 twares are the softwares which are more complex in nature and they are more near to computer

er hardware.
These software are usually written in low-level languages like assembly language and includes Operating
Systems (Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux), Compiler, and Assembler etc.
 Computer Hardware includes Monitor, Keyboard, CPU, Disks, Memory, etc.

So now let's put it in simple words:

If we consider a Computer Hardware is body of the Computer System, then we can say an Operating System is its
soul which brings it alive ie. operational. We can never use a Computer System if it does not have an Operating
System installed on it.

Operating System - Examples

There are plenty of Operating Systems available in the market which include paid and unpaid (Open Source).
Following are the examples of the few most popular Operating Systems:

 Windows: This is one of the most popular and commercial operating systems developed and marketed by
Microsoft. It has different versions in the market like Windows 8, Windows 10 etc and most of them are paid.
 Linux This is a Unix based and the most loved operating system first released on September 17, 1991 by
Linus Torvalds. Today, it has 30+ variants available like Fedora, OpenSUSE, CentOS, UBuntu etc. Most of
them are available free of charges though you can have their enterprise versions by paying a nominal
license fee.
 MacOS This is again a kind of Unix operating system developed and marketed by Apple Inc. since 2001.
 iOS This is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its mobile
devices like iPhone and iPad etc.
 Android This is a mobile Operating System based on a modified version of the Linux kernel and other open
source software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.

Some other old but popular Operating Systems include Solaris, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Operating System - Functions

To brief, Following are some of important functions of an operating System which we will look in more detail in
upcoming chapters:

 Process Management
 I/O Device Management
 File Management
 Network Management
 Main Memory Management
 Secondary Storage Management
 Security Management
 Command Interpreter System
 Control over system performance
 Job Accounting
 Error Detection and Correction
 Coordination between other software and users
 Many more other important tasks

Operating Systems - History

Operating systems have been evolving through the years. In the 1950s, computers were limited to running one
program at a time like a calculator, but later in the following decades, computers began to include more and
more software programs, sometimes called libraries, that formed the basis for today’s operating systems.
The first Operating System was created by General Motors in 1956 to run a single IBM mainframe computer, its
name was the IBM 704. IBM was the first computer manufacturer to develop operating systems and distribute
them in its computers in the 1960s.
There are few facts about Operating System evaluation:

 Stanford Research Institute developed the oN-Line System (NLS) in the late 1960s, which was the first
operating system that resembled the desktop operating system we use today.
 Microsoft bought QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) in 1981 and branded it as Microsoft Operating
System (MS-DOS). As of 1994, Microsoft had stopped supporting MS-DOS.
 Unix was developed in the mid-1960s by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, AT&T Bell Labs, and
General Electric as a joint effort. Initially it was named MULTICS, which stands for Multiplexed Operating
and Computing System.
 FreeBSD is also a popular UNIX derivative, originating from the BSD project at Berkeley. All modern
Macintosh computers run a modified version of FreeBSD (OS X).
 Windows 95 is a consumer-oriented graphical user interface-based operating system built on top of MS-
DOS. It was released on August 24, 1995 by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family of operating
systems.
 Solaris is a proprietary Unix operating system originally developed by Sun Microsystems in 1991. After the
Sun acquisition by Oracle in 2010 it was renamed Oracle Solaris.

Why to Learn Operating System

If you are aspiring to become a Great Computer Programmer then it is highly recommended to understand how
exactly an Operating System works inside out. This gives opportunity to understand how exactly data is saved
in the disk, how different processes are created and scheduled to run by the CPU, how to interact with different
I/O devices and ports.
There are various low level concepts which help a programmer to Design and Develop scalable softwares.
Bottom line is without a good understanding of Operating System Concepts, it can't be assumed someone to
be a good Computer Application Software developer, and even it is unimaginable imagine someone to
become a System Software developer without knowing Operating System in-depth.
If you are a fresher and applying for a job in any standard company like Google, Microsoft, Amazon, IBM etc
then it is very much possible that you will be asked questions related to Operating System concepts.

Target Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for the Computer Science Professionals and Students specially for BCA, MCA,
B.Tech, M.Tech Engineering Students to help them understand the basic to advanced concepts related to an
Operating System in general. Operating System is one of the core concepts in every University teaching
Computer Science and this subject has a lot of weight from exams point of view.

Prerequisites
Before you start learning Operating System using this tutorial, we are making an assumption that you are
already aware of Computer Fundaments like What is Computer Hardware, CPU, Primary Memory, Secondary
Memory, Devices, Files etc. If you are not already aware of these concepts then it will be difficult to understand
various concepts related to Operating System and so it is highly recommended to go through our Computer
Fundamentals Tutorial before attempting to learn Operating System.

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating
system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's hardware. The software
that contains the core components of the operating system is called the kernel.
The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (spftwares) to interact with a
computer's hardware and to manage a system's hardware and software resources.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400,
AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like mobile phones, personal
computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.

Definitions
We can have a number of definitions of an Operating System. Let's go through few of them:
An Operting System is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling tasks
and controlling peripherals.

