionally mature individual before some form of acceptance, adaptations, and
decision-making can be achieved.
Human adjustment as an aspect of mental health as a continuous and unending process. A
solid and strong family foundation and back-up for any person are a source of support in time of life
crises.
A. In Employment. There are several situations in an employment setting where mental
health should be present. Immediate adjustment can promote good mental health. Supervisors are
cognizant of the problem of adjustment for newly selected employees. There are always over
powering feelings of fears, insecurities, and tension of new employees. Other employees in the same
organization should offer acceptance, belongingness, and positive forms of treating the new
employees in order to dispel the fears associated with the new jobs.
In the same way, new employees should take every opportunity to learn the intricacies of the new
job and the responsibilities they assume. They should show a positive attitude toward work and
those people with whom they will have a working relationship.
A briefing for the new employees regarding the physical facilities, regulations, policies, and
administrative personnel is considered a gain for the company in the long
B. In Social Life. One of the greatest blessings we have is the love and friendship of other
people. This form of happiness makes our life truly worth living. There are times when we need
compassion, tenderness, and love from another human being to stimulate our dormant compassion
and love.
Give others a chance to see your excellent qualities. Instill in their minds all your positive qualities,
because people easily fouli lasting impressions. The sound of your voice, your thoughts, your gesture
will be recorded in the minds of those you meet. It is therefore important to steal the spotlight.
Mentally healthy individuals are always positive in outlook and this optimism will be a plus factor in
their social adjustments.
C. What is a Balanced Life? Balance means moderation in everything. It means that one does
not spend all of his time in work or all of his time in play. Balance means one does not have to wrap
his entire life around one person or thing exclusively. One can never depend on a single source of
support and still expect to survive.
• One should never lose balance by attempting to please everyone, or feel devastated when
he is criticized. Remem ber, the first sign of success is shown when one begins to be criticized.
Criticism is usually a sign that one is alive and doing things. Fruit-bearing trees are usually stoned.
When a person is achieving above par, he is noticed and becomes the source of envy for others.
D. What Is Satisfying Work? Satisfying work has a very strong and positive influence on mental
hygiene. Satisfying work fulfills one's innermost needs and gives strong outlets for one's ego needs
and creative interest. It is the source of one's own happiness.
It is not just a sound mind in a sound body, but it is a state that is intimately related to the whole of
human existence. It is the condition of the whole personality characterized by one's ability to face
reality in both defeat and victory and to- function effectively in a dynamic society;
Adjustment and Frustrations
Adjustment is a process and not an end in itself. It is a happy and comfortable relationship between
one's self and one's environment. There is no prescribed situation to match a certain personality.
There is always the processing of situation and environment and the resiliency and adaptability of
the individual until he reaches the stage of satisfaction and ultimately, happiness. As the wisdom of a
philosopher says, "God, give me the courage to change the things which I can change, the serenity to
accept the things which I cannot, and the wisdom to know the difference."
An individual is likely to become well-adjusted by changing his environment to meet his individuality
and also by submitting to the reasonable demands of the situations in which he finds himself On the
other hand, he can avoid situations and people he feels uneasy with. He can create settings where
he can progress and stand out.
Neither do conformity and rebellion represent adjustment or maladjustment. One can be
harmonized with a situation and events without sacrificing his own values and principles.
How To Live With Oneself
The whole drama of life springs out of our basic "I want." Dr. Murray D. Bars states this in one of his
speeches delivered more than 5,000 times.
Here they are:
1. I want to live. "How long?" "Forever." A person will normally preserve himself. It is the most
basic instinct and tendency. If it is a question of saving one out of two, between himself and a friend,
between himself and a brother, himself and a mother, still it is himself who will win. Self-
preservation is an innate tendency which nobody can question.
2. I want a feeling of importance. The ego of the person is flattered when it is being fed with
importance, recognition, and a feeling of being useful and needed. This is the most sensitive part of
the individual. One will always go a long way if his ego is bolstered and elevated.
3. I want a mate. An old maid who claims that she is truly happy is telling a lie. A woman is born
to a man and a man to a woman. Persons of opposite sex always attract each other. It is most
fulfilling to have a mate when both minds meet and when the man stands as the father, husband,
playmate, and co-worker at the appropriate time. Both husband and wife should therefore be
properly attuned in growth, professionally, physically, spiritually, socially, and morally. Each one
should support the other.
4. I want a little variety I change. Life is boring without variety or change. A monotonous life
kills motivations, initiative, interests, goals, and ambitions. It is very difficult to drag the years
through monotonous events. Challenges, problems, innovations, and rich provoking situations can
provide variety and color in one's life. The ups and downs of life can make it more interesting and
one can continue hoping for a better tomorrow.
Major S!gns of Mental Health
1. Maintaining self-oafidence is trusting oneself to cope with the difficulties which cross one's
way.
2. Making adjustments is making oneself able to fit in almost all situations confronting him.
Tension is always present at every beginning stage. Later when one becomes conditioned to the new
situation, tensions gradually disappear and acceptance creeps in until one begins to feel comfortable
in that situation.
3. Controlling emotions. Emotional blocks have a detrimental effect on the individual. A person is
kept from using his logical thinking when he is enveloped with emotions. He is likely to be caught off
guard and, with all probability, he cannot respond appropriately since he is shrouded with emotions.
4. Positive self-concept. A high regard for oneself should be encouraged and maintained. One can
maintain a certain degree of respectability if he first respects himself. In view of this positive self-
concept, one will be less tempted to do wrong, lest his values be trampled.
Five Steps to Happiness
1. Laughter. "Give yourself an emotional and physical lift by including laughter and play in your
life on a regular basis."
According to Dr. Wristerin, "Too much stress and workaholism cause people to become ill. Play is
really essential to stress reduction."
Dr. Simonton maintains, "Play is an activity that tends to produce emotions of joy and experiences of
having fun. Feeling joyful and feeling like having fun increase our energy and mobilize our desire to
live."
Another proponent of play is Dr. David Bresler of Los Angeles. He teaches self-management
techniques designed to optimize and maximize the body's inner ability to cope more effectively with
pain.
It is not always easy to find time to play because we always have the tendency to work hard. We
must always make time slots for play on a regular basis.
2. Confidence. One way to happiness is to talk to yourself lovingly in front of a mirror, to act lovingly
towards yourself in the presence of others, and to be proud of yourself in public. Standing up for
yourself is vital to bringing out your creativity. Love is a serious business. Love if you feel it, immerse
yourself in it, live in it, and it will forever change your life.
Low self-esteem is a barrier to the development of our prosperity because it keeps us from
developing our full potential. To the degree that we have low self-esteem, we tend to separate
ourselves from success.
3. Tasting risks. Every successful person agrees that there is risk in the pursuit of achievement.
We get energy for taking risks when we face our fear and act in spite of it. Fear of failure keeps us
from risking but willingness to risk is a measure of our consciousness of prosperity.
4. Creative boost. The following are seeds of creativity:
a. Productivity: Most productive people are creative. In the process of working and being
productive, one has the opportunity to become creative.
b. Analytical thinking: Unconsciously, this breaks down concepts and ideas into their component
parts. To understand something
thoroughly, one has to see beyond its surface structure.
c. Independent thinking: Be an independent thinker. Information is collected, analyzed, and stored in
order that one can render an independent judgment.
d. Unconventionality: What make unconventional people different from others are their ideas
and not the clothes that they wear.
5. What can one do when he wants to change but doesn't know how:
a. Dare to love yourself in a world that gives no guarantee.
b. Pay attention to what you feel.
C. Nobody can really tell you the answer to life's problems.
d. If what you are doing is not getting you what you want, try something different.
e. When you are considering a specific change,
make a list of all possible things that could happen.
f. Before you change, take a few moments to
compliment yourself for some specific attributes.
If you decide to have a change, do it. Insight
and understanding change nothing — action does it.
h. After you try a change, evaluate the results.
g.
Ways To Take Yourself out of The Blues and Black Moods.
1. Learn about yourself. Chart your moods. What are the kinds of irritations which provoke your
temper? What are your idiosyncracies? Each one has his own.
2. Self-pity is the worst enemy. This will slow the
pace of growth and progress because one tends to be myopic when he indulges in self-pity.
3. Exercise. This will help in the circulation of the blood. It strengthens the heart and
extremities and it prolongs life.
4. Be conscious if your morale is becoming low.
Count your blessings as a kind of antidote. What are the causes of demoralization?
5. Be realistic about yourself. Balance your goals and ambitions with facts about you. There should
be a happy medium between the two so that realization is possible.
6. Do something you enjoy. There are many hobbies and recreational activities one can resort
to when feeling blue. Playing the piano, singing, dancing, writing, swimming, viewing TV., listening to
music, just looking at the tall trees in the woods, being alone in a seashore, going to the movies, or
visiting flashy restaurants and leaving their recipes — anyone of these helps one overcome black
moods.
7. Don't panic. Time is a great healer. It will allow situational problems to settle by themselves.
To panic will cause more harm than good.
A child having a high fever becomes worse when the panicky mother administers some cuticle
remover instead of an appropriate remedy.
8. Involve yourself with life. No matter who gets hurt, no matter how serious the problem is,
this world should continue to go around. Better do the best you can. Live it to the brim.
A monotonous environment is repressive and therefore dangerous to mental health and to the
development of initiative and zest for living.
How Frustration and Conflicts Influence Our Lives
Frustration is experienced by an individual when his action meets some form of interference which
prevents or delays its completion.
It is an individual experience because it is a relative matter. What may be frustrating to one may not
be frustrating to another person. Barriers which are the prime sources of frustration exist
everywhere.
Factors of Frustration
1. Physical factors
a. Poor health
b. Physical defects such as obesity, shortness in height or excessive height, being ugly, and speech
defects.
2. Intellectual factors
a. Lack of ability to achieve a certain goal
frustrating to another person. Barriers which are the prime sources of frustration exist everywhere.
Factors of Frustration
1. Physical factors
a. Poor health
b. Physical defects such as obesity, shortness in height or excessive height, being ugly, and speech
defects.
2. Intellectual factors
a. Lack of ability to achieve a certain goal
102 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RELATIONS
b. Possession of abilities way beyond the requirements of a task
3. Socio-economic factors
a. "Keeping up with the Joneses"
b. Financial constraint in attaining one's ambition like taking up medicine
c. Social discrimination due to financial difficulty in falling within a social group.
4. Interruption and disturbances
a. Frustration due to minor disturbances like noise while reading newspapers.
b. Changes in one's usual way of life
5. Cultural origins
To live happily in this world means abiding by certain unwritten standards which pervade the
cultural groups—customs, traditions, system, and habitat of certain cultural groups. The Aetas, the
Mangyans, the Manobos, and the jgorots have their respective cultural systems.
The Symptoms of Failing Adjustments
Kaplan and Baron (1961) list some warning signs of personality failures.
1. Physical symptoms
1. Lack of muscular control like hands shaking, tremors
2. General feeling of weakness, fatigue without ap-
parent reasons, stammering, speech block, frequent urination
3. Hypochondriasis—playing sick to avoid disagreeable situations
2. Emotional symptoms
1. Insomnia—can't muster sleep, restlessness
2. Depression—constant worry, blue moods, indifferent attitude
3. Hyper-activity—scatterbrain, always doing something without finishing
4. Sensitivity—can't accept criticism
5. Sadism—likes to see others suffer; hostile; morose
6. Self-persecution—bitterness toward the world, hates other people, and gets frustrated about
everything one does
7. Fluctuation in moods, excessive fears, and obsessions
3. Social symptoms
1. DistTusts people
2. Happy when alone
3. Feels he is always right
4. Does not speak to people unless they speak first
4. Behavioral symptoms
1. Unable to make decisions
2. Over-eating
3. Unchanged dogmatic ideas
When these symptoms interfere with success in the home, school or job, then one should consult a
specialist.
Some people rebel in their ideas but hide under the guise of silence in upholding their moral belief
and standard. Dr. M. Scott Peck (1978) a practicing psychiatrist, said that confronting and resolving
our problems and suffering through the changes enable us to reach a higher level of self-
understanding.

