• Fuels: Introduction and classification of fuels, solid and non-volatile liquid fuels CV (Bomb calorimeter),

• CV of volatile liquid fuels and gaseous fuels (Boy’s calorimeter),

• proximate and ultimate analysis, coking and caking coals,

• Carbonization-low and high temperature,

• Otto-Hoffman’s by product recovery process.

• Liquid fuels, fractional distillation,

• Cracking- thermal and catalytic (fixed and fluid bed) Knocking in I/C engine – spark and compression ignition engine,

• Octane no, cetane no.

 What are Different Sources of Energy?
1. Solar Energy. Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using collector panels to
create conditions that can then be turned into a kind of power.
2. Wind Energy. ...
3. Geothermal Energy. ... Geothermal energy is the energy that is produced from beneath the earth. It is
clean, sustainable and environment friendly. High temperatures are produced
4. Hydrogen Energy. ... continuously inside the earth’s crust by the slow delay of radioactive particles. Hot
5. Tidal Energy. ... rocks present below the earth heats up the water that produces steam. The steam
is then captured that helps to move turbines. The rotating turbines then power the
6. Wave Energy. ... generators.
7. Hydroelectric Energy. ... Hydrogen is a tremendous source of energy and can be used as a source of fuel
8. Biomass Energy. to power ships, vehicles, homes, industries and rockets. It is completely
renewable, can be produced on demand and does not leave any toxic emissions
in the atmosphere.
Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and
outgoing tides into electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal power
is mostly prevalent in coastal areas. Huge investment and limited availability of
sites are few of the drawbacks of tidal energy.

It can be harnessed along coastal regions of many countries and can

help a country to reduce its dependance on foreign countries for fuel.
 Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the
oceans. Wave energy is renewable, environment friendly and causes no
6. Wave Energy. ... harm to atmosphere. It can be harnessed along coastal regions of many
7. Hydroelectric Energy. ... countries and can help a country to reduce its dependance on foreign
countries for fuel. Producing wave energy can damage marine
8. Biomass Energy. ecosystem and can also be a source of disturbance to private and
commercial vessels. It is highly dependent on wavelength and can also
be a source of visual and noise pollution.

What many people are not aware of is that most of the cities and Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is
towns in the world rely on hydropower, and have for the past commonly used throughout the world. Chlorophyll present in
century. Every time you see a major dam, it is providing plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide
hydropower to an electrical station somewhere. The power of the from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates
water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is through the process of photosynthesis. When the plants are
then used. The problems faced with hydropower right now have burned, the water and carbon dioxide is again released back
to do with the aging of the dams. Many of them need major into the atmosphere. Biomass generally include crops, plants,
restoration work to remain functional and safe, and that costs trees, yard clippings, wood chips and animal
enormous sums of money. The drain on the world’s drinkable wastes. Biomass energy is used for heating and cooking in
water supply is also causing issues as townships may wind up homes and as a fuel in industrial production. This type of
needing to consume the water that provides them power too. energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
Nuclear Power While nuclear power remains a great subject of debate as to how
safe it is to use, and whether or not it is really energy efficient when you take into
account the waste it produces – the fact is it remains one of the major renewable
sources of energy available to the world. The energy is created through a specific
nuclear reaction, which is then collected and used to power generators. While almost
every country has nuclear generators, there are moratoriums on their use or
construction as scientists try to resolve safety and disposal issues for waste.

Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas) When most people talk about the different
sources of energy they list natural gas, coal and oil as the options – these are all
considered to be just one source of energy from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels provide the power
for most of the world, primarily using coal and oil. Oil is converted into many products, the
most used of which is gasoline. Natural gas is starting to become more common, but is
used mostly for heating applications although there are more and more natural gas
powered vehicles appearing on the streets. The issue with fossil fuels is twofold. To get to
the fossil fuel and convert it to use there has to be a heavy destruction and pollution of the
environment. The fossil fuel reserves are also limited, expecting to last only another 100
years given are basic rate of consumption.
 WHAT IS A FUEL

A fuel is a substance that contains carbon and hydrogen undergoes combustion in presence of oxygen to gives large
amount of energy.
Fuel + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy
A fuel (from Old French feuaile, from feu fire, ultimately from Latin focus fireplace, hearth) is a substance that may
be burned in air (or any other oxidant-containing substance), i.e. that so quickly reacts with oxygen that heat and light
is emitted in the form of a sustained flame.

