International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2017, pp. 302–314, Article ID: IJCIET_08_10_031
Available online at http://http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=8&IType=10
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316

© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed

SUBSOIL CHARACTERIZATION USING

GEOELECTRICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL
INVESTIGATIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR
FOUNDATION STUDIES
Oyeyemi, K. D, Aizebeokhai, A. P, Adagunodo, T. A.
Department of Physics, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria

Olofinnade, O. M
Civil Engineering Department, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria

Sanuade, O. A
Department of Geophysics, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria

Olaojo, A. A
Department of Geophysics, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) has been combined with geotechnical
techniques such as cone penetrating tests, standard penetrating test and laboratory tests
for detailed characterization of near-surface strata. This approach can be very helpful
in conducting preliminary investigations towards a robust foundation design at a
building construction site. Two ERT lines were conducted for 2D geoelectrical
resistivity measurements using Wenner array configuration in combination with four
cone penetrating data. Through the inversion of ERT data, two geoelectrical layers
were interpreted to be loose silty sand and compacted clayey sand lithological units
with the resistivity values ranging 50 – 280 Ωm and 10 – 74 Ωm respectively. A water-
saturated portion with resistivity values ≤ 3 Ωm due to lagoon-water incursion was
equally observed at the base of the second clayey sand layer in ERT line T2. The average
cone penetrometer (CPT) value of about 110 kg/cm2 (11 MPa) with an average SPT ‘N’
value of 25 was measured between 6.75 – 30.0 m, indicating that the geomaterials
within this depths range are of good geotechnical properties. Laboratory tests
conducted on the representative soil samples at 3.75 m depth gives a moisture content
(MC) of 66%. This is attributed to the clay contents within the soil samples. The Liquid
Limit (WL), Plastic Limit (WP) and Plasticity Index (PI) tests of the soil samples gives
84%, 30% and 54% respectively. The results of the proposed approach, encompassing
both geophysical and geotechnical methods has helped to steer the choice of the
foundation for the investigated building towards a pile-type foundation rather than a

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 Subsoil Characterization Using Geoelectrical and Geotechnical Investigations: Implications For
Foundation Studies

shallow one. The pile foundation will cause the higher loadings to transmit the loads to
a stable soil layer within the subsurface.
Key words: Geomaterials, Electrical Resistivity Tomography, Geotechnical
Investigation, Foundation Studies.
Cite this Article: Oyeyemi, K. D, Aizebeokhai, A. P, Adagunodo, T. A, Olofinnade,
O. M, Sanuade, O. A and Olaojo, A. A, Subsoil Characterization Using Geoelectrical
and Geotechnical Investigations: Implications For Foundation Studies, International
Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 8(10), 2017, pp. 302–314.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=8&IType=10

1. INTRODUCTION
A thorough near-surface investigation and characterization prior to building construction is an
essential component of foundation design to ensure safety of human lives and properties; where
there are inadequate or inefficient subsoil characterization and soil strength determination, a
potential foundation-related failures or structural dilapidations may result. Heterogeneity and
variations in the subsurface environments necessitated detailed geological and geoengineering
investigations of a construction site in order to design effective earthworks and structural
foundations. Applications of several non-invasive geophysical techniques which provide spatial
and temporal information on the subsurface structures as well as fluid presence and its motion
are increasingly been used in near-surface characterization at engineering and geotechnical
sites over the last few decades as borehole drillings have become expensive. These techniques
include seismic reflection and refraction [1–3], seismic surface wave [4], ground penetrating
radar [5], very low frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) and EM-31 [6–7], and geoelectrical
resistivity [8–14] techniques among others. Geophysical methods are capable of precisely
mapping depth to bedrock, bedrock topography and architecture, depth to the groundwater table
as well as the lateral and vertical inhomogeneity of sub-soil properties at geotechnical sites. The
resolution of the geophysical data can provide additional insight into the subsurface geology
and the causes of foundation failures. These data can also serve as a guide to optimize siting of
borehole locations for coring and soil samples collection, which are essential in designing the
restoration intervention.
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is one of the most popular geophysical tools for
near-surface characterization. This is perhaps based on its speed of data acquisition, cost
effectiveness and proxy to the spatial and temporal variability of many other subsurface
physico-chemical properties such as soil types, porosity, moisture content, clay content and
mineralogy, soil water content, organic matter, and bulk density. Clay content for instance can
affect the soil strength, porosity and ultimately the conductivity (or resistivity) of the soil matrix
in various degrees. The ion exchange property of clay lithology forms a mobile cloud of ions
around each clay particle, which then expedite the flow of electrical current within the clay
matrix. Therefore, in fine grained soils like clay, the values of the electrical resistivity is usually
lower than expected on the basis of chemical analysis of water extracted from soil [15].
Generally, electrical resistivity tomography technique has proven to be non-destructive,
minimally invasive and has been applied to various subsurface characterization problems
involving groundwater exploration, engineering site investigations, landfill and solute transport
delineation, determination of compaction and soil horizon thickness, archaeological
prospecting, and assessment of both soil hydrological properties and foundation instability [16–
20].
Alternatively, the invasive geotechnical techniques such as cone penetrating test (CPT) and
standard penetration test (SPT) can also provide direct and precise information regarding the
soils’ resistance to penetration which is dependent on the soil strength in terms of the N-values.