SUMMARY
In the high tempo of change taking place not only in technology but also in the system ands
and styles of life, one’s emotional coping mechanism needs strengthening and resiliency. Since there
are constant challenges posed by the environment, there is a need for the internal emotional
stability and strength in order to overcome and come out triumphant in this life’s battle.
Negative and positive emotions must be in moderation. An individual should conquer and
control violent emotions if only to make emotions work in his/her favor. Positive emotions result in
the effectiveness in the efficiency of the individual and in ineffectiveness and inefficiency if the
emotion is negative.
Emotions are strong and intensive and integrated in the whole being. Strong emotion
overpower the individual and may last a lifetime as in the case of first love. Feelings are sensation
stimulated by the environment. They only stay in the surface temporarily as in the feelings of pain,
warm, and cold. Feelings are the simple bodily conditions.
Emotions may be classified as personal, social, and intellectual, and aesthetic. Selfishness,
pride, guilt, and shame are example of social emotions; envy, jealousy, love, are example of social
emotion; appreciation, awe, elation, admiration, are examples of intellectual and aesthetic
emotions.
Emotions are powerful because when one suffers strong emotional frustration like a
frustrated love affair, it is very devastating on the person’s personality and his future life.
On the other hand, emotions can inspire a person to exert his utmost in what he is trying to
achieve. Emotions can propel one to action. They give color to the environment that surrounds him.
 Physiologically, emotions effect the muscular and glandular system of the body. Some
ailments result out of continuous emotional stresses; example are asthma, cancer, allergies,
hypertensions, cardiovascular attacks, and cerebral hemorrhage.
Some strong emotions are blocks to concentration that hamper learning processes specially
in the classroom. Teachers should use strategies in motivation to overcome the blocking of
emotional problems of the students that that prevent them from learning their lessons.

QUESTIONS

1. Define: mental health, a balance life, and adjustment.

2. How are emotions classified?
3. How powerful are emotions?
4.; When can one say that he is happily adjusted to life?
5. How should frustration be handled?

CHAPTER 9
THE MORAL AND SPIRITUAL ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY
Every person feels good when he senses that he is being trusted, given responsibility to do certain
things equal to and in line with his abilities, and held accountable for his actions. All these make him
feel that he has the authority to decide and act according to the dictates of his conscience and
reason. His identity as a trustworthy, responsible, competent individual clearly, evolves as he
receives praises or positive feedback and affirmation from others about his accomplishments. These
are psychological medicines to us. specially to a child. Good parents and
surrogates do not fail to give affirmation to what their children do.
Social Institutions Influencing Moral Behavior
The character of a person is the moral aspect of personality. There are four major social institutions
affecting character development. These are: the family, the peer group, the school, and the church.
1. The Family. The Family is the major factor in the moral development of an individual. Educators
and social scientists are one in their view that the family is the first socializing agent that molds the
child in his earliest years so that he may become an accepted member of the group. Through the
family the child sees a standard picture of behavior appropriate for varying occasions. The emotions
of love and hate, joy and anger, and the ideas of right and wrong are conveyed to him by the acts of
his parents, his siblings, and other older members of the family. It is in the family that an individual's
value system is developed during the early childhood experiences. In this period we learn to trust
and be trusted and develop feelings of security and well-being. In the family relationship, a child
learns the tenets of religion and the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, as well as
certain economic, political, social, and religious beliefs and atti-
tudes.
Early in life one is exposed to more flexible standards of behavior and to a broader interpretation of
right and wrong. One learns that others have somewhat different standards, some of which may
even be directly opposed to one's own. Later one may be surprised to learn that some values which
one believes to be already established are now being openly questioned and critically examined.
2. The Peer Group. People react strongly to social approval or social acceptance. We all wish to
be accepted, especially by our peers. Hence, we dress and act like them. We always want to be "in."
This is particularly true of the young. As a person grows older, however, he or she should think less
of what people would say and think. He or she should set his/ her own standards.
3.• The School. One of the most important aims of education in the Philippines is to develop
moral character and personal discipline. Teachers are expected to impart moral and spiritual values.
Moral training is incorporated in the curriculum, specially in the elementary grades and high school.
The prevalent disrespect for authority was one of the reasons for emphasis on moral education. The
school is the agency that can give many opportunities for the
improvement of the individual's moral aspect of personality.
4. The Church. In the last three decades there have been many organized Christian
movements. There are agents for the propagation of a moral code. The church is also one of the
agents of social control. Most of those who go to church and prayer meetings are more likely to
develop good morals than those who do not. Listening to homilies or attending Bible studies may
improve if not change the lowering standards of morality today.
Moral Behavior
Like a game, life is governed by rules. Without rules, there can be no game. Rules define the moves
of the play-
ers. Likewise, human behavior consists in obedience to rules (Santos, A. 1974).
There are four approaches in the development of moral behavior namely, the psychoanalytic
approach, the social-
group-approach, the learning-theory approach, and the cognitive developmental approach.
The psychoanalytic approach expresses the idea that when the superego dominates the individual,
he or she is
good because he or she has a conscience that tells him or her to be good.
The learning-theory approach says that we have been trained and disciplined by our upbringing and
by the examples of our parents into behaving the way we should.
The social-group approach claims that we behave the way we do because people expect us to
behave that way.
The cognitiue-deuelopmental approach asserts that to behave morally implies 'intelligent
adaptations to our environment. It emphasizes the importance of intelligence in
moral control. The more intelligent a person is, the stronger he or she is morally.
Morality is synonymous to ethics, the study of what is right and wrong. As mentioned in
Chapter 2, the moral aspect of personality has to do with a person's awareness of the difference
between right and wrong, while the spiritual aspect is the person's consciousness of the higher
values in life. Religion expresses spiritual values. A morally mature person realizes that no one can
be a law unto himself. He therefore accepts the moral code of the group to which he belongs, even
though he may not agree with it. He will not be influenced to do things he knows are wrong even
when he is with people who have lower moral standards. His moral code is stable.
The Code of Ethics by President Manuel L. Quezon (Executive Order No. 217, 1939), is a very good
guide for all of us. Putting them into practice would ensure a peaceful and better place to live in.
Some of the teachings in the Quezon Code of Ethics for moral development are:
1. Value your honor as you value your life. Poverty with honor is preferable to wealth with
dishonor.
2. Be truthful and be honest in thought and in action. Be just and charitable, courteous but dignified
in your dealings with others.
3. Lead a clean and frugal life. Do not indulge in frivolity or pretense.
4. Love and respect your parents. It is your duty to serve them gratefully and well.
5. Rely on your own efforts for your progress and happiness.
6. Safeguard the purity of suffrage and abide by the decision of the majority.
7. Do not leave for tomorrow what you can do to-
day. Work badly done is worse than work undone.
In our interactions with each other we ought to learn to live together in peace and harmony,
whether at home, in school, in the community, or elsewhere.
1. Never think that your opinion is always right.
2. Listen also to the voices of other people.
3. Never expect or depend on getting something in return for every favor you give.
4. Respect the dignity and rights of the individual.
5. Do good without thought of material reward.
6. Appreciate God's gifts and use them in a worthy manner.
7. Never have sex if you don't know your responsibility.
8. One of the laws of our land states that we should not enrich ourselves at the expense of
others.
Morality
Christian View of Morality. Morality is primarily concerned with the rightness and wrongness of an
act. An act is said to be immoral if the doer has an intentional motive to kill, harm, or destroy
somebody (Finley &
Pennock, 1977).
Morality can mean "moral behavior," the attempt to be obedient to a system of moral rules. The
contrast to morality in this sense should be immorality. But unfortunately, the word "immoral" is
hardly used since it has received an almost exclusively sexual connotation. Immorality in the general
sense of antimoral behavior is possible
only in a limited way.
The following are some points of Christian morality.
1. Christians are daily bombarded with unchristian
views of man. This can affect us and make us act towards others in unchristian ways.
2. Based on the natural law and divine revelation,
Christianity maintains that each person is fundamentally good, redeemable, and loved by
God. It holds that each man and woman, whether he or she knows it, is potentially a child of God,
and
a brother or sister of Jesus Christ and of each other.
3. Man is a free creature who is responsible for his
freedom. He is able to respond with love to the demands his brothers and sisters place on him. He is
intimately related to Christ and shows his love of God by responding to the teachings of Jesus under
the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
4. The subjective norm of morality is one's conscience. A person has to follow his or her conscience,
but he or she has the duty to develop a properly formed conscience. Conscience is an inner dialogue
with God which enables a person to discover responsible behavior. A Christian conscience manifests
purity of intention, evidence of consulting the teachings of Jesus and his Church, and a prayerful
openness to the action of the
Holy Spirit.
Most Filipinos are Christians. A Christian is called upon to see everyone in the light of God's love
which embraces all people everywhere. This respect for the lives of others must extend even to our
enemies. A Christian is
taught to hate the evil deed but never to hate the one who committed it.
A pluralistic society often presents contradictory moral views. A Catholic's moral sense is guided
primarily not by whether or not the crowd is doing it, but rather whether or not the act in question is
in conformity with the will of Christ as made known in revelation and in the church.
As the Bible has aptly put it, " ... you shall not join hands with a wicked man, to be a malicious
witness. You shall not follow a multitude to do evil; nor shall you bear witness in a suit, turning aside
after a multitude, so as to prevent justice..."
The teachings of God guide the lives of men. They are found in religious books. In the Bible, which is
a good example of a religious book, we can find beautiful passages that can improve our personality.
These are particularly seen in Chapters 3, 6, 7, 11, and 13 of the Book of Sirach. Here are examples:
Say nothing harmful, small or great;
be not a foe instead of a friend;
A bad name and disgrace will you acquire:
"That for the evil man with double tongue!"
Sirach 6; I.
Seek not to become a judge
if you have not strength to root out crime.
Sirach 7; 4.
Keep far from a false chair.
and do not slay the innocent and the righteous
And you shall take no bribe, for a bribe
blinds the officials, and subverts the cause
of those who are in the right.
Book of Exodus
23: 1-3; 6-8
The Nature of Man
The complexities of man's life are better understood through the understanding of man's nature.
Objectively, one discovers that the human individual has a dual nature. He is composed of not only
body but also of soul. He occupies a position far higher than that of brute creation because he has a
soul, which is the principle of life and vital action. It is the principle by which man thinks, feels, and
wills. It is the principle by which man lives and moves, perceives and understands. Man surpasses all
other earthly creatures by the unique fact of possessing a soul endowed with the intellect and the
will. The soul is so united to the body that through it the body receives and possesses subsistence
and life (Kelly, 1968). The soul and the body exist in mutual dependence. As Albarracin has put it:
"Man has two aspects. These are the biological and the spiritual
aspects. The human mind is more powerful than the human body."
The foregoing statement of Dr. Albarracin would mean that the cravings of the human body can be
controlled by the human mind. Conscious control which is a sign of maturity is wholesome to the
individual.
Human nature is so complex that it is necessary to have order in the conduct of man. Only with
proper order and conduct can man be truly an integral man and reach the level of social life
demanded by his rational nature. An integral man is a well-balanced human being in whom all the
elements of nature are given proper recognition and in whom these elements are given their proper
play in due relation to one another. In all the different levels of nature (the vegetative level, the
animal level, the human level), there are urges and pulls. On the unconscious level of plant life, there
is the fundamental urge for food; on the animal
level, there is the urge for food and sex for the preservation
of the individual and the species. On the human level,
these urges manifest themselves as conscious impulses to
know the truth, to acquire new knowledge, to appreciate
beauty and to produce beautiful things, and to admire and
achieve moral goodness. Here the urge is, of course, spir-
itual rather than merely biological or physiological as it is
on the animal level.
In this modern world there should be an order in human life. The proper ordering of human
conduct means that the impulses of each lower level (animal level) must be controlled by and
subordinated to the higher level (human or intellectual level). The right ordering in regard to all
instincts and impulses may be grouped under the term moral virtues which are as follows:
1. Self-control which regulates our appetites for sex and food
2. Fortitude which regulates our emotions, principally of anger
3. Justice to all which inclines man to render to each one his due
4. Prudence or tact which judiciously guides and controls human action. Thus, bearing in mind what
man actually is, which is that he is endowed with the intellect and the will, one can improve the
moral and spiritual aspect of his/her personality.
SUMMARY
A person feels good when he feels he is being trusted, given the responsibility to do certain things
equal to and in line with his abilities. His identity as a trustworthy, responsible individual evolves as
he receives praises. These are psychological medicines to use specially to a child.
The family is the major factor in the moral development of an individual. It is the first socializing
agent that molds the child in his earliest years so that he may become an accepted member of the
society. The school is another agency which aims to develop moral character and personal discipline.
It can give many opportunities for the improvement of the individual's moral aspect of personality.
The church is the third agent for the propagation of a moral code. A morally mature person realizes
that no one can be a law unto himself. His moral code is stable.
Most of us are Christians. A Christian is taught to hate the evil deed but never to hate the one who
committed it. In this modern world there should be order in human life. The proper ordering of
human conduct means that the impulses of the lower level (animal level) must be controlled by and
subordinated to the higher level (intellec-
tual level).
QUESTIONS
1. Which of the four major social institutions do you think is the most influential in terms of
developing the character of man. Why?
2. What does proper ordering of human conduct
mean?
3. State one teaching under the Quezon Code of
Ethics and explain it.
4. Cite an example of self-control.
5. What can be our guide in order to be morally good?
CHAPTER 10
HUMAN RELAT1ONS
Human relations is the art of knowing people, relating with them, and maintaining and
keeping their friendship. Human relations is differentiated from public relations in the sense that
public relations means dealing with people, while human relations deals with individuals as
individuals and as members of a group; it deals more closely with each individual.
Developing effectiveness in human relations requires understanding of human behavior. No two
individuals are exactly alike. Not even identical twins are alike. Each one is a unique person; thus it
needs a special knack and skills to understand and handle each person's behavior.
Contacts with other people are momentous. Proper courtesies may lead to friendship while
impoliteness creates havoc.
A nagging wife makes home relations so uncomfortable that a husband leaves home for another
woman.
Unappreciative parents can strain the children's home relationships to the breaking point and so
children run away from home and turn to appreciative grandparents.
A doctor notices that his patients are critical and wonders why. He gets the answer when one day he
overhears his typist/receptionist giving his patients curt orders rather than friendly greetings.
In school, some students solve the problems of getting along with cranky teachers by
quitting school, while other students solve their problem by being friendly with them.
In business and industry, people are inclined to be less person-centered than in other fields.
Human Relations Influences
Family
The family is the smallest unit of society. It is the microcosm which is enlarged into a national
community or government. The parents are the managers and the children are the employees as in a
company. Each member plays his role for the smooth functioning of the family system. Multifaceted
responsibilities are assumed by the whole household and are shared to lighten the burden of the
managers of the family, the parents. Such responsibilities are financial management, household
duties such as marketing, and tidying of the house, and looking after the children as well as planning
for family investment.
Friends
Good friends are our treasures and investment. We invest in friendships when we offer and render
them our thoughtfulness, ideas, love, care, and concern. Friends tend to reciprocate the g_ood
things done to them. This process makes friendship among people lasting.
Community
The community is the place where we spend the rest of our waking hours outside the place of work.
Heterogeneous residents dominate in modern subdivisions where people come from divergent
social and cultural backgrounds. Involvement in the affairs of the community elicit cooperation and
willingness to participate in community projects. Good attitude and enthusiasm are contagious and
can contaminate people in the community. Cox said, "Enthusiasm reflects confidence, spreads good
cheer, raises morale, inspires associates, arouses loyalty and laughs at adversity... It is beyond price."
Enthusiasm therefore can help us eliminate jealousy, envy, rivalry, and intrigues.
Business and Industry
Management deals directly with business resources such as personnel, materials, machines, money,
facilities, and equipments, thus keeping them in indefinite relations to one another. Manpower
resources are the most complex and the most challenging but the best of all resources.
The Kepner-Trudger approach is one of the latest where the team spirit is employed. This improves
the quality of work life by providing people with the tools to capitalize on their experiences, further
developing the thinking skills of plant employees, allowing the management to focus on the problem
to be solved rather than the personalities involved, and increasing commitment by giving
troubleshooters greater control over their areas of responsibilities.
Seven Ways To Become Interesting
"By becoming more interesting one can add fun, excitement, and enjoyment to one's life," declared
Jull Varness, associate professor of health sciences and education at the University of Florida. Here
are her suggestions for becoming a more interesting individual.
1. Volunteer your time to a worthy organization.
2. Try an activity one does not ordinarily do. Walk barefoot in the rain, explore the nature of
Verde Island, etc.
3. Pamper a pet. People find animals fascinating.
4. Try new foods. The exotic taste of new foods satisfies curiosity.
5. Read magazines. Your conversations will become
more invigorating when you inject fascinating things you've been reading about.
6. Smile and laugh. Don't take yourself too seriously. Show people that you enjoy life.
7. Get other people to talk about themselves. Studies have shown that when someone gets
another person to talk about a favorite hobby, the person
doing the listening is considered more interesting.
How to Create Your Own Charisma
1. Confidence is vital. Self-confidence radiates from the individual. It can contaminate others. It
is easier for an individual to convince others when he himself believes in what he is saying.
2. Happy people are far more charismatic than miserable ones. Emotional security is felt by a
person who is loved, has a supportive family, and has a good grasp of his emotions and feelings.
3. Being assertive enables one to stand on his own feet. Everyone has the right to express himself
and let others know that he exists as an indi-
vidual with the right to be heard and to stand up for his principles.
4. Be interestered in others. Have the patience to get to know others thoroughly. Other people are
part of our resources. Almost fifty percent of our
learning comes from our interactions with others.
5. Spontaneity: Avoid spending too much time thinking over what you are to say. Sometimes
over deliberation inhibits us from putting our hunches and intuitions into actions.
6. Make the most of your talents. Decide what you can do best and enjoy most, and then
devote as
much time and energy as possible to that pursuit.
7. Action: Be more of a doer than a mere onlooker. Identify the causes of your inactivity and
make certain they are reasons rather than excuses.
Work on these seven key principles, and charisma will bloom.
Human relations is the art of working with and for people. People are not commodities we deal with,
every day of our life. They either make us happy or unhappy. Life is
worthless and empty without people around us. We might as well learn to relate with them.
How to Achieve Good Human Relations
The following may help us achieve good human relations:
1. Be a good listener. man's interests.
2. Never forget to say a kind and encouraging word
to or about somebody. Praise good work done, regardless of who did it. If criticism is to be done,
criticize helpfully, never spitefully.
3. Be interested in others and be interested in their
welfare.
4. Communicate cheerfulness. Keep the corners of your mouth turned up.
5. Talk about your own mistakes before criticizing
the other person.
6. Discourage gossip and make it a rule to say noth-
ing about another unless it is something good.
Talk in terms of the other
7. Do things to make people feel important.