• Fuels are dangerous, because they accumulate a lot of chemical energy

• Fuels are pollutant when burnt

• Fuels are scarce (fossil sources are being depleted) and the sources are unevenly spread

• Fuels are difficult to handle: coal is very dirty, crude-oil is too viscous, natural gas has very low density, to say the

less.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL
BY PHYSICAL STATE
Solid
• coal (mineral),
• harcoal (from wood) and iomass (wood, dung), but also
• waxes
• metals and non-metals (e.g. sulfur ignites easily, producing a pungent blue flame; aluminium particles are
used in the rocket boosters for heavy-lift launchers such as the Space Shuttle and Ariane 5).

Liquid
• Crude-oil derivatives (gasoline, diesel, fueloil),
• alcohols, ethers, esters, but also LPG at low temperatures.
• Notice that the usual U.S., Canadian, and New Zealand word for gasoline is simply ‘gas’, and that the
usual British word is ‘petrol’.

Gas
• Natural gas, oil derivatives (LPG),acetylene
• Manufacture gas (from coal or oil residue) and
• Biogas (from manure or sewage).
BY PERIOD OF NATURAL RENOVATION
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels (coal, crude-oil and natural gas) were formed slowly (during millions of years, mainly at certain remote
epochs, not uniformly; e.g. American oil was formed some 90 million years ago, whereas the rest dates from 150
million years) by high-pressure-decomposition of trapped vegetable matter during extreme global warming.

Renewable fuels

Renewable fuels (biomass) are formed in a year or a few years basis (synthetic fuels may come from
fossil or from renewable sources):

• Gaseous: biogas from anaerobic fermentation or gasogen gas from pyrolysis of biomass.

• Liquid: alcohols, ethers (biopetrol), esters (biodiesel).

• Solid: wood, charcoal, fuel pellets (from wood or vegetable residues), agriculture residues, cattle

manure, urban waste.

BY PRODUCTION STAGE (RESOURCES TYPE)

Natural or primary fuels

Any commodity can be artificially produced, but it may cost a lot; humankind progress has always been based on
finding raw materials that with no cost or little cost could satisfy their needs. The need for energy, to make machines
work, to transport people and goods, and so on, has been met in the past and in the present by primary fuels
(biofuels in the past and fossil fuels during the last two centuries).

• Fossil fuels: coal, crude oil (not used unprocessed), natural gas and biomass. They are obtained by mining (coal) or
welling (oil and gas). Some pumping is usually needed. Actually, crude oil is never used as a primary fuel because
there is no economy (residual crude-oil products are cheaper) and Fuels 7 because it is difficult to handle (being a
mixture of very light and very heavy substances, its handling causes cavitation, vapour traps and sticky clogs).

• Biofuels (from biomass). They can be directly taken from nature (e.g. wood and fuel crops), or from human activity
waste (agriculture residues, industrial residues, animal residues, or domestic waste).

Artificial or secondary fuels

Characteristics of Good Fuel

i) Fuel should have high calorific value (HCV).

ii) Must have moderate ignition temperature.

iii) Fuel should have low moisture content.

iv) Available in bulk at low cost.

v) Should not burn spontaneously.

vi) Fuel should burn efficiently, without releasing hazardous pollutants.

vii) Handling, storage and transportation should be easy.

 Unit of heat

i) Calorie:
it is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through one degree centigrade.

ii) British Thermal Unit (BTU): it is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pond of water to one
degree Fahrenheit.

1 B.T.U. = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal

1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U.

iii) Centigrade Heat Unit (CHU): it is define as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pond of
water to one degree centigrade.

1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U. = 2.2 C.H.U.

 Calorific value
Calorific value of fuel can be define as the amount of heat evolved when one unit mass or volume of the
fuel undergoes completely combustion in presence of oxygen.

High or gross calorific value (HCV or GCV): it is defined as amount of heat evolve when one unit mass or volume of
the fuel is completely burnt and combustible products are cooled to room temperature (25 °C or 77 °F).

Low or net calorific value (LCV or NCV): it is defined as amount of heat evolve when one unit mass or volume of
the fuel is completely burnt and combustible products are permitted to escape. Therefore net calorific value is lower
than gross calorific value.

LCV = HCV – latent heat of water vapour

LCV = HCV – mass of hydrogen ×9× latent heat of steam (587 kcal/kg)
One part by mass of hydrogen produced nine parts by mass of water molecule.

