ELE635 Communication Systems

Chapter 2 : Amplitude Modulation

Department of Electrical, Computer, & Biomedical Engineering

Ryerson University

1
 Chap. 2: Amplitude (Linear) Modulation

Now that we are familiar with the basic signal analysis techniques, we want to move
ahead to discuss operational communication systems.
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) and its variants;
• Angle Modulation with special case - FM;
Message signal: m(t) baseband signal with bandlimited to B Hz. For efficient
transmission, m(t) has to be transmitted over a bandpass communication channel.
• This requires a shift of the range of frequencies in m(t) into other frequency
ranges suitable for transmission over a communication channel (usually shifting
up in frequency);
• At the receiver, this process has to be reversed (down shifting in frequency);
• Why do we need to move to higher frequency band – antenna size, available
bandwidth, multiple access, etc. (for example, cellular phone, antenna size - λ/4.
For f1 = 3k, λ1 = c/f1 = 105 m, λ1 /4 = 2.5 × 104 m; while f2 = 900M ,
λ2 = c/f2 = 1/3m, λ2 /4 = 8cm.)

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Definition: The process by which some characteristics of a carrier signal is varied in
accordance with a modulation signal is called MODULATION.
• A common form of the carrier we will use, is a sinusoidal wave. Let

c(t) − carrier wave/signal m(t) − modulating signal

• m(t) modulates c(t) by changing some of its characteristics.

m(t) Modulator ϕ(t)

modulating/message signal modulated signal
baseband bandpass

c(t)
carrier signal
narrowband

The modulated waveform/signal can be generally expressed as

φ(t) = a(t) cos(θ(t)) (1)

φ(t) represents a rotating phaser of

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 • time-varying amplitude a(t)
• generalized phase θ(t)
• instantaneous frequency fi (t):
1 d
fi (t) = θ(t)
2π dt
If a(t) changes as m(t), then we have amplitude modulation (AM). If θ(t) changes as
m(t), then we have angle modulation (PM, FM).
In the case of AM,

φ(t) : constant initial phase and frequency = 2πfc t + ϕ0

where we assume that ϕ0 = 0 without loss of generality, and

a(t) ∼ m(t)

4
 Section 2.1: DSB-SC

Let us consider the simple and intuitive AM case. Let the message signal to be m(t)
with a bandwidth of B Hz. The carrier signal is

c(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

with fc >> B.

m(t) M (f )
K

t f
0

c(t) C (f )
Ac /2
Ac

t f
−fc 0 fc

ϕDSB-SC (t) ΦDSB-SC (f )

phase reversals K Ac /2

t f
−fc 0 fc

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Then the AM wave is given by the expression

φ(t) = m(t) · c(t) = Ac m(t) cos(2πfc t)

Ac
Φ(f ) = [M (f + fc ) + M (f − fc )]
2
is called DSB-SC where the acronym DSB-SC represents “double sideband -
suppressed carrier”.
• If the baseband message signal m(t) has the bandwidth B-Hz, then the DSB-SC
signal φ(t) requires a transmission bandwidth of 2B-Hz (twice the baseband
BW).
• upper sideband (USB): the portion that lies outside of ±fc ; lower sideband
(LSB): the portion that lies inside of ±fc .
• M (f ) doesn’t contain a discrete component of the carrier frequency fc (the
modulation process doesn’t introduce a sinusoid at fc ).
• Recovery (demodulation) of m(t) from φ(t)
– Modulation: m(t) → DSB-SC by multiply the carrier

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 – Demodulation: DSB-SC → m(t) shift in frequency again
Ac
φ(t) cos(2πfc t) = Ac m(t) cos2 (2πfc t) = [1 + cos(4πfc t)]m(t)
2
Ac Ac
= m(t) + m(t) cos(4πfc t)
2 2
Ac
after low-pass filter, the output is 2 m(t).

• Main advantage: extra power not needed for added carrier.

• Main disadvantage: carrier phase and frequency synchronization needed at the
receiver.