The "Ostrich Complex"

You can stop being a head-in-the-sand ostrich and learn to deal with your problems with simple tips
from an expert.
The "ostrich Complex" is a habit of handling problems by avoiding them or pretending they do not
exist," explains Dr. Elliot Weiner, a clinical psychologist in Lake Oswego, Oregon.
Weiner, the author of "The Ostrich Complex," says the syndrome shows itself in four different ways.
1. Procrastination — not facing a problem by putting
it off.
2.. Perfectionism — refusing to take an action if you can't get everything to come out perfectly.
3. Denial — pretending that a problem simply does not exist.
4. Collecting — acting as though you're disregarding
little irritants but actually storing them up for an inevitable explosion.
Here are techniques Weiner suggests to free yourself of ostrich-like behavior:
Treat your problem objectively, as though they were happening to somebody else.
Advertise your problem to others and appeal for help if necessary.
If you're a perfectionist, try being late for a meeting, or deliberately make a spelling error in a report.
"You'll prove life is not going to fall apart if there are mistakes," Weiner says.
Don't try to do everything yourself. Delegate lesser duties and chores so that you can grapple with
the most important issue. Dump secondary problems, or delay dealing with them for a day or two.
Divide your goal into manageable stages, and handle them one at a time.
Don't simmer unproductively all day long. Set aside
time to get rid of anger through a wholesome safety valve like exercise.
Write a letter to express how upset you are — but don't send it. Putting your thoughts down on
paper will
help you release your trapped feelings and face your problem squarely.
Relax and try to imagine the best and the worst possible scenarios to resolve your problem. Then
think of the one that is most likely to happen. Weiner says, "This way you won't be scared easily into
running away."
Define the problem in a memo and attach it to a symbol of the problem itself. "For example," Weiner
says,
"If you don't want to make a certain phone call, stick the memo on the telephone."
SUMMARY
Human relations is the art of working with and through people. As long as people are involved, be it
in the family, school, business and industry, or in the community, human relations is practiced. Good
human relationship is
a means of investments in friends and in business contacts. "
Jull Varness, a professor at the University of Florida suggested ways of becoming a more interesting
individual. He said, one must be a member of worthy organizations, do extraordinary things, pamper
a pet, try new food, smile
and laugh, read magazines, and get people to talk about themselves.
In business and industry, there are levels of human relationship. They are between individuals,
between groups, and between the individual and management.
Remembering the birthday of someone is human relations from individual to individual;
cooperation and promptness in the submission of reports from the personnel department to the
accounting department is human relations from one group of workers to another;
and loyalty of employee to the company is human relations from individual to company.
The following are ways to achieve good human relations: 1) when there is nothing good to say,
better stay silent; 2) keep promises; 3) always say kind words to others; 4) be interested in others; 5)
be cheerful; 6) be open-minded; 7) let your virtues speak for themselves; 8)
don't hurt others' feelings; 9) keep your disposition sweet; 10) have humor.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain at least five commandments of human relations.
2. Cite three situations where human relations are applied.
3. How do you practice human relations in the following places?
a. family
b. school
C. community
CHAPTER 11
Leadership
In any group of people who work for common objectives, a leader is indispensable. As long as people
congregate and gather together with manifested direction, someone has to lead and the others
become followers. The significance and quality of efforts put together by the supporters; the
willingness and enthusiasm of the members; the cooperation and commitment into the goals of
each participant—all these are important for the success of the group.
A leader is one who influences and directs others. He assumes responsibilities to motivate his
workers, encour-
ages them, inspires them, communicates with them, and helps them attain their goals.
Components of leadership are morale, discipline, esprit de corp, and proficiency.
Developing Leadership
Strong personality connotes leadership. No one can become a leader if he does not rise above the
average individual, if he does not have the control of his temper and emotions and he does not have
the skill of leading other people. A leader is a person who can guide others. He is a model for others
in conduct, opinion, and undertakings. He is more acceptable than any other member in the group
because he can understand the roles to be played by a person better than anyone else.
Leadership has been defined as "the process of influencing or motivating others to work for
a common goal or of finding ways by which others may satisfy their needs." The significance of
leadership is clearly seen in the efforts of the members. A leader is a person who possesses initiative
and appropriate abilities and through whom a social group expresses its recognized needs.
Pointers on Becoming a Leader
The knack for leadership is not born. It is built and developed in the individual. The way a child is
reared and trained from childhood will set down the foundation for leadership— through the share
of responsibilities, the exercise of decision-making, and the involvement in family affairs
commensurate with a child's age.
Get your facts and thoughts straight across to your subordinate. Then present your facts and ideas
attractively and interestingly.
Presentations are important. As a leader, when one has to explain or propose something new—
plans, ideas, products, etc. one must expect hearers to be unfamiliar with it. Words are not enough
to make them see the new things one is talking about. One needs to make effective presentations to
encourage visualization and the "question and answer" kind of discussion on the new subject matter.
Allow brainstorming to have a semblance of a democratic atmosphere.
An effective leader is one who can become the "center of living" of the group, knows the meaning of
group situation, stimulates creative thinking, and fosters positive attitudes toward common goals,
immediate situations, his associates, and himself. He stimulates attaining goals voluntarily. He
develops positive interpersonal attitude and actions among the group to a high degree. He puts
across in every situation the impressions he creates for others and his message in terms of ideas,
program, suggestions, etc.