Therefore,

LCV = HCV – H/100 × 𝟗 × 587 kcal/kg

H = percentage of hydrogen in fuel

 Bomb calorimeter

Bomb calorimeter is used to determine calorific value of solid and liquid fuels experimentally.

• A bomb calorimeter contains a cylindrical bomb made by stainless steel.

• Combustion takes place in this cylinder. The lid contains two stainless steel electrodes.

• Oxygen is supplied through oxygen valve for combustion.

• The electrode is attached with a small ring which supports nickel or stainless steel made crucible.

• The bomb is taken in a copper calorimeter which is surrounded by air and water jacket in order to prevent heat

loss by radiation.

• The copper calorimeter also contains electrically operated stirrer and Beckmann’s thermometer (take reading

with temperature difference up to 0.01 °C.

 WORKING PRINCIPLE
1. In a crucible, a known amount of the fuel is placed in the nickel or stainless steel crucible which is supported by a ring.
2. A fine magnesium wire touches the fuel sample, which is already connected to the electrodes.
3. The bomb lid is lightly screwed and filled with oxygen at about 25 atm pressure, is placed in copper calorimeter
containing a known amount of water.
4. The electrically operated stirrer is driven and notes the initial temperature of water (T1).
5. After that both the electrodes are connected to a battery to complete the circuit.
6. The fuel sample is burn and heat is liberated.
7. To maintain the uniform temperature, water is continuously stirred and the final temperature (T2) of water is noted.

Calculation:
• Mass of fuel (solid or liquid)= x g
• Mass of water taken = W g
• Water equivalent of calorimeter = w g
• Initial temperature of water in calorimeter = T1 K
• Final temperature of water in calorimeter = T2 K
• High or gross calorific value = (𝑾+𝒘) (𝐓𝟐−𝐓𝟏) × cal/g
• LCV = HCV – H/100 ×𝟗× 587 kcal/kg
• H = percentage of hydrogen in fuel
 Corrections Factors

HCV or GCV = (𝐖+𝐰)(𝐓𝟐−𝐓𝟏−𝐓𝐜)− (𝐂𝐬+𝐂𝐧+𝐂𝐟+𝐂𝐜)𝐱

Where
Tc = cooling corrections
Cs = Corrections for sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Cn = Corrections for nitric acid (HNO3)
Cf = Corrections for fuse wire
Cc = Corrections for cotton thread

Theoretical calculation by Dulong’s formula:

The theoretical calculation of calorific value of a fuel can be approximately calculated by Dulong’s formula,
based on the percentage of the constituents (C, H, O and S) present in the fuel.

As per Dulong’s formula

HCV = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 [𝟖𝟎𝟖𝟎 𝑪+𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎(𝑯−𝑶𝟖)+ 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝑺] kcal/kg
Where, C, H, O and S are percentage of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur present in fuel. In above
formula the oxygen is assumed to be present in combined form with hydrogen or in form of water (H2O).
LCV = HCV – H/100 ×𝟗× 587 kcal/kg
 To determine the calorific value of L.P. gas

θin – Inlet water temperature (°C)

1. Boys gas calorimeter

θout – Outlet water temperature (°C)

2. Regulator
Vw – Volume of the water collected (ml)

3. Gas meter
Va – Volume of gas burned (m3)

4. Measuring cylinders
Ta – Ambient temperature (°C)

5. Thermometers
Pa – Ambient pressure (mmHg)

Q1 – Heat given by Burning (J)

Q2 – Heat absorbed by circulating water (J)

Under the steady heat transfer,

(Heat given by burning gas during the observation period = Heat absorbed by circulating water during the observation period)
 Assumption
• Heat loss from Boys gas calorimeter to the surrounding is given by the latent heat of
steam produced by the combustion reaction.