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 Section 2.1.1: Generation of DSB-SC Signals

There are many methods that allow us to generate AM signals.

(1) Nonlinear Modulator

A non-linear device spreads the spectrum of its input. By controlling what is used as
an input to the non-linear device(s) and by eliminating what is not needed we may
generate the desired DSB-SC amplitude modulated signal. Consider a non-linear
device
y(t) = ax(t) + bx2 (t)
which is used in the following system

m(t) x1 (t) Non-Linear

y1 (t)
Device

z(t) DSB-SC
Bandpass
Filter

x2 (t) K ′ m(t) cos ωc t

Non-Linear
~ Device
y2 (t)
cos(ωc t)

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x1 (t) = m(t) + cos(ωc t) x2 (t) = m(t) − cos(ωc t)
y1 (t) = ax1 (t) + bx21 (t) y2 (t) = ax2 (t) + bx22 (t)
z(t) = y1 (t) − y2 (t) (2)
= a[m(t) + cos(ωc t)] + b[m(t) + cos(ωc t)]2
−a[cos(ωc t) − m(t)] − b[cos(ωc t) − m(t)]2
= am(t) + a cos(ωc t) + bm2 (t) + 2bm(t) cos(ωc t) + b cos2 (ωc t)
am(t) − a cos(ωc t) − bm2 (t) + 2bm(t) cos(ωc t) − b cos2 (ωc t)
= 2am(t) + 4bm(t) cos(ωc t) (3)

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 m(t) x1 (t) Non-Linear
y1 (t)
Device

z(t) DSB-SC
Bandpass
Filter

x2 (t) K ′ m(t) cos ωc t

Non-Linear
~ Device
y2 (t)
cos(ωc t)

Then the first term in (3) can be filtered out and the second term can be kept by
applying a bandpass filter (BPF). The BPF is tuned to fc with a bandwidth 2B Hz.

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 (2) Switching Modulator

The multiplication operation required for modulation can be replaced by a simpler

switching operation. Modulated signal can be obtained by multiplying m(t) with any
periodic signal w(t) with fundamental frequency fc .
Let w(t) be such a periodic waveform, then
∑
w(t) = Cn cos(nωc t + θn )
n

and
∑
m(t) · w(t) = Cn m(t) cos(nωc t + θn )
n
such that
1∑ 1∑
F[m(t)·w(t)] = Cn M (f )∗[δ(f −nfc )+δ(f +nfc )] = Cn [M (f +nfc )+M (f −nfc )]
2 n 2 n

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Thus, the spectrum of the product m(t)w(t) is the spectrum of the modulating
waveform, M (f ) shifted to ±fc , ±2fc , ±3fc , · · · and scaled by Cn . If we pass this
signal through a BPF of bandwidth 2B Hz and tuned to fc , then we have the desired

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modulated signal m(t) cos(2πfc t).
The above operation is also known as mixing, frequency conversion, or heterodyning.

m(t) y(t) Bandpass

Filter
ϕDSB-SC (t)
t

w(t) fundamental
frequency: fc
t

m(t)
A M (f )
t f
0

y(t)
Y (f )
t f
−fc 0 fc

ϕDSB-SC (t)
ΦDSB-SC (f )
t f
−fc 0 fc

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 Analysis of Switching Modulator

Let’s expand Fourier Series for a gate function w(t), with duty cycle η = 0.5. It is the
periodic extension of its basic function x(t) = rect( T t/2 ) with a period T :
∞
∑ ∞
∑ ( )
t − nT
w(t) = x(t − nT ) = rect
n=−∞ n=−∞
T /2

The Fourier Transform of x(t) is

( )
T πf T
X(f ) = sinc
2 2

( ) (π )
1 T 1 T 1
Dn = X(nf0 ) = sinc π · n · = sinc n . (4)
T 2T T 2 2 2
Obviously,
D0 = 1/2; Dn = 0 when n equals even numbers

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Let’s express w(t) as trigonometrical form as
∞
∑
w(t) = C0 + Cn cos(nωc t + θn )
n=1