Personal Attributes of a Leader

Usually, a leader has more personal attributes than an ordinary member. He should excel in many
aspects than the rest. It may be in general intelligence, personality, and in his goals of serving other
people. The following factors are the most important attributes in a leader:
Competence — Correct decisions and actions at the right
time and situation.
Credibility — Actions done are consistent, fair, and
Creativity — Provides participants with a high morale and new techniques of doing things.
Common goals — Attention to the overriding goals.
Dynamism. Open mindedness for change. Change must bring about improvement, progress,
creativity, insight, foresight, and a macroperspective outlook in the future.
Important Attitudes of a Leader
A good leader should possess regular work habits, industry, and honesty in work. Personal discipline
in the formation of work habits, industry, and work honesty is called for. The pattern of working
habits can be an outcome of continuous, diligent, and perseverant efforts but these cannot be
attained overnight. Maturity, determination, idealism, and ambition are necessary for one to
develop good habits of industry and honesty in work.
1. Critical and experimental outlook. People, especially those assuming positions of power and
authority, should be keen, analytical, and innovative, to improve the system, methods, and
procedures. They should avoid stereotyping, but should be dynamic and must advocate continuous
change as long as it is for
progress.
2. Commitment to long-term planning. Long-term planning is important because it promotes insight,
foresight, and perspective on goals. Immediate plans should be in alignment with the long-term
plans to produce good results.
3. Interest in material things. Concrete evidence of achievements and
undertakings are more appreciated and recognized especially now that people hardly appreciate
things which are abstract and spir-
itual.
What people can see and feel, people hold in high
esteem. Lofty objectives transcend material things.
4. Desire for change. Change is welcome as long as it is for improvement. It
is a sign of insecurity not to take risks in change. Before one should initiate change, scientific
procedure should be used to get the data on hand and to enable the workers to accept the
changes.
5. Concern for time and punctuality. Time and punctuality in work are
very important elements of success. Remember the long-range plans and the short-range plans. How
can these plans be accomplished when the staff are not punctual in their work
assignment?
6. Respect for accuracy. In any form of activity, aspire for accuracy
because in the long run, one• saves a lot of money, time, and effort by being accu-
rate.
•

7. Willingness to delegate authority. Proper

coordination and delegation of power and authority is the secret of a good leader. Everyone will
have a feeling of importance and their potentials will be har-nessed.
8. Delight in the imagination. Through one's
imagination, creativity and originality are born. Make the imagination fertile and productive so that
unforeseen problems can be predicted.
Balance and unity in one's knowledge, exposure, actions, authority, and social recognition are neces-
sary for success. Openness for continuous development is important.
Levels Of Leadership
The levels of leadership are:
Top Leader President, Executive, Vice-Presi-
dent, Assistant Vice-President,
External and Internal Vice-President
Immediate Leaders - Managers, Assistant Managers,
Directors, Superiors, Assistant Superiors, Chiefs
Bottom Leaders - Leadman, Foreman Skills of a Leader
In the areas of planning, a leader must have the capacity to:

1. Conduct Organizational Needs Assessment. This can be done through the use of survey
foi ins. A random interview among colleagues may be effective. When surveys are summarized,
the most pressing must be given top priorities.
2. Develop a Master Plan. To base the master plan on the data gathered from the survey is scientific.
Unforeseen problems may yet be discovered
through the survey which can provide the database for the project.
3. Identify Current and Future Policy Issues. The current policies should be well-defined to determine
their suitability to the plan.
4. Conduct Studies on Manpower Needs. Manpower is an important item in project-making.
Manpower, its competence, and available resources are important determinants of the success of
the projects.
5. Design Management Information System. How accessible is pertinent information in the company
or elsewhere for the project? Everything should be based on available and reliable information.
6. Plan a Career Development Program. Workers and leaders in an industrial setting need to grow
not only as individuals but also in terms of professional and technical skills. Aptitude development
should be continuous throughout the year. The development program should be an on-going and a
lifelong continuing process.
When middle administration briefs the higher administration, it gives the summary and has the
details ready but presents them only when asked for. Bosses want justification. Never tell the boss
what your aches and pains are unless he asks for it. He will appreciate it if you stick to the issues on
hand and never give hints about the troubles you have with others to get the job done.
On the other hand, when discussing problems with the rank and file, go into the details and give
examples. When briefing them, never show impatience or disapproval of their efforts. Of course, the
middle administrator will approve, disapprove, question, and analyze the arguments of their plans,
but he should not criticize their method of presentation.
Stages of Group Growth
It is important for a group leader to become familiar with different stages of group growth for the
following
reasons:
1. It helps in understanding what a group is.
2. Certain topic areas are associated with each stage.
3. By anticipating the problem, the leader gets to know at which stage he can intervene.
4. Finally the leader can become aware of the stage where he can put the problem in proper
perspec-
tive.
Sequence in Launching a Program
Launching a program is the main activity of a leader. A skillful planner executes the plans through
the involvement of the members. The following indicate the sequence in launching a program.
1. Identifying the problems
2. Defining the goals
3. Drawing up a workable program
4. Establishing vehicles of action
5. Mobilizing capital and manpower
6. Coordinating individual plans and programs
A Model School Project — Raising Funds for
Deprived Families
1. Identifying the
problem — An area named X is
populated with depressed families. Their income comes from selling vegetables in the market or as
scavengers.
2. Defining goals — To be able to alleviate
poverty by giving material assistance.
3. Drawing up workable
programs — a. Soliciting newspapers
b. Garage sale
c. Soliciting old clothes
d. Bingo socials
4. Drawing up vehicles of action — Recruit students with humanitarian spirit. They will come mostly
from students of psychology, counseling, and social work.
5. Mobilizing capital — The only capital re-
sources are time and effort which are willingly donated by the students.
6. Coordinating individual
plans and programs — Students of psychology, counseling, and social work are engaged in
practicum. In order to give them motivation and incentive, the time and effort they will exert in this
project will be credited in their practi-cum.
How to Develop Competence in Leadership
One can reduce worry and replace it with decisions and actions.
Worrying can only intensify emotional tension. The more prolonged it is, the more magnified
it becomes. After keeping vigil on the problem for a short while, lay down the facts and be objective
about the whole situation. Dramatize the steps in drawing the action plan and make your decision.
Keep pace with the changing demands of your job. Specialization in certain areas can meet the
competitive mood. One should specialize in not only one but in two or more areas. The use of
computers in almost all areas of our world of work necessitates accuracy and thoroughness in
handling one's job.
Prepare realistically for future opportunities. One has to accept his own limitations and potentials if
one has to be realistic about his planned career and occupation. It is a big waste of time, effort, and
money if one's qualifications do not match the job requirements. Both the company and the person
are the losers and finally the opportunity is also lost.
Help assure personal satisfaction in the work that we do.
Work towards the controllable and stop fussing about the uncontrollable.
Leadership in a School Setting
The following are some suggestions on the exercise of leadership by an adviser in school:
1. Seek the members' cooperation and maintain good relationship with them.
2. Follow-up with co-teachers the academic performance of their student leaders.
3. Keep colleagues updated on school projects and activities.
4. Solicit their suggestions and constructive criticisms.
5. Endeavor to further develop skills of leadership such as:
a. Power of decision-making
b. Fair judgment
c. Establishing goals and meeting them
d. Relating with student leaders and colleagues and administrators
e. Ability to evaluate and analyze weak and strong areas in every project.
6. With student leaders, develop the following:
a. extra rapport
b. training and development
c. guidance
d. recognition
e. incentives
f. motivation
g. listening to their problems
h. leadership competence
Decision-Making
In any state of life, there never is any state of perfect equilibrium. When one moves towards his
goals, there is always some form of conflict, mistrust, doubt, concern, fear, and insecurities. As long
as there are interactions with fellowmen, there is a wide array of divergent opinions, ideas,
concepts, and knowledge as a consequence of contrasting experiential backgrounds, moral values,
interests, ambitions, and goals in life. Decisions are very crucial since they can be turning points in
one's activities, plans, or projects.
Decision-making can be defined as the selection of one behavior alternative from two or more
alternatives. It involves determining an opinion or course of action. It is also a process of passing
judgment and terminating a conflict.
In industry and business organization, the manager is the one who makes decisions. He carries out
important
functions such as organizing, planning, executing, and controlling.
The main purpose of a decision is to help bring about the most desired results. It is very vital in
almost all facets of everyday living, in activities which necessitate decision-
making. Action effectiveness is achieved through group decision.
Who Should Mahe The Decision? Reliance upon group decision or upon the majority's opinion places
a leader not in his proper role but simply as a presiding officer. Seeking suggestions and opinions
from members of the group provides a democratic space and enables the group to assume their
share of involvement and responsibility in the decision taken by the group. But all suggestions and
opinions gathered as one must be weighed and evaluated in terms of their meaning and
consequences in the group. Hence, it appears that the leader himself, by reason of his position,
training, and experiences can best perform this evaluation in the light of his ability and the
requirements of his particular group. In the final analysis, the leader
must decide what to do.
Common Bases For Decision-Making. Some factors are of paramount importance in making the deci-
sions more scientific, logical, and objective. They are the following:
I. Facts. Facts are popularly regarded as constituting an excellent basis upon which decisions can be
made. When facts are employed, the decision be comes more objective. This implies that the
premises upon which the decision is based are sound, solid, and of the proper sort. It frequently
happens that adequate facts are not available. To secure them may cause much difficulty and
require too much time. Complete factual information is ideal but is seldom achieved.
2. Experience. The old saying "Experience is the best teacher," may be applied to decision-making.
The value of experience in decision-making lies in developing the ability to discriminate and to
generalize various situations met in the past.
Decision based on experience has definite advantages. For one thing, such a decision utilizes
practical knowledge. Also a decision based on experience connotes an element of proof and is likely
to jibe with decisions made by a leader who is experienced in the field.
The time element is important. Experience-based decisions may tend to overemphasize the
traditional and maintain tightly the status quo. Progress and improvement may be unduly retarded
because of inability to decide on the spot.
3. Authority. Authority and decision-making are intimately related. In fact, authority can be
defined as the power to make decisions and to see that they are carried out. In accepting and
following a decision, one places himself subordinate to the decision-maker. In other words, decision
acceptance gives authority to the decision formulator.
Decision based on authority has advantages in that such a decision is usually readily accepted. This
has its basis in the idea that the one having authority is the decision-maker. In addition, authority-
based decision possesses authenticity.
On the other hand, decision based on authority may become too routinary and is brushed aside as
dictatorial.
Specific Considerations in Decision-Making. The following are specific considerations in
decision-making. They are factors which must be on hand before making decisions.
1. Risks Involved. Small risks can make your life more rewarding. People who take occasional risks
find life more exciting and are less likely to become bored. Pay less attention to the drawbacks of a
risk and more attention to the payoffs. Dr. Hoffman says, "Adventurous people radiate a contagious
enthusiasm for new experiences that will help you overcome your reluctance to become more
daring."
2. Ideas and opinions. A brainstorming session brings about fertile ideas and opinions from
members of the group. In the process of exchanging opinions, topics are synthesized, streamlined,
and polished to make the topic most suitable.
3. Opportunity on hand. As the saying goes, "Strike while the iron is hot." Opportunities strike only
occasionally; grasp them while they are there. Chances are they may not be around the next time
you look for them. For leaders, this factor should be gi\ en top priority when accelerating factors
warrant the grabbing of the opportunity on hand.
4. Moral considerations. Is the decision within the norms of conduct? Will it be for the welfare of the
greater majority of people concerned? Is there no vested interest on the part of leaders involved?
After the decisions are carried out, will the decisions make the leaders and members happy and
devoid of moral conflicts?
5. Alternatives. In case the main plan did not push through, is the leader ready for the second
appropriate action? There must be second up to third action plans in order not to jeopardize the
whole plan of action.
6. The decision-maker. How competent is the leader? Is he consistent in his decision, firm and
determined as an individual? How committed is he in his projects? Is he other-oriented or self-
oriented?
Techniques of Decision-Making. The actual approach used in arriving at a decision can vary
considerably with the decision-maker and the problems being decided upon. There is no one best
technique for all occasions. However, the steps given below when followed will help greatly in
making a decision.
1. Determine what the problem is. Writing it down in precise terms will help resolve what you
are trying to do. Remember that a problem well-stated is half-solved. Also, knowing exactly what the
problem is will help draw its significance.
2. Acquire general background information and different viewpoints about the problem on
hand. Considerations appearing to have bearing upon the problem are sought. It is advisable to give
thought to the problem before talking it over with others. Meaningful questions can be asked and a
better comprehension and analysis of the expert's comments can be made.
3. State what appears to be the best course of action. One, two to three courses of action are
considered alternatives from which choices can be made.
4. Evaluate the tentative decisions. In this step the decision drawn from intuition, facts,
experience, and authority can help in uncovering important factors to be considered.
5. Make the decision and put it into effect.