Heat given by Heat given by

the the Heat absorbed by the Heat loss to the Surrounding (from
burning gasses liquefaction Circulating water the exhaust gas)
by combustion of the steam
reaction produced by
the steam

By neglecting every small discrepancies,

Heat given by burning gas under the standard condition = Heat absorbed by circulating water under ambient or standard
condition
Assumption
Heat loss from Boys gas calorimeter to the surrounding is given by the latent heat of steam produced by the combustion
reaction.
By neglecting every small discrepancies,
Heat given by burning gas under the standard condition
= Heat absorbed by circulating water under ambient or standard condition
According to the assumption,

Q1 = Q2 ………………………...(1) But m = Vw. Dw

But Q1 = C.Vs ……………………….(2)
Where Vw = Volume of circulating water (ml)
Where C = Calorific value of L.P. gas
Vs = Standard volume Dw = Density of water (g/ml)

But Q2 = mcθ ………………………...(3)

Where m = Mass of the circulating water (g)

c = Specific heat capacity of water (cal/g°C)

θ = Temperature difference between inlet and outlet water (°C)

From equations (1), (2) & (3)

C.Vs = mcθ = VwDw.c

Classifications of Coal
 Analysis of Coal

The quality of coal can be analyzed by two analysis; proximate and ultimate analysis.

Proximate analysis:

1. In this analysis moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon can be determined.

2. Moisture: A known amount of finely powdered air-dried coal sample is taken in crucible.

3. The crucible is placed inside an electric hot air-oven, at 105° o to 110 ° C for 1 hour.

4. The crucible is then taken out, cooled in desiccators and weighed.

5. Difference in the weight of sample gives the information about the weight loss due to removal of moisture.
 Proximate analysis
% of moisture = 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
Lesser the amount of moisture content, better the quality of fuel.
Volatile matter:
The moisture free coal sample is taken in a crucible, covered with a lid and placed in muffle furnace (electric furnace) at 950 °C
for 7 minutes and then remove the crucible from the oven and cooled first in air, then cooled in a desiccator and weighed again.
Loss in weight is due to presence of volatile matter in coal sample.

% of volatile matter = 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎

Low quantity of volatile matter, better the quality of a coal.

Ash: The residual coal sample taken in a crucible and then heated without lid in a muffle furnace at 700-750oC for an hour. The
crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in desiccators and weighed again. The process of heating, cooling and weighing
are repeated until a constant weight is not obtained. The residue is reported as ash on percentage-basis.

% of ash = 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎

Ash is non-combustible substance which reduces the calorific value of a coal. Therefore, low quantity of ash contents, better the
quality of a coal.

Fixed carbon: The fixed carbon percentage is determined by following equation

% of fixed carbon = 100 – (% of moisture + % of volatile matter + % of ash)

 Ultimate analysis
Ultimate analysis is involving the measurement of C, H, N, S, and O.

Carbon and hydrogen: In a combustion apparatus, about 1-2 gram of coal sample is burnt in a current of oxygen to
convert C and H into CO2 and H2O respectively. The gaseous products CO2 and H2O are absorbed in KOH and
CaCl2 tubes of known weights, respectively. The increase in weights of these (KOH and CaCl2) are then determined.
Calculation:
C + O2 CO2
12 32 44
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O

H2 + ½ O2 H2O
2 16 18

CaCl2 + 7H2O CaCl2.7H2O

Carbonization-low and high temperature
 Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke by “Otto-Hoffmann’s By-Product Oven Process”

In order to increase the thermal efficiency of carbonization process and to recover the valuable by-products, otto-
haffmann developed a modern by-product coke oven. It consists of number of narrow silica chambers. Each chamber
is provided with a charging hole at the top, a gas off-take and a refractory lined cast iron door at each end for
discharging coke. Coal is introduced into the chamber and the chambers are closed. The ovens are heated to 1200 °c
by burning a gaseous fuel and usually employ a regenerative principle to active economical heating. The fuel gases
produced during combustion are passed to the regenerators chequer brick work that takes up the heat and gets
heated to about 1000°c. The flow of heating gases is the reversed so that the hot flue gases preheat the other
chambers. The heating is continued till the evolution of volatile matter ceases completely which is about 11-18 hours.
When coke is formed, a massive raw pushes the red hot coke outside. It is subsequently quenched by water spray.
The coke obtained by dry quenching is drier, clean and stronger than wet quenched coke.
 Working Steps
• Coal is introduced into the silica chambers and the chambers are closed.

• The chambers are heated to 1200˚C by burning of gaseous fuels (air and producer gas) by passing them through
2nd and 3rd hot regenerators.

• Hot flue gases produced during carbonization come out through 1st and 4th regenerators raising the temperature to
1000 °C.

• The fuel gas is now passed through the 1st and 4th regenerators (preheating).

• Flue gases come out through the 2nd and 3rd regenerators raise the temperature to 1000 °C.