For n = 1,
1 (π) 1 2 1
D1 = sinc = · =
2 2 2 π π
1 ( π ) 1 2 1
D−1 = sinc − = · =
2 2 2 π π
Similarly, D3 = −1/(3π), D5 = 1/(5π), · · · . Therefore, the coefficients of {Cn } are:

 D =1 n=0
0 2
Cn = (5)
 2Dn = (−1)(n−1)/2 · 2 n = 1, 3, 5, 7, · · · ,
nπ

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The gate function can be written as
[ ]
w(t) = 1
2 + 2
π cos(ωc t) − 1
3 cos(3ωc t) + 1
5 cos(5ωc t) + · · · .
(6)

so
[ ]
1 2 1 1
m(t)w(t) = m(t) + m(t) cos(ωc t) − m(t) cos(3ωc t) + m(t) cos(5ωc t) + · · · .
2 π 3 5
After bandpass filter centered at ωc , we have DSB-SC signal
2
φ(t) = m(t) cos(ωc t) (7)
π

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 Section 2.1.2: DSB-SC Demodulation

• There are other AM generation techniques. Refer to the course reference text for
further information and discussion.
• We will use the terms mixing / frequency conversion / heterodyning
interchangeably. These terms refer to the process:
multiplication + bandpass filtering

• Now that we know how to generate DSB-SC amplitude modulated signals, let us
investigate how we can undo what we have done
Demodulation

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 DSB-SC: Demodulation

When multiply DSB-SC signal by cos(2πfc t), we have

φDSB-SC (t) cos(2πfc t) = Ac m(t) cos2 (2πfc t)

Ac
= [1 + cos(4πfc t)]m(t)
2
Ac Ac
= m(t) + m(t) cos(4πfc t)
2 2
• First term: magnitude scaled baseband message signal
• Second term: narrowband spectrum centered at ±2fc
Under the assumption that fc ⩾ B, we can recover m(t) from φDSB-SC (t) cos(2πfc t)
by lowpass filtering.

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 DSB-SC: Demodulation – cont’d

M(f)
m(t)
K

t f
0 B

cos(2πfc t)
KAc /2 ΦDSB-SC (f)
t

f
0 fc
cos2 (2πfc t)

t Lowpass filter KAc /2

kAc /4
m(t) cos2 (2πfc t)
after LPF

t f
0 B 2fc

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 Section 2.1.3: Synchronization for DSB-SC Demodulation

The complete modulation - transmission - demodulation chain for DSB-SC amplitude

modulated signals can be represented as below:

Modulator Demodulator

ϕ(t)
m(t) Channel LPF K ′ m(t)

cos 2πfc t cos 2πfc t

~ ~
Local Local
Oscillator-1 Oscillator-2

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Synchronization for Coherent Demodulation

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 Unsynchronized Demodulation

For demodulation of DSB-SC, the receiver must generate a carrier that is

synchronous with the incoming carrier (the requirement for a local oscillator to
generate LO2 = fc ). These demodulators are synonymously called “synchronous” or
“coherent” demodulators.
We may notice potential problems: what happens when LO2 is mismatched to LO1 ?
Let the output of the LO2 be

l2 (t) = cos(2π(fc + ∆f )t + ϕ0 )

Then, the demodulated waveform expression is

φ(t)l2 (t) = Ac m(t) cos(2πfc t) cos(2π(fc + ∆f )t + ϕ0 )

Ac Ac
= m(t) cos(2π∆f t + ϕ0 ) + m(t) cos(2π(2fc + ∆f )t + ϕ0 ) (8)
2 2

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We assume that the error/mismatch between LO1 and LO2 is small, i.e., ∆f << fc .
Therefore, the 2nd component in (8) will be centerred about f = 2fc and will be
filtered out by the demodulator LPF. Thus, the LPF output equals
Ac
y(t) = m(t) cos(2π∆f t + ϕ0 )
2
Thus, y(t) is oscillating at a slow rate. For example, let m(t) = e(−2t) . The
demodulator output is an oscillation function as shown in the figure below.