SUMMARY
Leadership is not innate. The skill of leadership is
acquired from a series of leadership-related experiences from birth. It is a product of training and
exposure.
Some pointers of leadership need emphasis such as: planning, decision-making, approaches in
putting across facts to the subordinates and importantly the interpersonal relationship
An effective leader is one who has competence, credibility, creativity, integrity, and dynamism. Some
of important attitudes he should have are regular discipline in work and a critical and experimental
outlook, desire for change, respect for accuracy, delight in his imagination, and commitment to his
responsibility.
There are sequential steps leaders must follow in launching a program. These are: identify a
program, define goals, draw up a program, plan the course of action, mobilize capital, and
coordinate plans and programs.
How can a leader acquire competence in his job? He must reduce worry and replace it with decisions
and actions. He must keep pace with the changing demands of his job. A wider perspective of the
specialization can respond to the competitive nature of society.
Authority and decision-making are intimately related. A leader must assert his authority in making
decisions. Collegial decisions are usually preferred because it resembles democratic process which is
mostly acceptable by many. Risk is present in making decisions — risk of becoming a failure in the
decision he makes. However, small risks make one's life interesting and rewarding. A leader must
pay less attention to the drawbacks of a risk and more attention to the payoffs.
QUESTIONS
1, Is leadership born or acquired? Why?
2. What are some attributes a leader should possess?
3. How can competencies in leadership be developed?
4. What are the styles of leadership?
5. What are some responsibilities of a leader?
CHAPTER 12
COMMUNICATION

"No one is an island" is a very common adage which simply implies that everyone communicates
with one another whether through words, through body movements, or through the eyes alone.
Putting ideas across to another is part of our daily activities, be it in business, personal, or
social conversation.
Advanced technology of today enables us to communicate easily with someone in another country
or to conduct business meetings with persons coming from more than three countries talking
together through overseas calls. This is how sophisticated the communication system is.
Communication is now more direct, fast and easy. People are very time-conscious. Socializing is
limited. Abbreviated words like disco for discotheque, antique for antiquated, info for information,
memo for memorandum are used to save time and effort.
Communication is a reciprocal process through which individuals create and share meaning. It offers
opportunities for one to know more about the other person.
Ideas are communicated on a give and take basis.
Gestures and eye contact are very useful especially in conversations. According to Elsie Young,
conversation through talking is a muscular as well as 'mental activity because the whole body is
involved. Gestures do a great deal to the conversation as well as to the expression and projection of
one's personality. One need not be afraid of gesturing as one talks if it helps in emphasizing and
clarifying what one is saying. Shrugs, head nodding, change of posture, and hand gesture can help in
expressing oneself. However, aimless gesture will not aid one's effectiveness.
The senders and receivers each communicate interactions which build on past experiences and
influence future interactions.
What Is Intrapersonal Communication?
We get to know ourselves more through other people. We need the unique others to help us
discover ourselves, (Del Polito, C.M., 1977).
We must know how different we are from others by the distinct manner and style of how we
communicate with our parents, brothers, and sisters and determine the qualities we possess which
are different from them.
We grow and mature into full grown individuals as we communicate with other people. Reactions,
remarks, perceptions, feedback, and judgments from others are the sources of information about
ourselves. Through the years there is an accumulation of information from which we form our self-
image and self-concept.
Self-image (Buerkel-Rothfuss 1985) is composed of information and feelings ch-awn from past
experiences and of interaction with others.
Self-concept develops through our interpersonal relationship. What others say and how they say it
combined with gestures and non-verbal cues give us information about ourselves.
Understanding ourselves first is the key to understanding others. Our interpersonal core does not
develop

Individual perception of self

Actual responses of others individual’s Self-conception

Behavior
Kinch Model: "A Formalized Theory of Self-Concept" (Del Polito, C. M. 1977)
From this diagram, we perceive that the actual re-
sponses of others are the data upon which individual self-perception is formed. From early years,
one grows until the individual's self-concept is organized and formalized to become the behavior of
the individual.
However according to Buerkel-Rothfuss, (1985), "We have the potential to change negative or
unrealistic atti-
tudes about ourselves and replace them with more positive and healthier attitudes."
The significant others have much contribution in the formulation of our behavior. They are our
parents, brothers, and sisters, grandparents, relatives and peers who care for us. They are important
in our lives because they are willing to take risks in giving us negative as well as posi-
tive feedback. They have the sincere desire to improve us and symphatize with us.
These significant others must possess two important criteria in order to become useful to us. They
should be credible and personable. (Verderber, Rudolf, F., 1987)
They should possess traits of honesty and should be believable before we can take their
words at face value.
Personable individuals are those who profess concern with us; they usually have a strong influence
on us.
Interpersonal Communication Skills
Self-acceptance refers to the extent to which a person's self-concept or actual self matches the
description of his ideal self.
Studies show that persons who are more self-accepting have a higher self-concept and show more
understanding and greater acceptance of others.
On the other hand, these persons who reject themselves also dislike and reject others.
Self-disclosure means to share with another person some personal infounation which the other
person could not possibly learn from anyone else.
When one is true and sincere in disclosing himself to other trustworthy individuals, the disclosure
can be mutual. Thus communication between the two is facilitated and continues. The trust in the
individual to whom one discloses information is a key factor for the confidentiality of information.
However, risk cannot be discounted.
Growing emotionally close to another person takes time, risk, and commitment.
Listening
Based on the results of study of freshmen of the University of Minnesota, the average student
comprehends and remembers only half of what he hears immediately after he hears it. In spite of
efforts made in listening much of what a student hears is not retained.
Students must have a correct concept of what listening means. It is knowing what to listen to that
counts. A student should not listen to the words but should know what the words stand for. He must
develop the habit of seeking out the main ideas. Most lecturers give a mass of statistics, facts, etc.
The student should ask, "What are these statistics for? What is the speaker leading to? What is the
purpose for this line of development?"
A student needs to help himself by taking down facts which may help him recall important things
which he may not remember easily after the lecture. He must have an effective method of note-
taking.
One can become an efficient note-taker if he listens more than writes. He listens while the speaker
makes a point and then writes everything said about it in a one-sentence summary. Therefore the
students may just write the topic sentence of the paragraph. Notes made by this method will prove
useful.
According to Harry Shaw the author of A Complete Course in Freshman English, there are four
thought channels which an efficient listener uses in order to get the most out of what he hears: 1)
Anticipation; 2) Weighing the evidence; 3) Reviewing; 4) Listening between the lines.
Characteristics of Listening
The following are characteristics of listening:
1. Listening is more than hearing.
2. Listening is a skill.
3. Listening is important.
4. Listening promotes good relationships.
5. Listening happens within a context.
Feedback
Del Polito (1977), states that our relations with others have different stages.

Interaction means relating with other persons according to their roles in life. We deal with cashiers,
bank tellers, and mail carriers at the level where their functions are concerned.
Through interpersonal relationship, there is a tendency to increase in self-disclosure, feedback, and
trust for each other.
Intimate relationship means there is a close bond and commitment to the bond. Through risking of
confidentialities and sharing of personal information, there is greater dependence on each other.
The behaviors are more expressive of self because partners need to have more sharing and
enjoyment of each other's company.
When people are intimate, they help solve each other's problems. There is a need for continual
confirmation of feedback and resolution of important issues. This leads to the continuous
functioning of relationships.
How we perceive another person determines the kind of relationship we will share with that person.
Characteristics of Communication
Following are characteristics of communication :
1. Communication is a process. As we deal with another, ideas, perceptions and concepts are relayed
through communication, whether verbal or non-verbal. Each communication situation is part of an
ongoing series of actions.
2. Communication can be verbal or non-verbal.
Non-verbal messages are learned early in life. They are instinctive. A baby can indicate hunger,
displeasure, pain or happiness. Non-verbal communication may be indicated through facial
expression, eye contact, gestures, postures, spatial distances or any faun of kinetic movement. They
are more emotional and natural demonstrations of what one wants to convey.
3. Communication contains info!' iation and defines
a relationship. The level of relationship may be casual, friendly, or intimate. How important the
information is and how trustworthy the receiver is to the sender will determine the level of
relationship established.
4. Communication is irreparable and unrepeatable. Once words or messages are uttered, they
cannot be swallowed back by the sender. The impact and repercussions of what have been said to
another cannot be retracted anymore and whatever damage done can no longer be undone.
Pointers in Communication
Most writers on etiquette are one in their view that an ideal conversation is an exchange of thought
and not a show of elegance in speech. The ability to express one's thoughts and feelings is sufficient
for ordinary conversa-
tion.
Myers et. al. (1973) states that a very common barrier to communication is the "allness" attitude. It
can get in the way of learning and can mislead us into thinking that we have heard or observed all
that is needed to know.
In a particular conversation, for example, attitudes count a lot — that is, how we behave in a given
situation. To be successful in imparting our knowledge in conversational setups, there are certain
considerations that we have to put into practice, which may include the following:
1. We should show solidarity by raising others' status and giving help and rewards.
2. We should release our tension by joking, laughing, and showing satisfaction.
3. We should show agreement by showing passive acceptance and understanding.
4. We should give suggestions or opinions and ask for some, as well.
5. We should give or add information.
6. We should hear others out before judging them.
-7. We should listen for main ideas, principles, and concepts before arriving at any conclusion.
Listening, in fact, is the first rule in conversation. Listening means respecting the other and giving
him/her importance. Conversation should be a matter of equal give-and-take. The voluble person
monopolizes the conversation without giving a chance to others. "Stop, look, listen" is excellent
advice. To stop means not to rush ahead; to look means to pay attention to the expression of the
person. Be a good listener. This is an important quality of a good conversationalist.
SUMMARY
Advanced technology enables us to communicate easily with another. Socialization is facilitated even
with people distant from us through the telephone, cellular phone, beeper. However, technology
does not set the limit for communication. One interacts with others in ways convenient for him.
Ideas are communicated in a give-and-take basis. Keen observation of one's body gestures, eye to
eye contact, and bodily movements speak louder than voice. Intrapersonal communication is being
distinct from others
in manner, style and approach in dealing with other people.
Knowing ourselves as well as knowing others are the secrets of effective communication. We learn
to know ourselves as we accumulate reactions, remarks, perceptions, feedback, judgments and
conclusions from ,others.
These people include our parents and family members who are constantly watching and observing
us.
Communication has certain characteristics. It is a process; it can be verbal or non-verbal; it contains
information, and it is irreversible and unrepeatable. How we perceive another person determines
the kind of relationship we will share with that person.
Communication therefore is the means of knowing another person, knowing ourselves,
emphathizing with others, sympathizing with them, understanding others, thus making our lives
more pleasant, comfortable, and enjoyable.
QUESTIONS
1. What is intrapersonal communication?
2. What are interpersonal communication skills?
3. What is listening?
4. What are the rules in communication?
5.State some pointers on communication or conversation.
Chapter 13
GOOD MANNERS AND DECORUM

