Unit 1
Unit 1
Unit 1
er hardware.
These software are usually written in low-level languages like assembly language and includes Operating
Systems (Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux), Compiler, and Assembler etc.
Computer Hardware includes Monitor, Keyboard, CPU, Disks, Memory, etc.
Windows: This is one of the most popular and commercial operating systems developed and marketed by
Microsoft. It has different versions in the market like Windows 8, Windows 10 etc and most of them are paid.
Linux This is a Unix based and the most loved operating system first released on September 17, 1991 by
Linus Torvalds. Today, it has 30+ variants available like Fedora, OpenSUSE, CentOS, UBuntu etc. Most of
them are available free of charges though you can have their enterprise versions by paying a nominal
license fee.
MacOS This is again a kind of Unix operating system developed and marketed by Apple Inc. since 2001.
iOS This is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its mobile
devices like iPhone and iPad etc.
Android This is a mobile Operating System based on a modified version of the Linux kernel and other open
source software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
Some other old but popular Operating Systems include Solaris, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
Process Management
I/O Device Management
File Management
Network Management
Main Memory Management
Secondary Storage Management
Security Management
Command Interpreter System
Control over system performance
Job Accounting
Error Detection and Correction
Coordination between other software and users
Many more other important tasks
Stanford Research Institute developed the oN-Line System (NLS) in the late 1960s, which was the first
operating system that resembled the desktop operating system we use today.
Microsoft bought QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) in 1981 and branded it as Microsoft Operating
System (MS-DOS). As of 1994, Microsoft had stopped supporting MS-DOS.
Unix was developed in the mid-1960s by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, AT&T Bell Labs, and
General Electric as a joint effort. Initially it was named MULTICS, which stands for Multiplexed Operating
and Computing System.
FreeBSD is also a popular UNIX derivative, originating from the BSD project at Berkeley. All modern
Macintosh computers run a modified version of FreeBSD (OS X).
Windows 95 is a consumer-oriented graphical user interface-based operating system built on top of MS-
DOS. It was released on August 24, 1995 by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family of operating
systems.
Solaris is a proprietary Unix operating system originally developed by Sun Microsystems in 1991. After the
Sun acquisition by Oracle in 2010 it was renamed Oracle Solaris.
Target Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for the Computer Science Professionals and Students specially for BCA, MCA,
B.Tech, M.Tech Engineering Students to help them understand the basic to advanced concepts related to an
Operating System in general. Operating System is one of the core concepts in every University teaching
Computer Science and this subject has a lot of weight from exams point of view.
Prerequisites
Before you start learning Operating System using this tutorial, we are making an assumption that you are
already aware of Computer Fundaments like What is Computer Hardware, CPU, Primary Memory, Secondary
Memory, Devices, Files etc. If you are not already aware of these concepts then it will be difficult to understand
various concepts related to Operating System and so it is highly recommended to go through our Computer
Fundamentals Tutorial before attempting to learn Operating System.
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating
system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's hardware. The software
that contains the core components of the operating system is called the kernel.
The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (spftwares) to interact with a
computer's hardware and to manage a system's hardware and software resources.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400,
AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like mobile phones, personal
computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.
Definitions
We can have a number of definitions of an Operating System. Let's go through few of them:
An Operting System is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling tasks
and controlling peripherals.
Architecture
We can draw a generic architecture diagram of an Operating System which is as follows:
Memory Management
Processor Management
Device Management
File Management
Network Management
Security
Control over system performance
Job accounting
Error detecting aids
Coordination between other software and users
Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a large
array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed,
it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory management −
Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how much
time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for
processor management −
Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known
as traffic controller.
Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following
activities for device management −
Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
Allocates the device in the efficient way.
De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may
contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file
system.
Decides who gets the resources.
Allocates the resources.
De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to
programs and data.
Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and response
from the system.
Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.
Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
There are various components of an Operating System to perform well defined tasks. Though most of the
Operating Systems differ in structure but logically they have similar components. Each component must be a
well-defined portion of a system that appropriately describes the functions, inputs, and outputs.