We can refine this definition as follows:

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and
controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following is another definition taken from Wikipedia:

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides
common services for computer programs.

Architecture
We can draw a generic architecture diagram of an Operating System which is as follows:

Operating System Generations

Operating systems have been evolving over the years. We can categorise this evaluation based on different
generations which is briefed below:
0th Generation
The term 0th generation is used to refer to the period of development of computing when Charles Babbage
invented the Analytical Engine and later John Atanasoff created a computer in 1940. The hardware component
technology of this period was electronic vacuum tubes. There was no Operating System available for this
generation computer and computer programs were written in machine language. This computers in this
generation were inefficient and dependent on the varying competencies of the individual programmer as
operators.

First Generation (1951-1956)

The first generation marked the beginning of commercial computing including the introduction of Eckert and
Mauchly’s UNIVAC I in early 1951, and a bit later, the IBM 701.
System operation was performed with the help of expert operators and without the benefit of an operating
system for a time though programs began to be written in higher level, procedure-oriented languages, and thus
the operator’s routine expanded. Later mono-programmed operating system was developed, which eliminated
some of the human intervention in running job and provided programmers with a number of desirable functions.
These systems still continued to operate under the control of a human operator who used to follow a number of
steps to execute a program. Programming language like FORTRAN was developed by John W. Backus in
1956.

Second Generation (1956-1964)

The second generation of computer hardware was most notably characterised by transistors replacing vacuum
tubes as the hardware component technology. The first operating system GMOS was developed by the IBM
computer. GMOS was based on single stream batch processing system, because it collects all similar jobs in
groups or batches and then submits the jobs to the operating system using a punch card to complete all jobs in
a machine. Operating system is cleaned after completing one job and then continues to read and initiates the
next job in punch card.
Researchers began to experiment with multiprogramming and multiprocessing in their computing services
called the time-sharing system. A noteworthy example is the Compatible Time Sharing System (CTSS),
developed at MIT during the early 1960s.

Third Generation (1964-1979)

The third generation officially began in April 1964 with IBM’s announcement of its System/360 family of
computers. Hardware technology began to use integrated circuits (ICs) which yielded significant advantages in
both speed and economy.
Operating system development continued with the introduction and widespread adoption of multiprogramming.
The idea of taking fuller advantage of the computer’s data channel I/O capabilities continued to develop.
Another progress which leads to developing of personal computers in fourth generation is a new development
of minicomputers with DEC PDP-1. The third generation was an exciting time, indeed, for the development of
both computer hardware and the accompanying operating system.

Fourth Generation (1979 – Present)

The fourth generation is characterised by the appearance of the personal computer and the workstation. The
component technology of the third generation, was replaced by very large scale integration (VLSI). Many
Operating Systems which we are using today like Windows, Linux, MacOS etc developed in the fourth
generation.
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
  Network Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a large
array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed,
it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory management −

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how much
time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for
processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known
as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following
activities for device management −

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may
contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file
system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to
programs and data.
  Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and response
from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
There are various components of an Operating System to perform well defined tasks. Though most of the
Operating Systems differ in structure but logically they have similar components. Each component must be a
well-defined portion of a system that appropriately describes the functions, inputs, and outputs.
There are following 8-components of an Operating System:

1. Process Management
2. I/O Device Management
3. File Management
4. Network Management
5. Main Memory Management
6. Secondary Storage Management
7. Security Management
8. Command Interpreter System

Following section explains all the above components in more detail:

Process Management
A process is program or a fraction of a program that is loaded in main memory. A process needs certain
resources including CPU time, Memory, Files, and I/O devices to accomplish its task. The process
management component manages the multiple processes running simultaneously on the Operating System.
A program in running state is called a process.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management:

 Create, load, execute, suspend, resume, and terminate processes.

 Switch system among multiple processes in main memory.
 Provides communication mechanisms so that processes can communicate with each others
 Provides synchronization mechanisms to control concurrent access to shared data to keep shared data
consistent.
 Allocate/de-allocate resources properly to prevent or avoid deadlock situation.

I/O Device Management

One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the
user. I/O Device Management provides an abstract level of H/W devices and keep the details from applications
to ensure proper use of devices, to prevent errors, and to provide users with convenient and efficient
programming environment.
Following are the tasks of I/O Device Management component:

 Hide the details of H/W devices

 Manage main memory for the devices using cache, buffer, and spooling
 Maintain and provide custom drivers for each device.

File Management
File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system. Computers can store information
in several different physical forms; magnetic tape, disk, and drum are the most common forms.
A file is defined as a set of correlated information and it is defined by the creator of the file. Mostly files
represent data, source and object forms, and programs. Data files can be of any type like alphabetic, numeric,
and alphanumeric.
A files is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its creator and user.