Knowledge of good manners adds to one's self-confidence and is of great help in developing one's
personality. Those who practice good manners are poised and at ease. Manners are the ways of
conducting oneself. The phrase "good manners" encompasses many things. It includes gentleness,
modesty, and dignity. It is neatness and correctness of dress in the home and in society. It is saying
the right word at the proper time and proper place. It includes several forms of kindness like
hospitality and tolerance. Decorum is propriety and good taste in behavior, speech, dress, etc. One
who observes decorum can gain the respect of others and is admired by those around him.
People expect us to have good manners or to observe decorum at home, in school, in the office, in
church, in the movie house, and in other public places.
Manners in the Family
The Filipino family is close-knit. However, even though the family may be close-knit, each member is
entitled to
his full share of privacy.
1. Parents violate their children's privacy by opening letters addressed to their children. Young
people also violate their parents' privacy when they rummage through personal belongings in search
of shoes, jewelry, neckties, cuff links, or other articles they wish to use.
2. Every member of the family should have the privilege of entertaining his or her friends with
a minimum of interference from the rest of the family unless the occasion is a family affair.
3. Knock and wait for an answer or for a door to be opened before entering.
4. Reply courteously to parents or to older members.
5. Use the magic words "excuse me," "sorry," and "please" as the need arises.
6. Never open your parents' drawers or bags without permission.
7. Never use others' personal belongings, for the sake of personal hygiene.
8. Let your parents or at least a family member know when you have to leave.
9. Avoid interrupting a conversation.
10. Never shout when something is being discussed.
11. When you get up from bed, leave it in order.
Table Manners
Good manners are a mark of a well-bred person. Good manners at the table differentiate a civilized
person from an uncivilized one. At the table, good manners make meals more pleasant for others.
There are three general rules that govern acceptable conduct at the table (Narvaez-Soriano, 1982).
These are:
1. Be thoughtful and considerate of others.
2. Handle your table equipment correctly.
3. Eat quietly, without attracting attention and without being offensive to others.
Each of these rules is made up of a number of other more specific rules. Some of the suggestions for
these are as follows:
1. Everyone should come to the table properly groomed.
2. Come to the table promptly when called.
3. It is discourteous to make others wait for you and a sign of lack of consideration for the person
who prepared the meals.
4. Wait for others instead of rushing to the table ahead of them. When there are older or more
important persons, permit them to precede you to the table.
5. Be seated only after all have assembled at the table and then sit down from the left side of your
chair. Everyone sits down at the table at the same time.
6. When you are in a party (if you are a man) you help or assist the lady by pulling out her chair
for her to sit.
7. If grace is to be said, sit or stand quietly while it is being done.
8. As soon as you are seated, keep your hands on your lap and your elbows close to your sides so as
not to interfere with someone next to you.
9. Put your napkin on your lap. Large napkins are partly unfolded; small napkins are completely
unfolded. At the end of the meal, lay the napkin at the left side of the table setting.
10. Do not blow your soup to cool it. Wait until it is cool enough to eat.
11. Be observant of the needs of others. See that food is passed to them. Do not serve yourself
first unless the hostess asks you to do so.
12. Sip soup quietly and at the side of your spoon. Do not gulp it, since this is repulsive.
13. Keep your share in the conversation but avoid talking about unpleasant or objectionable topics
(examples are illness, operation etc.).
14. Apologize in the event of an accident and then try to forget your disaster.
15. Never reach or grab for food. Request pleasantly what you want.
16. Manage your silver inconspicuously and learn the rules for its correct usage.
17. After using the dessert spoon, leave it on the open plate or lay it on the service plate.
An almost automatic habit of most Filipino diners as can be observed often is wiping plates, silver,
and other utensils on the table. Caballero considers this as "overkill," an affected manner of
displaying gentility or obsession with cleanliness. He believes that it can be very insulting at a
restaurant, much more at home. It is one habit that we should stop (Phil. Daily Inquirer, Dec. 22,
1994).
Modesty
Modesty is moderation in taste, in movement and in words. One who has these traits is considered a
decent person. Young girls should know that decent girls are what decent men are looking for
especially when it comes to choosing a lifetime partner. The true Filipina is modest. A modest
Filipina practices the following:
1. Wears simple and appropriate clothing at all occasions
2. Wears jewelry and other accessories properly
3. Avoids the use of excessive make-up
4. Avoids giggling and laughing boisterously in public. A man is turned off when he notices a girl
behaving in such a manner.
5. Speaks well in a well-modulated voice
6. Refrains from boasting or bragging of her influ-
ential relatives, friends, and acquaintances
7. Does not use foul words in group conversations
8. Avoids certain places of enjoyment or entertainment, especially where men drink freely,
because they are hunting grounds of the devil
9. Does not accept expensive things from a man because that is a bait to make her swallow the hook
10. Does not comb her hair nor cut/file her nails in public
On Taking a Public/Private Vehicle
Discipline is an important part of life whether it is discipline at home, in school, in the street or in the
community; it is a person's obligation to observe discipline for the sake of peace and harmony.
1. When riding a jeepney, wait for it at the PUJ loading and unloading shed.
2. When a PUJ stops, let the passengers come down first before you get in to the jeepney.
3. Pay your fare before getting off.
4. It is always more polite for a gentleman to seat a lady on his right. However, the male should
always be at the danger side.
5. A lady is assisted by her male companion in getting into a car, a taxi, or a bus. He is allowed to put
his hand under her elbow while assisting
her.
6. In getting off a vehicle, the gentleman alights
first and offers her his hand.
7. In her own car a lady always sits on the right hand side of the rear seat of a car that is driven
by a chauffeur.
8. In the car or taxi, a lady sits at the edge of the seat, resting her hand on the door handle or
window, with knees bent.
Dating
In these changing and confusing times dating has become complex. The Filipinos, especially in urban
areas, are gradually becoming westernized. Today, training by parents has largely taken the place of
the chaperon's protection. From an ethical standpoint, the only chaperon worth having today is a
young girl's own efficiency in chaperon-
ing herself.
The age at which a girl may go out alone with a boy in the evening and how late she may stay out
will vary according to the sense of responsibility of the girl herself and the custom of the community.
Only the parents can make the exact decision as to whether their daughter needs to be chaperoned
or may go out alone with a boy.
A girl of fourteen might go with a boy as part of a grOp of four or more to an early movie, dinner,
sports event, or some other special occasion. Most of the parties she goes to will, however, be those
at the homes of friends or dances organized by her school. Her parents should at all times know
where and with whom she is and at what time she will be home. As she grows in age and expe-
rience, her dates -will naturally include many more activities; she will go out more frequently alone
with a boy, and her hours
will be later (Post, 1967).
Dates should be absolutely restricted to weekends and vacations.
The time at which a teenager must be home is a difficult problem to be settled between children and
their parents. The customs of the community, the neighbors, the amount of sleep the individual
child needs, and the confidence of the parents in a girl's escort, are important factors. During the
early teen years, when children are emotionally immature, the parents must set time limits on dates
and see that they are kept, even though it may mean waiting up to greet the returning son or
daughter. This is a simple matter of setting a high standard of behavior. As a general rule, 10:30 or
11:00 is a reasonable time for children of fifteen and below to be home.
Manners in Dating
When a fellow asks for a date, he should word his invitation in such a way that the girl can refuse or
accept easily. To ask "What are you doing on Saturday nights?" puts a girl in an embarrassing
position. Whether she accepts or refuses a date, a girl should respond courteously.
Dating enables a boy and a girl to know each other. They will be able to observe each other's
manners, attitudes, and habits. As long as dating is confined within the nouns of proper conduct, it
will serve a good purpose. Here are some important points to keep in mind:
1. Punctuality should be observed.
2. Respect the ideas of your date.
3. Show correct courtesy to your date.
4. Select the right topics for conversation which are interesting for both of you.
5. Observe proper grooming and dressing.
Dating a Girl
_
First dates are just as important as first impressions and absolutely nothing should go wrong. To
insure this, here is a list of what you should and shouldn't do on that important day. Make sure you
keep them in mind. Remember, first impressions last. Writers on manners and etiquette generally
agree on the following rules of conduct when dating:
1. When the girl introduces you to her parents, stand up and greet them. Acknowledge the
introduction by saying "How do you do?"
2. When walking along the sidewalk, you should go first, then when you turn, walk on the side
near the street.
3. In getting on a bus, the girl goes first; but when getting off, you should go first then turn
around to help the girl.
4. Chivalry may be a lost art, but you can revive it if you remember to open all doors, car doors,
restaurant doors, theater doors, for the girl.
5. For a first date you should choose the places and the activities for the day. You should pay
the bill, too.
If you decide to eat out, please mind your manners. If you've forgotten all about them, here's a list
to refresh your memory.
1. Always remember to hold the chair for the girl, and wait for her to get seated before taking your
place at the table.
2. In ordering food, make sure you ask the girl first what she would like, and then you give the
order to the waiter.
3. Don't serve yourself first.
4. Don't talk when your mouth is full.
5. Don't lean over your plate, taking your head to the food instead of the food to your mouth.
6. Don't complain loudly about the service and the food in case one or both happen to be
awful. (You should have chosen a better place.)
7. Don't make noise while eating, like slurping soup or coffee, smacking your lips, etc.
8. Don't make gestures with your knife or fork still in hand.
9. Don't do a final cleaning job at the table. In other words, don't lick your fork, scrape the
plate, or mop up the gravy or sauce with a piece of bread.
10. Talk about pleasant things while you're at the table. Avoid talking about accidents, illness, or
other problems.
11. Remember the Tagalog proverb, "Though he may not speak, his behavior will identify him."
Responding to Introductions
At home, in school, in parties, we may meet people who are strangers to us but are close or known
to other members of the family or acquaintances. When you are introduced to a person, you should
say, "I'm very glad to
meet you, Mr. ," or "How do you do, Mr ." Do
not say "Pleased to meet you," or "Glad to know you."
Listen carefully when you are introduced. If you do not hear the name, say, "I'm sorry, but I did not
hear your name."
Men and boys usually shake hands when they are introduced. Girls may or may not, as they desire. If
a boy or a man offers to shake hand with a girl, she should respond courteously.
It is the young or the male who is introduced to an old person or to a lady. Say, "Mom, this is Leo, my
friend." "Atty. Reyes, this is Mr. Cruz, my neighbor."
It is the person of higher rank or status, the much
older one who should initiate shaking of hands when introductions are made.
Introduce a man to a woman, a boy to a girl; that is, speak the woman's or the girl's name first even
though the
man is distinguished and the girl young (Tressler & Shelmadine, 1986).
On Addressing People Not Related to You
In the Philippines, the Tagalogs call an older sister Ate, an older brother Kuya; a mother Nanay; a
father, Tatay; the grandfather Lobo; and the grandmother Lola. It is becoming a custom especially to
most of the non-Tagalogs to use any of those Tagalog terms with anyone based on their perception
of the person's age. It is high time to stop the practice because it only incurs a negative feeling on
the part of the person addressed, although outwardly he may appear unaffected by the term you
used. There are those who entertain the thought that the person
calling the other one Ate is just drawing youth from the one addressed.
Here are some practices we should try to avoid using
with people when we do not really know the age gap in relation to yours.
1. Unless you are related by consanguinity or affin-
ity to a person, never call him/her Ate I Kuya, Lob! Lola, Nanay I Tatay, as the case may be.
Sometimes the person you addressed Ate might be younger than you, consequently, the person
might feel insulted. If you really want to show respect, since you are not related to the person,
address
him/her "Mr. "or "Miss "; "Ma'am" or "Sir" depending on your perception of his/her age.
If heishe is close to you, call him/her by nick-
name.
2. Never address a professional, Ale. Actually, there
is no real equivalent of Ale in English. The term
Ale, however, is aE right to be used with vendors
in the market.
3. If you do not want a person lie to you, never ask his/her age especially if you think that he is
over 25 years of age. Asking one's age, however, is all right with children and adolescents. As for the
Westerners, if you ask their age, they are offended
and think ill of you.
4. Use "Miss" if you are very sure that a woman is unmarried or single. "Ms" is used if the
woman is divorced or if you are not sure whether she is
married or not.
5. Be careful when addressing a woman as "Mrs." Some women are obese and appear like
matrons even though unmarried. An unmarried woman generally feels embarrassed if she is
addressed "Mrs." On the other hand, a married woman feels elated when she is addressed "Miss".
To be safe, use "Miss" in addressing a woman whose status
is not known to you.
When to Rise
Oftentimes we may misjudge a young man who does not know or practice the rules of etiquette as
being discourteous. Here are some guides on when to rise:
1. A boy rises when he is introduced to anyone.
2. He should rise when a girl, woman, or an older
man comes into the room.
3. He rises when friends stop at the table where he is seated in a hotel 01' restaurant.

