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ASSIGNMENT ON SOFTWARE, ITS TYPES, SYSTEM

SOFTWARE, OPERATING SYSTEM,


FUNCTION & ITS TYPES
(ASSIGNMENT FOR INFORMATION TECHNLOGY IN EDUCATION)

Submitted by Guide
Vishal Varia Dr. A.D.AMBASANA
B.B.A., B.Ed. Associate Professor & Head

Department of Education
Saurashtra University, Rajkot
(October – 2011)
 HARDWARE Vs SOFTWARE

The electrical, electronic, mechanical and magnetic components that make up the computer system
are together termed as ‘hardware’.These include components that are responsible for user input,
display and mathematical processing. The CPU, disk drives, internal chips and wiring, modem,
peripheral devices like the monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, speakers etc. are together termed as
computer hardware.
Computer hardware cannot perform any manipulation or calculation without being instructed as to
what to do and how to do it. Programs (or instructions) are required to tell the computer what to do.
The generic term for computer programs is ‘software’. Software comes in two main types – system
software and application programs.

 SYSTEM Vs APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

System software consists of programs that control the operations of the computer system itself. It
consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a computer equipment including
functions like managing memory, managing peripherals, loading, storing, and is an interface between
the application programs and the computer. MS DOS (Microsoft’s Disk Operating System), UNIX
are examples of system software.
Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word processing, accounting,
budgeting or payroll, fall under the category of application software. Such programs run on top of an
operating system (like Windows, UNIX, Linux, Macintosh) and are used to carry out specific
functions. Word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of general
purpose application programs.

 Introduction to OS:

A Computer System is made up of Hardware, Operating System and user interface. Computer
Software can be divided into System programs which manage the operation of the computer itself
and the application programs, which solve problems for their users.

Operating System is the most fundamental of all the System programs. The Operating System
controls the entire Computers’ resources and provides the base upon which the application programs
can be written.
Operating System has been defined in different ways by different people. Some of the definitions
are:

1. An Operating System is program that makes the computing power available to users by controlling
the hardware.

2. Another definition is that Operating System is a program that controls the execution of
application programs. It masks the details of the hardware to application programs.

3. Operating System can be summarily defined as: a set of processes permanently or transitively
resident within the Computer that makes the resources of the computer system available to the user
in a consistent, reliable, friendly way. In essence it should be a Resource optimizer and operation
Operating System can be divided into the Kernel and the Operating System. The kernel is the
essential centre of a computer operating system, the core that provides basic services for all other
parts of the operating system. A synonym is nucleus. A kernel can be contrasted with a shell, the
outermost part of an operating system that interacts with user commands. Kernel and shell are terms
used more frequently in UNIX and some other operating systems than in IBM mainframe systems.

OPERATING SYSTEMS : Operating Systems are devised to optimize the man & machine
utilization. Programs are held permanently in the computer memory freeing thereby the operator
from inputting a program for each application. The operating systems are also known as "executive
system". "Control Systems" and "monitor systems". Formally, an operating system may be defined
as an integrated system of programs which supervises the operation of the CPU, controls the input
out/put functions of the computer system, translates the programming languages into the machine
languages and provides various support services. The operating systems are based on the concept of
modularity.

The CPM operating system was developed for 8-bit microprocessors. MS-DOS is a operating
system for 16-bit developed by Microsoft and adopted by IBM for IBM-PC. However, of late many
operating systems such as UNIX,. Windows-95, Windows-98, Windows-2000, and OS/2 Wasp etc.,
have been developed which are portable.

There are Five basic functions that an operating system can perform :

(i) Schedule Jobs : They can determine the sequence in which jobs are executed using priorities
established by the Organization.

(ii) Manage Hardware and Software Resources : They can first cause the user's application
program to be executed by loading it into primary storage and then cause the various
hardware units to perform as specified by the application.

(iii) Maintain System Security : They may require users to enter a password – a group
characters that identifies users as being authorized to have access to the system.

(iv) Enable Multiple User Resource Sharing : They can handle the scheduling and execution of
the application programs for many users at the same time, a feature called multiprogramming.