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 1

(a) message signal: x(t)=exp(−2t)

0.8
amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

(b) demodulated message with ∆f=10 Hz

0.5
amplitude

−0.5

−1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Figure 1: Synchonization error ∆f = 10 Hz.

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Assume that ∆f = 0, then
Ac
y(t) = m(t) cos(ϕ0 )
2
It can be written as



Ac
2 m(t) if ϕ0 = 0 (best)

Ac
y(t) = 2 m(t) cos(π/2) =0 if ϕ0 = π/2 (worse)



varying degrees of attenuation Other values of ϕ0

Therefore, if we are lucky to have ϕ0 = 0, it corresponds to perfectly synchronization

of LO1 and LO2 . But if the phase difference is π/2, there is no signal at the output
of the demodulator.
Hence, we may conclude that successful demodulation of DSB-SC signal requires
careful and accurate synchronization of the two LOs.

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 Section 2.2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) – Large Carrier

• We have seen that the use of suppressed carrier waveforms requires fairly
complicated circuitry at the receiver in order to acquire and maintain phase
synchronization (expensive receivers).
• Especially in applications where we have one (or few) TX and a much larger
number of RXs, it makes economic sense that the RXs are as simple as possible.
• To address this issue we entertain the idea of transmitting a carrier in the same
frequency band as the DSB-SC, which is DSB-LC
• This approach will certainly ruin the DC response of m(t), but many signals do
not have any DC content anyway. Hence we have

DSB-SC : φ(t) = m(t) cos(ωc t)

DSB-LC : φ(t) = m(t) cos(ωc t) + Ac cos(ωc t) = [Ac + m(t)] cos(ωc t)

and
1 Ac
ΦAM (f ) = [M (f + fc ) + M (f − fc )] + [δ(f + fc ) + δ(f − fc )]
2 2

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 AM-LC Spectrum

φAM (t) = φDSB-SC (t) + carrier

= m(t) cos(ωc t) + Ac cos(ωc t) = [Ac + m(t)] cos(ωc t)
with spectrum
1 Ac
ΦAM (f ) = [M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc )] + [δ(f − fc ) + δ(f + fc )] (9)
2 2

ΦAM (f ) carrier

DSB-SC

f
−fc
0 fc

Figure 2: AM-LC (double sideband with large carrier) spectrum

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 AM-LC Compared with DSB-SC

φAM (t) = m(t) cos(ωc t) + Ac cos(ωc t) = [Ac + m(t)] cos(ωc t) (10)

m(t) M (f )

t f
0

ΦDSB-SC (f )
ϕDSB-SC (t)

t f
0 fc

ϕAM (t)
ΦAM (f )

t f
0 fc

Figure 3: DSB-SC vs. AM-LC

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 Section 2.2.1: Envelope Detection

We will refer to the envelope of the signal, where we use definition of the envelope as
follows: given the signal E(t) cos(ωc t), E(t) is the envelope if E(t) ≥ 0 for all t. In a
more general sense we will use |E(t)| as the envelope of E(t) cos(ωc t).
For an AM signal φ(t) = [Ac + m(t)] cos(ωc t), amplitude and envelope functions are:

amplitude = Ac + m(t)
envelope = |Ac + m(t)|

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 Concept of Envelope

A(t) amplitude function

E(t) envelope function

t t

ϕAM (t) ϕAM (t)

Case 1: A(t) ≥ 0, ∀t Case 2: A(t) ≥ 0, for some t and

E(t) = A(t) A(t) < 0, for some t.
! !
E(t) = !A(t)!

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Condition for Envelope Detection

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 Envelope Detection Analysis

A simple and inexpensive envelope detector can demodulate AM signals if:

• envelope ≈ km(t)
• envelope =E(t) = |Ac + m(t)| = [Ac + m(t)] = A(t) = amplitude
• Ac + m(t) ≥ 0
Conversely, if E(t) = [Ac + m(t)] < 0 for some t:
• The envelope will no longer be a scaled and shifted version of the modulating
signal m(t).
• [Ac + m(t)] will experience phase reversals when crossing the horizontal axis.
• We have to use a synchronous/coherent detector as with DSB-SC amplitude
modulated signals, eliminating all the advantages of AM.