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 Oyeyemi, K. D, Aizebeokhai, A. P, Adagunodo, T. A, Olofinnade, O. M, Sanuade, O. A and Olaojo,
A. A

These values are often referred to as the number of blows per 30 cm of penetration into the soil,
and based on the procedure of IS 6403 code [21], they can be used to estimate the bearing
capacity of soils. The geotechnical dataset from CPT and SPT are principally essential for
subsurface soil characterization and foundation studies when they are integrated with the
borehole data and laboratory tests of soil properties (e.g. grain size distribution, degree of
saturation and permeability) [7]. The aim of this research work is:
• To characterize the subsoil lithologies at a building construction site using geoelectrical
resistivity imaging;
• To conduct geotechnical analyses of subsurface geomaterials using in-situ
• Borehole measurements, laboratory, cone penetrating, and standard penetrating tests;
• To integrate together the evidences of both methods in order to propose a more
• Suitable foundation type in the study area.

2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Site Description
The construction site of study is situated within the Unity Estate (Lat. 6°30′ N and Long. 3°37′
E), Ajah Lagos-island, south-western Nigeria. This part of Lagos is an area of land around the
inlet of the sea into the extensive Lagos harbour lagoon system, and is generally low lying with
several points virtually at sea level making them prone to flooding. Two principal climatic
seasons characterized the Lagos-island, a dry season from November to March and a wet (or
raining) season which starts in April and ends in October with a short break in mid-August.
Occasional rainfalls are often witnessed within the dry season due to the proximity of this area
to the Atlantic Ocean. The mean annual precipitation is above 1800 mm and serves as a major
source of groundwater recharge.
Lagos-island is situated within the eastern part of the Dahomey Basin, southwestern Nigeria
(Fig. 1). This basin is a combination of inland, coastal and offshore basins that stretches along
the continental margin of the Gulf of Guinea. Five geomorphological sub-units were recognized
within the coastal landscape [22] and they are (i) abandoned beach ridge complex, (ii) coastal
creeks and lagoons, (iii) swamp flats, (iv) forested river floodplain, and (v) active barrier beach
complex. Stratigraphically, the Dahomey Basin has been categorized into Abeokuta Group,
Ilaro Formation, Coastal Plain Sands and Recent Alluvium sediments [23]. Cretaceous
sequence of Abeokuta Group consists of Ise, Afowo and Araromi Formations [24]. Ise
Formation is the oldest and consists of conglomeratic sandstones at base, which in turn is
overlain by coarse-medium sands with interbedded kaolinite. The next is Afowo Formation,
predominantly coarse-medium sandstones with variable but thick interbedded shales, siltstones
and claystone.
Overlying the Afowo Formation is the Araromi Formation, which has been reported to be
the youngest Cretaceous sediment in the entire eastern Dahomey basin [24]. Araromi Formation
is composed of fine to medium grained sandstone overlain by shales, siltstone with interbedded
limestone, marl and lignite lithological units. The next is Ewekoro which is an extensive
limestone rock type. Akinbo Formation underlies the Ewekoro Formation and is made up of
shale and clayey lithologic sequence [25]. Overlying the Akinbo Formation is Oshosun
Formation which consists of greenish – grey or beige clay and shale with interbeds of
sandstones.
The Ilaro Formation overlies conformably the Oshosun Formation and consists of massive,
yellowish poorly, consolidated, cross-bedded sandstones. The Quaternary sequence within the