This cycle goes on. This process of reversing the direction of fuel & flue gases is known as ‘regenerative system of
heat economy’.
 Recovery of by-Products

The valuable by products like coal gas, tar, ammonia,H2S and benzol,etc can be recovered from flue gas.

(i) Recovery of Tar: The flue gases are first passed through a tower, where liquor ammonia is sprayed. Here, dust and

tar get dissolved and collected. The collected solution is heated by steam to recover the ammonia and used again.

(ii) Recovery of Ammonia: The gases are then passed through another tower, where water is sprayed. Here,

ammonia goes into the solution as NH4OH.

(iii) Recovery of Naphthalene: The gases are then passed through another tower, where cold water is sprayed. Here,

naphthalene gets condensed.

(iv) Recovery of Benzene: The gases are then passed through another tower, where petroleum is sprayed. Here, benzene gets
condensed to liquid.
(v) Recovery of H2S : The remaining gases are then passed through a purifier packed with moist Fe2O3. Here, H2S is retained.

Advantages of this method

Valuable by products are recovered.

It requires less time.

Heating is done externally by producer gas.

Flue gas produced during carbonization is also used to preheat the coal.
 QUALITY OF FUEL
The quality of the fuel mainly depends upon the following properties:

1. Volatility of the fuel Volatility: Volatility of fuel has considerable effect on the performance of the engine
by affecting the following:
(i) Ease of starting the engine.
2. Calorific value of the fuel
(ii) Degree of crankcase oil dilution,
(iii) Formation of vapour lock in the fuel system,
3. Ignition quality of the fuel
(iv) Accelerating characteristics of the engine,
(v) Distribution of fuel in multi-cylinder engine.

Calorific value: The heat liberated by combustion of a fuel is known as calorific value or heat value of the
fuel. It is expressed in kcal /kg of the fuel. The heat value of a fuel is an important measure of its worth,
since this is the heat which enables the engine to do the work.
Ignition quality: Ignition quality refers to ease of burning the oil in the combustion chamber. Octane
number and cetane number are the measures of ignition quality of the fuel.

(a) Octane number: It is a measure of knock characteristics of a fuel. The percentage of iso-octane (C8
H18) in the reference fuel consisting of a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane (C7H16), when it
produces the same knocking effect as the fuel under test, is called octane number of the fuel. Iso-octane
has excellent antiknock qualities and is given a rating of 100. Normal heptane would knock excessively
and hence it is assigned a value of zero.

(b) Cetane number: The percentage of cetane in a mixture of cetane (C16H34) and alphamethyl
naphthelene (C11H16) that produces the same knocking effect as the fuel under test is called cetane
number of the fuel. Diesel fuels are rated according to cetane number which is the indication of ignition
quality of the fuel. The higher the cetane number the better the ignition quality of the diesel fuel. The
commercial diesel fuels have got cetane rating varying from 30 to 60.
Detonation (Knocking): Detonation or engine knocking refers to violent noises, heard in an engine, giving
a pinging sound during the process of combustion. It occurs during the process of combustion of the
S.No Name of fuel oil A. P. I. degree Specific Gravity
Calorific value
kcal/kg B.T.U./lb
(i) Light diesel oil (L.D.O.) 22 0.920 10300 18600
(ii) High speed diesel oil (HSD) 31 0.820 10550 19000
(iii) Power kerosene 40 0.827 10850 19500
(iv) Petrol 63 0.730 11100 20000
AG ENGG 243 Lecture 6 2
mixture within the cylinder after the ignition has taken place. It is an undesirable combustion and results in
sudden rise in pressure, a loss of power and overheating of the engine. It is caused by improper combustion
chamber, high compression pressure, early ignition timing, improper fuel and inadequate cooling
arrangement.
In the most general
sense of the word, a
cement is a binder, a
substance that sets
and hardens
independently, and can
bind other materials
together.
• John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements when
he was planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–9) in the
English Channel. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and develop some
strength in the twelve hour period between successive high tides.

• In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a similar material, which he called Portland cement,
because the render made from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone.

• The investigations of L.J. Vicat led him to prepare an artificial hydraulic lime by
calcining an intimate mixture of limestone and clay.

• Later in 1845, Isaac Charles Johnson burnt a mixture of clay and chalk till the
clinkering stage to make better cement and established factories in 1851.

• The German standard specification for Portland cement was drawn in 1877.
The British standard specification was first drawn up in 1904. The first
ASTM specification was issued in 1904.