Manners in the Comfort Room

The comfort room is the place to check on how we look. It must be kept sanitary all the time.
Dacanay and Manalo (1993), gives the following rules of conduct in the comfort room in school.
1. Don't talk or laugh boisterously, especially when you are with your classmates or close
friends. Your message is intended only for one or two other persons but not for everyone inside.
2. Unless you can't control your bladder, give way if you see a teacher/ a superior. It is an act of
courtesy and respect.
3. When you are combing you hair or powdering your face in front of the mirror, be sure not to block
the view of others.
4. If the comfort room is crowded, wait for your turn.
5. Don't write your message to a friend on the walls or doors of the comfort room. This is an
act of vandalism.
Telephone Manners
The ability to converse well is an important asset. Being able to talk pleasantly and intelligently with
people gives one an opportunity for friendship and chances for success in one's life. The telephone is
part of modern life. Learn to use it properly. In carrying on a telephone conversation you should
remember that your voice is the only thing that conveys what you say. That is why you should do
your best to make that conversation as pleasant and as courteous as expected of you. Never shout
when using the
telephone.
Here are some rules to observe when you are using
the telephone.
1. Greet the one you are calling.
2. The caller should identify himself first.
3. Modulate your voice and be articulate.
4. When you call up a house and you recognize your friend answering, say, "Hi! Cora, this is
Minda." If it is a child answering, say, "This is Minda. Is your sister Cora in?" When you recognize
your friend's mother say, "Good morning, Mrs. Garcia. This is Minda. Could I please talk to Cora?"
5. When a strange voice answers your call and asks, "Who's calling, please?" give your name at
once and never hang up the telephone when it is not the party you are calling who answers. In fact,
as soon as the person at the other end answers your call, it is only proper for you to identify yourself
immediately even if the person does not ask. You have no reason to hide your identity if your call
is a legitimate one.
6. If you are receiving the calls at home, the best way to answer is still, "Hello." Saying "Lita
Santos speaking" gives you no chance to retreat should you decide not to talk to the caller after his
identity is known. "Yes" is abrupt and sounds a bit
rude.
7. The caller is expected to end the call. However, if the caller does not make the first move, it is all
right for you to say, "My mother is expecting a call," or " I have to finish something at once." Then
add, "May I call you back later?"
8. Don't slam the receiver down when you hang up. Put the telephone down gently. The
sudden sharp bang can be quite deafening to the person who might still have the phone close to his
ear.
9. Don't stay too long talking with someone over the phone. Telephones are used to facilitate
communication and therefore should not be abused.
A phone constantly busy can cause great problems for adults who would like to get in touch with
people at home.
10. A girl may call up a boy with whom she is in good terms only:
a. to invite him to a party
b. to ask for arrangements about a group gathering
c. to sell tickets
d. to break a date if she is sick
e. to offer condolences if there is death in the family. Otherwise, the girl would appear to be
pursuing the boy and the boy could get turned off
Telephone Etiquette in the Business Office
1. In answering business calls, identify yourself or your company, before anything else. Say,
"Good morning, Chaves Law Office."
2. If the person asked for is available, say, "May I tell him who's calling, please" or "One
moment please, Mr. Gonzales."
3. Once the person being called for is on the line, he says, "This is Atty. Chaves, May I help
you?"
4. When the person called for is out or cannot be immediately reached, say, "I'm sorry, Ma'am, Atty.
Chaves is not in right now. May I take the message?"
5. Confii in the message by repeating it to the caller.
6. When the person asked for is busy on another line, say, "I'm sorry, Sir. Atty. Chaves is still busy
with another call. Would you mind waiting or calling up again."
7. If the caller's inquiry belongs to another depart-
ment, say, "May I refer you to the sales manager, Mr. Lopez? I am sure he can help you."
8. When the caller dials the wrong number, say,
"I'm sorry, Sir, you've got the wrong number. This is the Chaves Law Office."
9. Try to be courteous, helpful and accommodating.
10. When you take the message, be sure it includes:
a. date and exact time of call
b. name of the caller and his company
c. the caller's telephone number
d. details of the message
e. your initials or name as the person who took the message.
11. Avoid phrases like "I can't" or "We can't do that," "I can't promise," or "I'm really not too sure."
12. Remember your "Thank you," and "Goodbye" when ending your conversations.
Manners in Public Places
In the Street. The street is a public place. Hence, when we are there we are expected to behave.
1. Don't attract attention if you are in the street or elsewhere in public; be careful not to talk
loudly. Shun speaking in a loud voice, staring at people, bumping into them, calling a name in public
unless it is absolutely unavoidable, or making personal remarks that attract passing attention.
2. Exposing your private affairs, feelings, or innermost thoughts in public is not proper.
3. A gentleman, whether walking with two ladies or with one, walks on the curb side of the
pavement on the lady's or the ladies' left as he chooses. He should never sandwich himself between
them.
4. When friends approach each other, the one who recognizes the other first is the first who nods,
smiles, or speaks, whether he be a man or woman.
5. Walk with your friends not more than two abreast.
No one has a monopoly of the sidewalk (Dacanay & Manalo, Rev. ed 1993).
6. Avoid eating while walking in the street.
7. Behave properly when passing or meeting a funeral.
 At Mass or Inside the Church. The church is a place of worship. It is a formal, quiet place. It is
not a place for socializing or meeting one's friends. Boisterous behavior
and unnecessary chatting are not proper in the church. Focus your attention on the altar.
Being a formal place, appropriate dressing is a must. Definitely out are improper clothes such as
backless dresses, bare midriff, low necked attire or micro-mini skirts. Nowadays, the more formal
pantsuits can be worn to church. There are parishes that are broadminded when it comes to what
they would call proper attire (Santos, 1974). Shorts, however, should never be worn in church.
Punctuality is a must as much as participation in activities. Do not unduly attract attention when you
enter. Walk quietly to a convenient seat. Choose one in front when early and one at the back, if late.
Avoid greeting friends in a loud voice. Quietly acknowledge greetings with a slight bow of your head
and smile. If you have something to say, whisper to the person that you would like to talk to
him after the service. Laughing conspicuously is definitely out of place in church.
Participate actively, but do not attract attention by
praying too loudly or singing at the top of your voice. You are not trying out for the opera.
Do not allow the' children to play while inside the church.
Finish the ceremony before leaving the church.
In Assemblies. An assembly is a gathering of intellectuals where learning is acquired from
resource persons who share their expertise, training and experiences. Some important points to
observe are:
1. Observe silence and be a good listener in order to understand what the speaker is saying.
2. Share ideas if needed.
3. Don't move about in the hall while the talk is going on because it is very disturbing on the part of
the speaker.
4. Don't leave the hall while the discussion or speech is going on.
5. Clap your hands to signify appreciation or approval of the speaker's ideas.
Hotels and Restaurants. People who take their meals in restaurants are decent people. Your
behavior and actuations will speak for the kind of breeding you have.
1. Call the waiter properly by waiting for the waiter to notice your table and ask him what you
want.
2. Don't engage in loud conversation.
3. While waiting for someone, order a drink to keep you busy on the table.
4. Make inquiries politely at the information desk.
e.
If you need a reservation, wait 2-3 days in ad-
vance, and pay reservation fees if required.
Fiestas. Fiestas are commonly celebrated in provinces. This is one cultural celebration being
preserved by Filipinos. Fiestas are occasions for family celebrations and family members who live far
to come home to join their families.
1. Be friendly with the hostess and other guests.
2. Extend a helping hand with the hostess if necessary.
3. Wear appropriate clothes for the occasion.
4. Don't take food to your home unless the hostess offers you some.
5. Bring a gift for the hostess when your are invited to the fiesta.
Formal Concerts. Concerts are popular nowadays. It may be formal or informal concerts.
Nevertheless, there are rules that should be observed by the people attending concerts.
1. Dress properly.
2. Clap you hands moderately.
3. Avoid unnecessary noise.
4. Conversation should be carried on softly.
5. Don't smoke in a "no-smoking" area.
Formal Reunions. This occasion is held to renew relationships among old friends and to know how
each one is progressing in life.
1. Traditionally, younger members show respect to the elders by kissing their hands.
2. Younger people should make sure that the elders feel comfortable.
3. Participate in the program if there is any by doing your number.
4. Be hospitable to everyone.
5. Share in the expenses and bring a gift for the hostess.

6. Send invitations way in advance. Be cooperative by extending a helping hand since it

is a family
reunion.
7. Accidents are to be expected.
8. Be punctual in attendance. If you cannot make it send a note in advance.

9. A "thank you" note should follow after the occasion.

In a Debut. This is a foi mal affair where every detail of the celebration is planned and well-
prepared. The attires of the guests are also formal. One flaw in terms of manners will spoil the entire
affair.
1. Be sure you receive an invitation.

2. Greet the celebrant upon entering the place.

3. Feel at ease and relaxed.

4. Bring a gift for the debutant.
5. Extend your best wishes and thanks to the cel-

ebrator.
In a Wedding Ceremony. Just like a debut, this is

also a formal affair. Guests should observe etiquette strictly.

1. A gift is a must for the newly-weds.

2. Consider the ceremony as a solemn affair.

3. Punctuality in a wedding ceremony is important.

4. Sit at the proper place and wait until you are served.

5. Converse in a soft voice.

Vacationing with a Family. When one is vacationing with another family, he should behave
more politely as when with his own family. One represents his own family.

So proper manners are called for.

1. Notify the family of your intention to spend some time in their place.
2. Bring your personal things like towels, toothbrush, toothpaste, soap, pillow cases, and
blankets.
3. Bring enough money.
4. Set your goals or objectives in vacationing with a family.
5. Plan your itinerary of activities.
6. Send a card of thanks after the vacation.
SUMMARY
The phrase "good manners" encompasses many things. It includes gentleness, modesty, neatness,
and appropriateness of dress at home and in society, saying the right
word at the proper time and place. Good manners are a mark of a well-bred person.
Modesty is moderation in taste, movement, and words. At the table we talk about pleasant things.
Talking of accidents, illness, or other problems should be avoided. Young girls should know that
decent girls are what decent
men are looking for, especially when it comes to a lifetime partner.
The telephone is part of modern life and we should learn to use it properly. Since it is used to
facilitate communication it should not be constantly busy so as not to
cause great problems for adults who would like to get in touch with people at home.
The church being a formal place of worship, conservative clothing should be worn at all times.
Improper clothes such as backless, bare-midriff, low-necked dresses and micro-miniskirts are
definitely out. It is a place of prayer and therefore there should be no boisterous behavior and
unnecessary chatting. Observe decorum not only in church but also at home, in school, in the office,
in movie houses, in assemblies, and in other public places.
QUESTIONS
Test yourself on the following:
• 1. How do parents violate their children's privacy?
2. At the table, what do you do with your napkin before starting to eat?
3. Why should girls avoid places of entertainment where boys/men drink freely?
4. Who should alight first from a vehicle when a man and a woman are together? What is its
purpose?
5. Why is it not proper to stay too long talking with someone over the phone?
6. In getting off a public/private vehicle, who alights first when you are with a companion, the
girl or the boy?

CHAPTER14
PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT
Present-day research has broadened significantly and includes efforts to show how individual
differences can help us better explain and predict the whole range of hu-
man behavior.
Personality measurement, assessment, or testing is a general term that refers to the process of
describing or evaluating individual behavior. It also refers to techniques or tests that seek to quantify
a person's cognitive, emotional or behavioral activities or abilities. Personality measurement varies
and the ways in which personality is measured are closely tied to specific theories. The main focus of
the assessment is often based on the examiner's preference of personality theories and on the
characteristics of the subject. For example, an examiner who is strongly influenced by the theory of
Freud and other psychoanalytic theorists may rely on projective tests, while one who agrees with
learning theory would emphasize behavioral assess-
ment.
Generally, assessment of personality is aimed at identifying the typical or most common
characteristics displayed by a person. Most personality assessments involve using many assessment
techniques together. While there are many techniques used to assess personality, a good measure
must be reliable; that is, you get the same results on the test every time you administer it. In other
words, it gives consistent results. A test must also be valid; that is,
it measures what it is designed to measure.
Psychological tests are divided into two categories: the objective and the projective tests. Objective
tests, sometimes called paper-and-pencil tests, particularly those administered in group setting are
of this nature. Two examples are the Stanford-Binet Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
Both measure innate mental ability rather than achievement. An example of an objective personality
test is the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory), first published in 1943 and
periodically revised. It primarily functions as a tool for the diagnosis of psychological disorders
(McKinley & Hathaway).
Common Assessment Techniques
The common assessment techniques used by psychologists are: 1) observation, 2) the use of
questionnaire type
or personality inventories, 3) interviews, and 4) the use of projective tests.
1. Observation. Behavioral assessment is one of the most common assessment techniques.
Observations of an individual by a trained observer can take place in a natural setting. This method
involves observing how people act and determining what their actions indicate about their
personality. This type of assessment focuses on how behavior is affected by various situations and
how the behavior changes from one situation to another. There are a number of techniques of
behavioral assessment. One involves observing an individual's behavior in natural settings. An
example is watching a child interact with his classmates in an experimental situation.
The natural observation methods have many advantages. They are unobtrusive in the sense
that people do not know they are being studied. Research shows that people,
when they are aware that they are being observed, behave differently.
2. The Interview. The interview, as one of the as-
sessment techniques is a form of psychological testing that is very widely used for evaluating a
person. Some assessment of values, attitudes, and even a rough estimate of intelligence can be
made in an interview.
Psychologists and psychiatrists make heavy use of the interview in identifying and treating mental
illness. As an evaluation technique, in spite of its wide usage, there are several problems with the
interview.
1. The first has to do with the kind of behavior sample being used. An hour of conversation in which
the subject is trying to make a positive impression may not really cover the important
information.
2. Second, the usefulness of the interview depends heavily on the skill of the interviewer. Two
specific problems that can be given on this point are:
a. The halo effect. The tendency to base our judgment on the basis of one particular feature is
known as the halo effect. One thing about the subject's appearance or one statement in the
interview may color everything else the subject says or does in a positive or negative direction.
b. The personal bias of the interviewer, if not taken into account or recognized, may influence
the observation and interpretation of
the interview.
An interview differs from a casual conversation in that it has a purpose such as to evaluate a job
applicant, to determine whether a patient is suicidal, to estimate the extent of an individual's
emotional problems, or to predict whether a prisoner is apt to violate parole.
Psychologists or trained interviewers often ask questions in person. Usually the interviews are
standardized so
that everyone is asked the same question, but sometimes respondents are asked to clarify or
elaborate their answers.
Two main types of interview are: the structured interview and the unstructured interview. Both of
these are used to obtain information about an individual's personality. The structured interview
follows a standard pattern, much like a printed questionnaire that assumes all relevant topics are
covered.