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 Modulation Index

• If m(t) ≥ 0 for all t, there is no sense to add a carrier signal Ac cos(ωc t). We can
apply envelope detection to the signal m(t) cos(ωc t). Therefore, we are interested
to investigate the case that m(t) has negative amplitude for some t.
• Let us define mp = maxt |m(t)|. Then,

µ = mp /Ac

is known as the modulation index of the AM signal.

• The requirement that Ac + m(t) ≥ 0 for all t is then equivalent to

0≤µ≤1

This will be a sufficient condition for proper/easy demodulation of AM signals.

• Main advantage: carrier phase and frequency synchronization are not needed at
the receiver.
• Main disadvantage: power needed for large carrier does not convoy message
signal.

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 Other Definition of Modulation Index

Let

Amax = max A(t) = max[Ac + m(t)] Amin = min A(t) = min[Ac + m(t)]
t t t t

Then
Amax − Amin
Modulation Index : µ= (11)
2Ac
Amax − Ac
Positive Modulation Index : µ+ =
Ac
Ac − Amin
Negative Modulation Index : µ− =
Ac

Example: consider the single-tone modulation case, where m(t) = Am cos(ωm t)

(modulating signal is a pure sinusoid or tone).
Evaluation the parameters:

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 mp = max |m(t)| = Am (12)
t
Amax = max[Ac + m(t)] = Ac + Am
t
Amin = min[Ac + m(t)] = Ac − Am
t

• Using the concept of mp ,

mp Am
µ= =
Ac Ac
• Using the concept of Amax and Amin
Amax − Amin [Ac + Am ] − [Ac − Am ] Am
µ = = = (13)
2Ac 2Ac Ac
Amax − Ac [Ac + Am ] − Ac Am
µ+ = = =
Ac Ac Ac
Ac − Amin Ac − [Ac − Am ] Am
µ− = = =
Ac Ac Ac
• We observe that all definitions of modulation indices including µ, µ+ , µ− coincide
since m(t) is symmetric with respect to horizontal axis.

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Hence Am = µAc and

m(t) = Am cos(ωm t) = µAc cos(ωm t)

Therefore,

s(t) = [Ac + m(t)] cos(ωc t) = Ac [1 + µ cos(ωm t)] cos(ωc t)

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 Case 1: µ = Am /Ac < 1

E(t) Emax = Ac + Am

A(t): amplitude function

Emin = Ac − Am
E(t): envelope function t

E(t) = A(t) = [Ac + Am cos ωm t] ≥ 0 such that E(t) ∼ m(t)

Perfectly suitable to use an envelope detector.

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 Case 2: µ = Am /Ac = 1

E(t) Emax = Ac + Am = 2Ac

A(t): amplitude function
Emin = Ac − Am = 0
E(t): envelope function

E(t) = A(t) = [Ac + Am cos ωm t] ≥ 0 such that E(t) ∼ m(t)

Borderline case for using an envelope detector.

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 Case 3: µ = Am /Ac > 1

Emax = Ac + Am
A(t): amplitude function
E(t): envelope function Emin = Ac − Am < 0

E(t) = |Ac + Am cos ωm t| ̸= A(t) such that E(t) is no longer related to m(t)

Overmodulation: cannot use an envelope detector.

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 Another example: un-symmetric m(t)

ϕAM (t) Emax = Ac + 0.8

m(t)
0.8
0.4 Emin = Ac − 0.3
t t
-0.3

mp = max |m(t)| = 0.8, Amax = Ac + 0.8, Amin + Ac − 0.3

t

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• Using the concept of mp ,
mp 0.8
µ= =
Ac Ac
• Using the concept of Amax and Amin
Amax − Amin 0.55
µ = = (14)
2Ac Ac
Amax − Ac 0.8
µ+ = =
Ac Ac
Ac − Amin 0.3
µ− = =
Ac Ac

• We observe all different modulation index results since m(t) is not symmetric
with respect to horizontal axis.