(v) Maintain Usage Records : They can keep track of the amount of time used by each user for
each system unit – the CPU, secondary storage, and input and output devices. Such
information is usually maintained for the purpose of charging users' departments for their use
of the organization's computing resources.

Functions : There is a wide range of functions available :


 User interface
 Peripheral devices
 File Management
 Memory Management
 Network facilities
 Program scheduling
 Fault monitoring
 Virus checking
Various Operating System

MS/PC-DOS : The origins of Microsoft’s Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) lie in the pre-launch
era of the IBM PC. As IBM was about to finalize the PC, it started to negotiate with other computer
companies to secure a suitable OS for the product. Initial contracts between IBM and Digital
Research, the, company which happened to own the rights to CP/M (Control Program for a Micro
computer) which was, at that time, the market leader in microcomputer OS, proved unsuccessful.

In 1980, IBM and Microsoft started negotiations for the reduction of a suitable PC OS. For
Microsoft, this was the big break. It had just purchased 86 DOS, an OS from Seattle Computer
Products. As a result of a joint effort between IBM and Microsoft. 86 DOS was totally modified and
upgraded to what was to become a new 16 bit OS called PC-DOS (personal computer disk operating
system). When in 1981, IBM introduced its famed PC, it came equipped with PC-DOS. Because
both companies shared in the ownership of the PC-DOS, Microsoft was able to retain an almost
identical version of this OS under the title of MS-DOS, MS-DOS was usually the OS supplied with a
PC comparable and PCDOS was usually the OS, which was supplied with an actual IBM PC.

Microsoft Windows : Tile first version of the Microsoft Windows OS was launched in 1983. Like
Operating System 2 the original release was not very successful. However, despite this initial
setback. Microsoft continued to develop the program. Its persistence paid off in 1990, it launched
windows 3. The program became the world’s had sold more than 45 million copies.

Besides allowing users/applications to employ increased RAM, Window 3 enables true multitasking,
and allowed users to access programs written for MS/PC-DOS as well as those specifically written
for a Windows environment capability of the PC. To work effectively, PC was required to have a
minimum of 4 MB of RAM along with a 386 Processor.

Windows 95 : Windows 95 took three and a half years to develop. It was a gigantic task as far as
computer projects go and was estimated to have taken 75 million hours of testing prior to its release.
It was greeted enthusiastically by the computer industry, which saw it as a significant launch
platform, which would enable it to sell even more sophisticated computers.

The Significance of a 32-bit OS as opposed to a 16-bit OS can be measured by the amount of internal
main memory that can be directly access by the user/program. For example, with a 16-bit version of
MS-DOS, the maximum amount of directly accessible memory is 1 MB However, with a 32 bit OS,
the user has direct access to 4GB of main memory. To run Windows 95 users need a computer
equipped with a 386DX or higher processor with a minimum of 4MB of memory (8MB is
recommended) alnoe, with a hard disk of 50 MB as well as 3.5 inch disk drive or a CD-ROM.

Windows 95 was designed to have certain critical features over and above what was already supplied
by Windows 3.1 or Windows for Workgroups. These included :-

(a) A 32-bit architecture, which provides for a multitasking environment allowing, the user to run
multiple programs or execute multiple tasks concurrently. This architecture also enables
faster data/file access as well as an improvement in printing delivery.

(b) A friendlier interface fitted with what is described as ‘one click’ access. One click access
refers to the fact that users didn’t have to double click on the mouse every time that they
wanted to activate an application. Other congenial attributes include the ability to employ
long file names, eacy navigation routes and ‘plug and play technology’ enabling users to
connect various peripheral devices or add-ons with the minimum of fuss.

(c) Windows 95 is also network ready. In other words the OS is designed for easy access to
network resources. The OS also facilitates gateways to e-mail and fax facilities and access to
the Internet via the Microsoft Network. In addition Windows 95 is backwardly compatible
with most 3.1 Windows/DOS applications so enabling users to migrate from previous
systems/ application.