The unstructured interviews are used in clinical or counseling situations. The structured
interviews are used more often with job applicants or research subjects when comparable data are
required of all respondents.
As a means of measuring personality, the interview is subject to many sources of error and bias, two
of which have been mentioned earlier. The success of the technique thus depends on the skill and
awareness of the interviewer.
3. The Questionnaire type or Personality Inventory. This is a standard set of questions for assessing
behavior that can be given to many people at one time and usually can be scored quickly. Personality
inventories, sometimes called objective personality tests, are standardized questionnaires that are
designed to yield quantitative information about personality.
A number of questionnaires have been developed to
examine specific parts of the personality. One of the most popular personality questionnaires used
by psychologists for diagnosis is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The MMPI
was designed to identify specific psychological disorders. Hathaway and Mckinley developed the
scale by preparing a number of one-line statements to which the individual could respond "true,"
"false," or "cannot say." The items concerned a wide range of issue's such as attitudes, past
experiences, emotions, and psychological symptoms.
The MMPI is scored for ten basic scales aimed at identifying ten different disorders (depression,
schizophrenia, hysteria, and so on). Altholigh it may sound easy to attach the names of the scales to
someone who has scored high on one or more of the scales, trained examin do that.
ers don't Another personality questionnaire is the California Personality Inventory (CPI) which has
been used vvidely in Personality research. It has items that could be used to measure more normal
traits such as poise, dominance, self-assurance, sociability, maturity, achievement, and aptitude. The
first self-report, questionnaire type of personality inventory is the Personal Data Sheet, devised by
RS. Wood worth for use in World War I and published in 1919. Employed with moderate success, its
purpose was to identify men who would prove to be poor prospects for military characteristics.
service because of undesirable personality and behavior This questionnaire consists of a list of items
in the form of questions about himself to be answered by the individual. The aim is to detect
personality and behavioral symptoms that are regarded as indicative of maladjustment. Men whose
responses indicated a sufficient number ally.
of undesirable symptoms are later interviewed individu-There are inventories answered by the
individual himself that are intended to evaluate degrees of introversion extroversion neurotic
tendencies, security-insecurity, anxiety, dominance-submission, adjustment to home and to school,
and others. A trait is a generalized mode of behavior or a form of readiness to respond with a
marked degree of consistency to a set of situations that are functionally equivalent for the
respondent. If a person always votes for a candidate of the most conservative party, this might be
only a habit; but if conservatism is his characteristic mode of respond-traits.
ing to a variety of situations, conservatism is one of his traits.
Some inventories are devised to evaluate a single bipolar characteristic, called a dimension, such as
security-insecurity, as in the Maslow Inventory; others are multiple trait inventories; an example is
the Bernreuter.
Comparison with Rating Scales. Rating scales are intended to reveal how other persons
respond to or have been impressed by the subject; these scales provide evidence of the value placed
upon an individual in certain group situations, while personality inventories are self-rating
questionnaires that deal not only with overt behavior such as insisting on having one's own way,
emotional expression, sympathetic acts, but also with the person's own feelings about himself, other
persons, and his environment as a result of introspection, the need for praise, repression of desires,
caution, and worry.
Even if said inventories actually evaluate aspects of Personality that are beyond impressions, they
are the more valuable instruments.
Classification. Personality inventories may be classified into five types, those that:
1. assess specified traits such as ascendance, conservatism, and self-confidence;
2. evaluate adjustment to several aspects of the en ronment such as the home, school, and
commu vi-nity;
-
3. classify into clinical groups; examples are : paranoiac and psychopathic personalities;
4. screen persons into two or three groups such as Psychosomatic disorders vs. normal; and
5. evaluate interests, values, and attitudes; examples are : vocational interest, scientific and
economic values, and attitudes toward religion. The classification into five groups does not signify
that the inventories in each have nothing in common with the others. The differences between them
are dependent upon purposes, organization, nature of total content, and scoring categories.
Fundamentally, nearly all personality inventories are based upon the principle that behavior and
personality are
in part manifestations of certain traits and that strength of traits can be evaluated by them.
In personality inventories an effort is made to estimate the presence and strength of each specified
trait through a number of items representing a variety of situ-
ations in which the individual's generalized mode of responding may be sampled.
4. Projective Tests. A projective test is another per-
sonality measurement in which the individual projects or
shows his personality through his responses in a more or
less unstructured test situation. A personality test which
undertakes to get the personality as a whole, rather than a specific trait or specific behavior, is
usually called a projective test because the individual in carrying out a task projects himself into the
activity and thus reveals the kind of person he is. The projective tests use ambiguous or indefinite
stimuli for personality evaluation. They require subjects to respond to and interpret test materials
that minimize individual expression. Some projective tests utilize perceptual tasks such as
interpretation of inkblots; others are designed to evoke fantasy expression, as in storytelling; and
still others make use of the individual's creative productions such as paintings or drawings. All of
them
are designed to evoke complex responses that reflect the organized functioning of personality.
A projective test reveals the way in which the individual understands and takes hold of the task; it
also reveals his inner or "private world." A projective test aims to know the individual's manner of
striving with life's prob-
lems, of integrating these with his perception and serving to mold and guide his perception.
The following are common Projective Tests:
1. Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test — consists of nine geometrical figures that are copied by the
person to be tested. This test is always included in a battery of tests instead of being used as a single
measure.
2. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of a series of pictures which are shown to the
subject one at a time. It is given in two sessions; ten pictures are shown to the examinee per session.
The subject is asked to tell a story about each picture. The examiner makes inferences about the
subjects's personality.
3. Rorschach's Test consists of 10 inkbolts. The subject is asked to look at each inkblot and tell what
he sees. The examiner counts the responses and rates the subjects in comparison with other
subjects on common traits, and then the examiner builds up a general impression of the subject's
personality and writes a report about it including the individual's traits as well as traits he has in
common with others.

The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test. The Bender Gestalt Test or the Bender is used
primarily to diagnose brain damage. Among child populations, it has been used to screen children for
school readiness, predict school achievement, diagnose reading and learning problems, evaluate
emotional difficulties, and study mental retardation. It is also a non-verbal intelligence test. For
adolescents and adults it has been useful in the diagnosis of brain damage and as a projective test
for the assessment of various personality functions. It consists of nine designs which are presented
to the subject in sequence with request that he or she reproduce them on a blank 8 1/2 x 11 inch
sheet paper. The designs made by the subject are then rated on their degree of accuracy and overall
integration.
The Thematic Apperception Test. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is another popular
projective test. It consists of a series of pictures in which the examinee is requested to create a story
(what he believes is occurring in the picture). Originally developed by Henry Murray, he describes
the method as "a method of revealing to the trained interpreter some of the dominant drives,
emotions, sentiments, complexes and conflicts of personality."
The TAT materials consist of twenty (20) cards, 19 cards with ambiguous pictures on them and one
blank card. The examinee is told to make up a story which includes what he sees in a picture, the
thoughts and feelings of the characters, what events lead up to a certain situation and the outcome
of the story. The examiner can interpret the responses, either quantitatively (using rating scales to
measure the intensity, duration, and frequency of needs) or qualitatively (evaluation of the story
themes intuitively): The final results can be an important adjunct and supplement to other
psychological tests since TAT produces not only highly rich, varied, and complex types of information
but also personal data which passed by a subject's conscious resistance.
The TAT is so integrally involved with Murray's concepts of personality that a survey of his basic
theoretical components is important. In constructing his theory, Murray emphasizes the biological
basis as well as the social and environmental determinants of behavior. He is also con-
sistently aware of how individuals interact with their environment.
The Rorschach Method of Psychodiagnosis. The Rorschach Test, developed by the Swiss psychiatrist
Herman Rorschach in the 1920's, consists of a series of 10 cards,
each displaying a rather complex inkblot. Some of the blots are colored and some are in black and
white. The subject
is instructed to look at the inkblots one at a time and report everything seen on the card —
everything the inkblot could look like or resemble. After the subject has finished the 10 cards, the
examiner usually goes back over each response, asking the subject to elaborate some responses
and to tell what features of the blot gave a particular impression.
The subject's responses may be scored in terms of three categories (1) location, which answers the
question, Does the response involve the entire inkblot or some small part? (2) determinants, which
determines if the subject is responding to the shape of the blot, the color, or differences in texture
and shading; (3) the content answers the question, what does the response represent? Contrary to
what people think, content is considered the least important in revealing personality dynamics,
except in certain fairly pathological cases.
Several elaborate scoring systems have been devised that take all three categories into
consideration. But because these systems have not proved to have much predictive value, most
psychologists base their interpretations on an impressionistic evaluation of the response record as
well as the subject's general reaction to the test situation: for example, whether the individual is
defensive, open, competitive, cooperative, and so on.
The value of the Rorschach Test as a personality test depends on a person's perspective. Thoe who
use the Rorschach Test believe that projective tests like the Rorschach test allow insights into
people's minds that other types of personality tests do not. This helps explain why the Rorschach
test remains one of the top ten tests used today in outpatient mental health clinics or hospitals.
Comments on Projective Tests
Many other projective tests have been devised. Such tests include giving the first response you can
think of to a series of words, completing sentences that start "I often wish . . ""My mother ... "or "I
feel like quitting when they . . . "In fact, any stimulus to which a person can respond in an
individualistic way could be considered the basis for a projective test. You could squeeze a lump of
clay into an ambiguous shape and ask people what it looks like to them. You' would probably get a
wide range of responses; these responses might reflect something about the individual's Personality,
but it would be hard to say what — a momentary preoccupation, accuracy of perception, a deep-
seated impulse? Most projective tests have not been subjected to
enough research to establish their usefulness in assessing Personality.
There are many assessment techniques but no single assessment method can adequately measure
personality. The true psychologist will not rely on only one method. A battery of techniques will be
used. This battery will often include an interview, behavioral assessment, and question-
naire or projective test.
If after undergoing psychological tests, one discovers that most of his personality traits are
unpleasant or negative, there is much room for improvement if he desires it.
Personality Can Be Improved
Our environment is rich in cultural and educational Opportunities for improving our personality All
that is required is time and effort. The more one knows and understands his own personality, the
better equipped he will be to guide himself and regulate his life.
If you are tall or short, or dark complexioned, you cannot change these physical characteristics.
Shortness and tallness as well as a dark complexion, however, can be remedied by wearing the
appropriate type of lines, cut, and color of clothes. Biological inheritance should not be blamed for
your lack of effort to improve yourself
How about your emotional reactions to situations? Your being quick-tempered9 your irritability?
your self-consciousness? Were you born with those traits, or did you acquire them? If you acquired
them, you can change them.
Suggestions for Personality Improvement. Some
of Dr. Roy Beuher's suggestions to improve personality follow:
1. Be conscious of the other person. Talk about the subject that interests him, and he will
regard you as a person with an interesting personality.
2. Assume that people like you. If you show that
you want people to talk to you, they will respond warmly.
3. Admit your defects.
4. Admire your friends.
5. Associate with people who are successful and happy. Seek the company of others who can give
you new points of view and thoughts, new hopes and new life.
6. Attend social gatherings.
7. Change your environment occasionally. Take a
vacation and rest in a new place. Change your home atmosphere whenever you can.
If you can follow the above advice, your personality can be improved.
SUMMARY
Personality measurement refers to techniques or tests that seek to quantify a person's cognition,
emotional, or behavioral activities. The way in which personality is
measured is closely tied to specific theories. There are many techniques used to assess personality.
Psychological tests which are used to assess personality are divided into two categories: the
objective and the projective tests. The assessment techniques commonly used by psychologists are
(1) observation, (2) interviews, (3) questionnaires, and (4) projective tests. Behavioral assessment
through observation is one of the most common assessment techniques. The interview is most
widely used. Usually these are standardized so that everyone is asked the same question. The two
main types of interview are the structured interview and the unstructured interview. The structured
interviews are used more often with job applicants. The unstructured interviews are used in clinical
or counseling situations.
The questionnaire type of personality inventory has been developed to examine specific parts of
personality. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is an example of this type.
The use of projective tests is another technique used to measure personality. The common
projective tests are the Rorschach Method of Personality Diagnosis, the Thematic Apperception Test,
and the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test. The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a technique used for
exploring interpersonal behavior. It consists of 10 cards each with inkblots. The TAT consists of 19
cards containing vague pictures in black and white cards and one blank card.
If after undergoing psychological tests, one discovers that most of his personality traits are
unpleasant or negative, there is still room for improvement if he desires it.
QUESTIONS
1. What are some common assessment techniques used by psychologists?
2. What are the types of interviews used by psy-
chologists?
3. How does a questionnaire differ from a rating scale?
4. What are projective tests?