There are following 8-components of an Operating System:
1. Process Management
2. I/O Device Management
3. File Management
4. Network Management
5. Main Memory Management
6. Secondary Storage Management
7. Security Management
8. Command Interpreter System
Process Management
A process is program or a fraction of a program that is loaded in main memory. A process needs certain
resources including CPU time, Memory, Files, and I/O devices to accomplish its task. The process
management component manages the multiple processes running simultaneously on the Operating System.
A program in running state is called a process.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management:
File Management
File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system. Computers can store information
in several different physical forms; magnetic tape, disk, and drum are the most common forms.
A file is defined as a set of correlated information and it is defined by the creator of the file. Mostly files
represent data, source and object forms, and programs. Data files can be of any type like alphabetic, numeric,
and alphanumeric.
A files is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its creator and user.
The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by managing mass storage device, such as
types and disks. Also files are normally organized into directories to ease their use. These directories may
contain files and other directories and so on.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:
Network Management
The definition of network management is often broad, as network management involves several different
components. Network management is the process of managing and administering a computer network. A
computer network is a collection of various types of computers connected with each other.
Network management comprises fault analysis, maintaining the quality of service, provisioning of networks, and
performance management.
Network management is the process of keeping your network healthy for an efficient communication between
different computers.
Network administration
Network maintenance
Network operation
Network provisioning
Network security
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with memory management:
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
Secondary Storage Management
The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together with the data they
access, must be in main memory during execution. Since the main memory is too small to permanently
accommodate all data and program, the computer system must provide secondary storage to backup main
memory.
Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium, for both programs and
data. Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines, editors, formatters, and so on, are stored on the
disk until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and destination of their processing.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management:
Disk scheduling
Security Management
The operating system is primarily responsible for all task and activities happen in the computer system. The
various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s activities. For that purpose,
various mechanisms which can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment, cpu and other resources
can be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper authorization from the operating system.
Security Management refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users to the
resources defined by a computer controls to be imposed, together with some means of enforcement.
For example, memory addressing hardware ensure that a process can only execute within its own address
space. The timer ensure that no process can gain control of the CPU without relinquishing it. Finally, no
process is allowed to do it’s own I/O, to protect the integrity of the various peripheral devices.
Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. A program which reads and
interprets control statements is automatically executed. This program is called the shell and few examples are
Windows DOS command window, Bash of Unix/Linux or C-Shell of Unix/Linux.
Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to
programs and data.
Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and response
from the system.
Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.
Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving with time. In this
chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems which are most commonly used.
Problem of reliability.
Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users.
Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed
buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors
in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes,
computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −
With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at another.
Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
Better service to the customers.
Reduction of the load on the host computer.
Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating
system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area
network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server
2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −
Program execution
I/O operations
File System manipulation
Communication
Error Detection
Resource Allocation
Protection
Program execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like printer spooler,
name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate, registers, OS
resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to program
management −
I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.
File system manipulation
A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk (secondary storage),
for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical
disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate
and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may
contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to file
management −
1. Batch processing
2. Multitasking
3. Multiprogramming
4. Interactivity
5. Real Time System
6. Distributed Environment
7. Spooling
Batch processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data together in a
batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities related to batch processing −
The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a single
unit.
The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual information.
Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets copied into
an output spool for later printing or processing.
Advantages
Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished, without any
manual intervention.
Disadvantages
Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between them.
Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is running. An OS does the
following activities related to multitasking −
The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an
immediate response.
The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes multiple
programs at a time.
Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a
reasonable cost.
A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide
each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.
When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either finishes or
needs to perform I/O.
Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete. During this
time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each action or
command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the
impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many
users.
Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred
as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases
CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating system does the
following activities related to interactivity −
The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.
Real Time System
Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the following activities
related to real-time system activity.
In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure correct
performance.
Distributed Environment
A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer system. An
operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −
Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to putting data of
various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is accessible to I/O
devices.
An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −
Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower
device catches up.
Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O in parallel
fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write data to disk and to
write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.
Advantages