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 Subsoil Characterization Using Geoelectrical and Geotechnical Investigations: Implications For
Foundation Studies

eastern Dahomey basin are the Benin Formation (Miocene-Recent), Lagoon/Coastal Plain Sand
deposits and the recent littoral alluvium [26–27]; the lithoral alluvium consists of poorly sorted
sands with lenses of clays. The sands from Oligocene to Recent are in parts cross bedded and
show transitional to continental characteristics. The local geology as revealed by the
lithostratigraphic information from boreholes in and around Lekki-Ikoyi area is a typical
stratigraphic cross-section of unconsolidated dry and wet sands, and organic clay deposit. The
deposits are sometimes interbedded in places with sandy-clay or clayey-sand and mud with
occasional varying proportion of vegetable remains and peat. The environment of deposition of
these sediments has been suggested to be near-shore littoral and lagoonal [27].

Figure 1 Geological map of the Nigerian part of the Dahomey embayment with an inset map of
Nigeria showing the location of study (modified after [28]).

Figure 2 The basemap for data acquisitions.

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 Oyeyemi, K. D, Aizebeokhai, A. P, Adagunodo, T. A, Olofinnade, O. M, Sanuade, O. A and Olaojo,
A. A

2.2. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

The location of geophysical and geotechnical surveys is presented in Fig. 2. Two-dimensional
ERT investigations were conducted using an ABEM Terameter (SAS 1000/4000 series) along
the two main survey traverses (T1 and T2 in Fig. 2). The ERT lines, NW-SE directed have a
length of 150 m each and were acquired using a Wenner array with minimum and maximum
electrode spacing of 5.0 m and 45.0 m respectively, resulting in 9 depth levels. A total number
of 288 data points (apparent resistivity) were acquired using a cycle of four stacks for each
quadrupole and a maximum threshold of 0.2% for the observed root mean square error. The
observed apparent resistivity data were processed and inverted using RES2DINV code,
employing a least squares inversion modelling technique with regularization technique [29].

2.3. Cone Penetrometer, SPT and Boring

The estimation of the physical and mechanical properties of the subsoil was conducted using
the code of practice for site investigation (BS 5930) [30]. Four Nos. Dutch cone penetrometer
test (CPT) denoted as CPT1, CPT2, CPT3 and CPT4 were acquired using a 2500 kg capacity
penetrometer machine. High resistance to further subsoil penetration limited the CPT tests to
terminate at depths ranging from 8.0 m to about 11.0 m. Standard penetration tests (SPT) were
equally carried out at every 1.50 m intervals to determine the relative densities in both cohesive
and non-cohesive strata. The tests were performed by driven a split spoon sampler of 5 cm
diameter through the cohesionless strata and obtained the number of blows (N-values)
producing the last 30 cm of penetration in connection with an overall 45 cm penetration test by
a 63.5kg hammer having a free fall through 76 cm. The required number of blows (N-value) to
effect the last 30 cm penetration provide an indication on the relative density of the stratum
tested. One No. shell and auger borehole designated as BH1 was also drilled up to the depth of
30 meters using a Dando percussion boring rig. In the course of boring, disturbed samples were
collected at depths of 0.75 m intervals and also at every obvious change of strata or convenient
intervals for strata identification purposes through visual inspection and classification tests.

2.4. Laboratory Testing

Moisture contents and other testing such as sieve analysis and Atterberg limits were carried out
in accordance with procedures specified in the BS specification method of testing soils for civil
engineering purposes (BS 1377) [31]. Samples recovered from the borehole were carefully
preserved and subjected to more detailed visual inspection. Representative samples were then
selected from each stratum and subjected to classification tests for purposes of strata
identification and classification. The moisture content of selected representative soil samples
from each stratum were determined by finding the ratio of the weight of water in the soil sample
to the dry weight of the soil sample. The moisture content is expressed in percentage.
Sieve analysis was carried out on representative soil samples to determine the particle size
distribution of the soil. The samples having an approximate weight of 500 g was washed using
No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) to separate the silt, clay and sand based on grain sizes. The retained
fraction on the sieve was then dried and subjected to sieving procedures by mechanical method
using automatic sieve shaker and sieving, retained sample in each sieve is weighed. The
consistency of the soil specimens with particle size less than 0.425 mm are determined by the
Atterberg limit tests. These test indicate the plastic state of the representative soil samples in
terms of the liquid limit (WL), plastic limit (PL) and plasticity index (PI) of fine-grained soil
expressed as water content in percent. Reference standard used was BS 5930 [30].