Windows NT : Unlike Windows 3 and windows 95, windows new technology (NT) is what is
known as an industry standard mission critical OS. As a 32 bit OS Windows NT represents the
preferred platform for Intel’s more powerful Pentium ranges of processors. Although not exactly the
same, Windows NT 4.0 is, as might be expected, very similar in appearance to Windows 95. Critical
features that allow tile program to context tile commercial OS market include :-
 A stable multitasking environment
 Enhanced security features
 Increased memory
 Network utilities
 Portability : NT can operate on microprocessors other than those designed for the PC.

Windows NT is, as might be expected, more expensive than the other Windows OS and makes
greater processing demands. However, it should be pointed out that Windows NT is making massive
inroads into the corporate computing market and is fully recognized as being a competent useful OS.

OS/2 : In 1987 IBM and Microsoft announced a new PC OS called OS/2 (Operating System Two).
Unfortunately, the original OS/2 was not very successful. Hindsight suggests that, as with the early
versions of Windows, one of the reasons for the slow uptake of OS/2 was due to considerable
hardware demand of this particular application.
Another more serious problem with the original OS/2 that it was unable to support many existing PC
applications. So users faced problems due to lack of compatibility between their original application
and OS/2. Predictably, the initial lack of interest in the original OS/2 resulted in a considerable strain
on the IBM- Microsoft alliance. Not long after the launch of OS/2, IBM and Microsoft began to go
their separate ways. Microsoft effectively abandoned OS/2 to IBM and chose instead to concentrate
on MS-DOS and Windows.

OPERATING SYSTEMS FOR LARGER SYSTEM

Operating systems for mid-range and mainframe systems are often more complex than those for
microcomputers. MVS is the most common operating system used on IBM mainframe. OS/400, an
operating system for the IBM AS/400 line of midrange computer is used at most of the sites where
AS/400 is installed. VMS is the operating system used most frequently on DEC midrange and
mainframe systems.

Interleaving Techniques : Large centralized systems often support multiple simultaneous users. The
users’ terminals may have limited processing capabilities and actual processing may be done entirely
on the large computer that is connected to the terminals. Hence, this computing configuration
requires an operating system that enables many users to concurrently share the central processor. To
do this, the operating systems on large computer systems often combine (interleave) the processing
work of multiple simultaneous users or applications in a manner that achieves the highest possible
resource efficiency. Among the interleaving techniques commonly used are multiprogramming,
foreground/background-processing, multitasking, virtual memory and multi-processing.

Multiprogramming : The purpose of multiprogramming is to increase the utilization of the


computer system as a whole, you must have noted when a program issues an input/output command,
the program and hence the CPU is placed in a wait state until the execution of the command has been
completed. When the transfer of data between main memory and the input/output devices has been
completed, the device generates an interrupt, which is a signal that the data has been transferred. Till
then the CPU remains idle and only after it receives the interrupt signal, it continues processing.
Hence, in a way, the speed of the CPU keeps waiting for the I/O operations to be completed. In order
to utilize the computer more effectively, a technique known as multiprogramming has been
developed. It is a module that is available in an operating system.

Multiprogramming is defined as execution of two or more programs that all reside in primary
storage. Since the CPU an execute only one instruction at a time, it cannot simultaneously from two
or more programs. However, it can execute instructions from one program then from second program
then from first again and so on. This type of processing is referred to as ‘concurrent execution’.
Using the concept of concurrent execution, multiprogramming operates in the following way :-

When processing is interrupted on one program, perhaps to attend an input or output transfer, the
processor switches to another program. This enables all parts of the system, the processor, input and
output peripherals to be operated concurrently thereby utilizing the whole system more fully. When
operating on one program at a time, the processor or peripherals would be idle for a large proportion
of the total processing time even though this would be reduced to some extent by buffering.
Buffering enables the processor to execute another instruction while input or output is taking place
rather than being idle while transfer was completed. Even then, when one program is being executed
at a time, basic input and output peripherals such as floppy disk drive and line printers are slow
compared with the electronic speed of the processor and this causes an imbalance in the system as a
whole. However, in a multi-programming environment, the CPU can execute one program’s
instructions while a second program is waiting for I/O operations to take place.
In a system of multiprogramming, storage is allocated for each program. The areas of primary
storage allocated for individual programs are called ‘partitions’. Each partition must have some form
of storage protection and priority protection to ensure that a program in one portion will not
accidentally write over and destroy the instructions of another partition and priority (when two or
more programs are residing in primary storage) because both programs will need access to the CPU’s
facilities (e.g. the arithmetic and logic section). A system of priority-a method that will determine
which program will have first call on the computer’s facilities is normally determined by locating the
programs in specific partitions.