The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by managing mass storage device, such as
types and disks. Also files are normally organized into directories to ease their use. These directories may
contain files and other directories and so on.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:

 File creation and deletion

 Directory creation and deletion
 The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

Network Management
The definition of network management is often broad, as network management involves several different
components. Network management is the process of managing and administering a computer network. A
computer network is a collection of various types of computers connected with each other.
Network management comprises fault analysis, maintaining the quality of service, provisioning of networks, and
performance management.
Network management is the process of keeping your network healthy for an efficient communication between
different computers.

Following are the features of network management:

 Network administration
 Network maintenance
 Network operation
 Network provisioning
 Network security

Main Memory Management

Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository of quickly accessible
data shared by the CPU and I/O devices.
Main memory is a volatile storage device which means it loses its contents in the case of system failure or as
soon as system power goes down.
The main motivation behind Memory Management is to maximize memory utilization on the computer system.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with memory management:

 Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
 Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
 Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
Secondary Storage Management
The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together with the data they
access, must be in main memory during execution. Since the main memory is too small to permanently
accommodate all data and program, the computer system must provide secondary storage to backup main
memory.
Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium, for both programs and
data. Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines, editors, formatters, and so on, are stored on the
disk until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and destination of their processing.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management:

 Free space management

 Storage allocation

Disk scheduling
Security Management
The operating system is primarily responsible for all task and activities happen in the computer system. The
various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s activities. For that purpose,
various mechanisms which can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment, cpu and other resources
can be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper authorization from the operating system.
Security Management refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users to the
resources defined by a computer controls to be imposed, together with some means of enforcement.

For example, memory addressing hardware ensure that a process can only execute within its own address
space. The timer ensure that no process can gain control of the CPU without relinquishing it. Finally, no
process is allowed to do it’s own I/O, to protect the integrity of the various peripheral devices.

Command Interpreter System

One of the most important component of an operating system is its command interpreter. The command
interpreter is the primary interface between the user and the rest of the system.
Command Interpreter System executes a user command by calling one or more number of underlying system
programs or system calls.
Command Interpreter System allows human users to interact with the Operating System and provides convenient
programming environment to the users.

Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. A program which reads and
interprets control statements is automatically executed. This program is called the shell and few examples are
Windows DOS command window, Bash of Unix/Linux or C-Shell of Unix/Linux.

Other Important Activities

An Operating System is a complex Software System. Apart from the above mentioned components and
responsibilities, there are many other activities performed by the Operating System. Few of them are listed
below:

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to
programs and data.

 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and response
from the system.

 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
  Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.

 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving with time. In this
chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on
an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with
similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the
operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular
computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of
Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing
Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus,
the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes
each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user
can get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of
a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing
systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users.
Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed
buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors
in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes,
computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating
system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area
network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server
2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and
respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an
input and display of required updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the
response time is very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow
of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating
system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary
storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never
found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the
priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example,
multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

 It provides programs an environment to execute.

 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.
Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

 Program execution
 I/O operations
 File System manipulation
 Communication
 Error Detection
 Resource Allocation
 Protection
Program execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like printer spooler,
name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate, registers, OS
resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to program
management −

 Loads a program into memory.

 Executes the program.
 Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
 Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.
I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers hide the
peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.
An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.
File system manipulation
A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk (secondary storage),
for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical
disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate
and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may
contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to file
management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
  Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.
Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory, peripheral
devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the processes. Multiple
processes communicate with one another through communication lines in the network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security. Following are
the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between them

 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected through a
computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by Message
Passing.
Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory
hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error handling −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles and files
storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an operating system with
respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.
Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple processes, the
various processes must be protected from each other's activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users to the
resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect
to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.
Following are the different properties of an Operating System. This tutorial will explain these properties in detail
one by one:

1. Batch processing
2. Multitasking
3. Multiprogramming
4. Interactivity
5. Real Time System
6. Distributed Environment
7. Spooling
Batch processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data together in a
batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities related to batch processing −

 The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a single
unit.
 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual information.
 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets copied into
an output spool for later printing or processing.

Advantages
 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
 Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished, without any
manual intervention.

Disadvantages

 Difficult to debug program.

 A job could enter an infinite loop.
 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between them.
Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is running. An OS does the
following activities related to multitasking −

 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an
immediate response.
 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes multiple
programs at a time.
 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
 These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a
reasonable cost.
  A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide
each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.
 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either finishes or
needs to perform I/O.
 Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete. During this
time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
 The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each action or
command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
 As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the
impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many
users.

Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred
as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases
CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.

 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
 Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system resources
using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs
to process.

Advantages

 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages

 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating system does the
following activities related to interactivity −

 Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

 Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
 Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.

The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.
Real Time System
Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the following activities
related to real-time system activity.

 In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
 The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure correct
performance.

Distributed Environment
A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer system. An
operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −

 The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.

 The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own local memory.
 The OS manages the communications between the processors. They communicate with each other
through various communication lines.

Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to putting data of
various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is accessible to I/O
devices.
An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −

 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower
device catches up.
 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O in parallel
fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write data to disk and to
write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.

Advantages

 The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

 Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations for another job.