In India, Portland cement was first manufactured in 1904 near Madras, by

the South India Industrial Ltd. But this venture failed.

Between 1912 and 1913, the Indian Cement Co. Ltd., was established at
Porbander (Gujarat) and by 1914 this Company was able to deliver about
1000 tons of Portland cement.
Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other materials (such as
clay) to 1450 °C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is
liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the
other materials that have been included in the mix.

The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder
to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).
Portland Cement
 Step 1 – Quarrying Limestone and a 'cement rock' such as clay or shale are quarried and brought to the cement
works. These rocks contain lime (CaCO3), silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and ferrous oxide (Fe2O3) - the raw
materials of cement manufacture.

Step 2 - Raw material preparation To form a consistent product, it is essential that the same mixture of minerals is
used every time. For this reason the exact composition of the limestone and clay is determined at this point, and other
ingredients added if necessary. The rock is also ground into fine particles to increase the efficiency of the reaction.

The dry process

The quarried clay and limestone are crushed separately until nothing bigger than a tennis ball remains. Samples of
both rocks are then sent off to the laboratory for mineral analysis. If necessary, minerals are then added to either the
clay or the limestone to ensure that the correct amounts of aluminium, iron etc. are present.

The clay and limestone are then fed together into a mill where the rock is ground until more than 85% of the material
is less than 90μm in diameter.
The wet process
The clay is mixed to a paste in a wash mill - a tank in which the clay is
pulverised in the presence of water. Crushed lime is then added and the
whole mixture further ground. Any material which is too coarse is extracted
and reground. The slurry is then tested to ensure that it contains the correct
balance of minerals, and any extra ingredients blended in as necessary.
The kiln :
• The kiln shell is steel, 60 m long and inclined at an angle of 1 in 30.

• The shell is supported on 3 roller trun ions and weighs in at over 1100 T.
• The kiln is heated by injecting pulverised coal dust into the discharge end
where it spontaneously ignites due to the very high temperatures. Coal is
injected with air into the kiln at a rate of 9 - 12 T/hr.
 Hydration of cement
• Hydration starts as soon as the cement and water are mixed.
• The rate of hydration and the heat liberated by the reaction of each
compound is different.

• Each compound produces different products when it hydrates.

• Tricalcium silicate (C3S). Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely
responsible for initial set and early strength. Portland cements with higher
percentages of C3S will exhibit higher early strength.
• Tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and hardens the quickest. Liberates a large amount
of heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added
to Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause
Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.

• Dicalcium silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for
strength increases beyond one week.

• Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF). Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength.
Its use allows lower kiln temperatures in Portland cement manufacturing. Most Portland
cement color effects are due to C4AF.
Hydration of cement
 Heat of Hydration

The reaction of cement with water is exothermic. The reaction liberates a considerable quantity of heat. This liberation
of heat is called heat of hydration. This is clearly seen if freshly mixed cement is put in a vaccum flask and the
temperature of the mass is read at intervals.

The study and control of the heat of hydration becomes important in the construction of concrete dams and other mass
concrete constructions. It has been observed that the temperature in the interior of large mass concrete is 50 °C above
the original temperature of the concrete mass at the time of placing and this high temperature is found to persist for a
prolonged period.
Heat of Hydration
 Heat of Hydration
• The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland cement react. Heat of hydration is most
influenced by the proportion of C3S and C3A in the cement, but is also influenced by water-cement ratio, fineness
and curing temperature. As each one of these factors is increased, heat of hydration increases.

• For usual range of Portland cements, about one-half of the total heat is liberated between 1 and 3 days, about

three-quarters in 7 days, and nearly 90 percent in 6 months.

• The heat of hydration depends on the chemical composition of cement.

• When cement is mixed with water, hydration , hydrolysis an gelation reaction starts and some heat is liberated

• On an average of 500 kJ/Kg of heat is evolved during complete hydration of cement

 Special Cement : White Portland Cement (or) White cement

• Is white in color due to absence of iron compounds

• Obtained by calcining the raw materials of Portland cement which are free from iron

oxide

Properties

• More expensive than ordinary Portland cement

• Acts as pore – blocking and water – repelling agent

 Special Cement: Water proof Cement (or) Hydrophobic cement

Properties

• More expensive than ordinary Portland cement

• Acts as pore – blocking and water – repelling agent

This cement obtained by adding water proofing substances like calcium stearate,

aluminium stearate and gypsum with tannic acid to ordinary Portland cement