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 2.2.2: Sideband Power and Carrier Power

The advantage of envelope detection in AM has its price. In AM, the carrier term
does not carry any information, and hence, the carrier power is wasted. Let’s look at
an AM signal
φAM (t) = Ac cos ωc t + m(t) cos ωc t
The carrier power Pc and sideband power Ps are given as
A2c 1 2
Pc = Ps = m (t)
2 2

Observations

• Any power used to transmit the carrier is for Envelope detection purpose.
• Sidebands are a function of m(t). Should maximize sideband power Ps .
• Define power efficiency
useful power Ps m2 (t)
η= = =
total power P c + Ps A2c + m2 (t)

42
Single Tone AM Spectrum Analysis 1

43
Single Tone AM Spectrum Analysis 2

44
Single Tone AM Spectrum Analysis 3

45
Therefore, for single-tone modulation,
• Modulating signal: m(t) = Am cos ωm t = µAc cos ωm t
• Carrier: c(t) = Ac cos ωc t with fc >> fm
• Modulation index: µ = Am /Ac
• Sideband and Carrier Power
( )2
m2 (t) 1 Am A2m µ2 A2c A2c
Ps = =2· = = , Pc =
2 2 2 4 4 2

Hence
µ2 A2c
Ps µ2
η= = A2c
4
µ2 A2c
= 0≤µ≤1
Pc + Ps + 2 + µ2
2 4
1
It can be seen that η increases monotonically with µ, and ηmax = 3 occurs at µ = 1.

46
 Section 2.2.3: Generation of AM Signals

We can use the same DSB-SC generation methods except that an additional carrier
component Ac cos(ωc t) needs to be added.

The gate function w(t) can be expanded by using FS as

[ ( )]
1 2 1 1
w(t) = + cos ωc t − cos 3ωc t + cos 5ωc t − · · ·
2 π 3 5

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vbb′ (t) = [Ac cos ωc t + m(t)] · w(t) (15)
[ ( )]
1 2 1 1
= [Ac · cos ωc t + m(t)] + cos ωc t − cos 3ωc t + cos 5ωc t − · · ·
2 π 3 5
Ac 2
= cos ωc t + m(t) cos ωc t + other terms
2 π

48
 Section 2.2.4-Demodulation of AM Signals

Coherent/synchronous detection with a locally generated carrier (as in the case of

DSB-SC) is possible, but this approach defeats the whole purpose of AM.
(a) Rectifier Detector

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These operations can also be described analytically

vR (t) = (A + m(t)) cos(ωc t)w(t)

[ ( )]
1 2 1
= (A + m(t)) cos(ωc t) + cos(ωc t) − cos(3ωc t) + · · ·
2 π 3
A + m(t)
= + (· · · ) cos(ωc t) + (· · · ) cos(2ωc t) + · · ·
π
At the output of the LPF we have
A + m(t)
π
and after the DC-eliminator, we have output m(t)/π.

50
 (b) Envelope detector

The biggest selling point for the AM signals was the simple/inexpensive detection,
i.e., envelope detector (ED). ED is a simple but effective device well suited to the
demodulation of AM signals with µ ≤ 1. Ideally the output of the ED follows the
envelope of φ(t).
The output of the ED is then lowpass filtered to eliminate the ripple, followed by
blocking out the DC component.

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52
53
Section 2.2.5: AM Practical Applications

54
55
 AM: Examples

• Long Wave radio communications: Radio direction finders in marine and

aeronautical navigation, time signals, military/submarine communication (not all
these examples use AM).
• International broadcasting: Radio Canada International (until it was killed by
the Harper government in 2012), BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle ...
• Utility stations: aircraft flying between continents (SSB), encrypted diplomatic
messages, weather reporting, ships at sea.
• Amateur radio (SSB).
• Digital TV (VSB-C)
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): NTSC and PAL color TV−chroma
signal, AM Stereo broadcasting.

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