Foreground/Background Processing : Usually, it is possible to partition main memory into


logically separate areas. This enables, for instance, two different operating systems to work on the
same machine because each will have its own memory to manage in its own way. Partitioning also
allows separate ‘job streams’ to be set up. A common procedure is to set up a partition for high-
priority tasks (called a foreground partition) and one for low-priority tasks (called a background
partition). With foreground/t) background processing, the computer goes to the background partition
and starts processing, tasks there. As other foreground tasks come into the job queue, the computer
leaves the background partition and resumes working in the foreground.

Multi-Tasking : Multi-tasking refers to the operating system’s ability to execute two or more of a
single user’s tasks concurrently. Multitasking operating systems are often contrasted with single-user
operating systems. Single-user operating systems have traditionally been the most common type of
operating system for microcomputers. These only allow the user to work on one task at a time. For
example, with many single-user operating systems for microcomputer systems, a word-processing
user cannot effectively type in a document while another document is being printed out on an
attached printer. For microcomputers, multi-tasking operating systems provide single user with multi
programming capabilities. This is often accomplished through foreground/background processing.
Multitasking operating systems for micro-computers. Such as Windows, OS/2, UNIX, XENIX and
Macintosh system 7 only run on the more powerful microprocessors that were developed; older
machines with less powerful microprocessors typical have single-user operating systems.

Virtual Memory : A programmer has to take into account the size of the memory, to fit all his
instructions and the data to be operated in the primary storage. If the program is large, then the
programmer has to use the concept of virtual memory, virtual memory, systems, sometimes called
virtual storage systems, extend primary memory by treating, disk storage as a logical extension of
RAM. The technique works by dividing a program on disk into fixed-length pages or into logical,
variable length segments.

Virtual memory is typically implemented as follows. Programs stored on disk are broken up into
fixed-length pages. When a program needs to be processed, the first few pages of it are brought into
primary memory. Then, the computer system starts processing the program. If the computer needs a
page it does not have, it brings that page in from secondary storage and overwrites it onto the
memory locations occupied by a page it no longer needs. Processing continues in this manner until
the program finishes. This is known as overlaying.

By allowing programs to be broken up into smaller parts and by allowing only certain parts to be in
main memory at any one time, virtual memory enables computers to get by with less main memory
than usual. Of course, during page swapping in multipromming environments, the system may swith
to other programs and tasks.
Thus virtual memory is primary storage that does not actually exist. It gives the programmers the
illusion of a primary storage that is for all practical purposes never ending. It uses the hardware and
software features, which provide for automatic segmentation of the program and for moving the
segments from secondary storage to primary storage when needed. The segments of the program are
thus spread through the primary and secondary (on-line) storage, and track of these segments is kept
by using tables and indices. So far as the programmer is concerned, the virtual memory feature
allows him to consider unlimited memory size, though not in physical term.

Multiprocessing : The term multiprogramming is some times loosely interchanged with the term
multiprocessing, but they are not the same. Multiprogramming involves controlled by one supervisor
of instruction from two or more programs sharing the CPU and controlled by one supervisor.
Multiprocessing (or parallel progressing) refers to the use of two or more central processing units,
linked together, to perform coordinated work simultaneously.

Instructions are executed simultaneously because the available CPUs can execute different
instructions of the same program or of different programs at any given time. Multiprocessing offers
data-processing capabilities that are not present when only one CPU is used. Many complex
operations can be performed at the same time. CPU can function on complementary units to provide
data and control for one another. Multiprocessing is used for nation’s major control application such
as railroad control, traffic control, or airways etc.

Although parallel processing is not widespread yet, multiprocessing should be the wave of the future.
Because of the availability of cheaper but more powerful processors, many computer manufactures
are now designing hardware and software systems to do multiprocessing. Since several machines can
work as a team and operate in parallel, jobs can be processed much more rapidly than on a single
machine.

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