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 Subsoil Characterization Using Geoelectrical and Geotechnical Investigations: Implications For
Foundation Studies

3. RESULTS
The subsurface characterization using geoelectrical resistivity depends on several factors such
as soil water content, grain size distribution, void ratio, porosity, permeability and density. For
instance, low soil water content in soil with high air filled void will result in high geoelectrical
resistivity. The soil porosity will equally decrease in a lithology with finer grain size, thereby
increasing the resistivity values. Also, air filled void soil type will have higher geoelectrical
resistivity values contrary to a water filled void soil type. In fine grained subsoil materials such
as clay, where soil water content is higher, the observed geoelectrical resistivity is usually low.
The inverted resistivity models of the T1 and T2 ERT lines revealed the presence of two
distinct geoelectrical layers across both traverses (Figs. 3 and 4); topsoil which is largely
composed of loose silty sand unit with apparent resistivity values ranging from 50 to 280 Ωm ,
this is underlain by the second layer of compacted wet sand units with clay intercalations (10 –
74 Ωm ). The extremely low geoelectrical resistivity values ( ≤ 3 Ωm ) observed at the base of the
traverse T2 is suspected to be the water incursions into the clayey sand unit from lagoon due to
the location of the study area within the Lagos-island. The top loose silty sand layer with a
consistent thickness of about 14.2 meters across both traverses, appears to be the materials used
in sand-filling the area prior to building construction of the estate. This layer overlies
conformably a clayey sand layer at the base. The results of the ERT and the evaluated
geoelectrical layers are in line with that of other researchers [32–33].
The subsoil conditions as shown in borehole log (Table 1) revealed the near surface soil to
be loose brown silty fine-medium grained sand with occasional fine gravel in places, underlain
by organic silty sandy clay. Beneath the weak layer is medium dense coarse-medium fine
grained sand with fine gravel in places to depth of boring of 30 m. The site investigation reveal
that the soil deposit in the study area is predominantly cohesionless soil and the results from
the SPT ‘N’ value coupled with the CPT result are significant in determining the relative
strength of the strata. Table 2 presented the approximate relationship between the relative
density, average SPT ‘N’ value, average Cone penetrometer (CPT) results and angle of internal
friction ( φ ο ) according to Meyerhof [34]. It clearly indicates that the near surface soil materials
are of loose relative density, soft consistency and high compressibility potential. It also shows
that very limited magnitude of structural loading can be supported by the near surface in-situ
soil materials. The results of the SPT ‘N’ value and CPT confirm that the near surface
geomaterials within 0-6 metres have poor geotechnical properties with low shear strength and
high compressibility potential. Average Cone penetrometer (CPT) value gives about 30 kg/cm2
(3 MPa) with an average SPT ‘N’ value of 5. This connotes that the geomaterials closer to the
surface above 6.75 m are poor in terms of geotechnical properties and may not be able to support
building foundations efficiently. However, the soil materials underlying this weak near-surface
stratum to depth of boring of 30 m is of medium relative density and shear strength. The soil
material has a low compressibility potential. Average Cone penetrometer (CPT) value gives
about 110 kg/cm2 (11 MPa) with an average SPT ‘N’ value of 25 from 6.75 metres to about
30.0 metres. This is an indication that the soil material within these depths (6.75 m) are of good
geotechnical properties.

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Oyeyemi, K. D, Aizebeokhai, A. P, Adagunodo, T. A, Olofinnade, O. M, Sanuade, O. A and Olaojo,
A. A

Figure 3 Inverse resistivity model of the ERT line T1

Figure 4 Inverse resistivity model of the ERT line T2

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 Subsoil Characterization Using Geoelectrical and Geotechnical Investigations: Implications For
Foundation Studies

Table 1 Soil Borehole Log showing the Stratification/ Description of the Subsoil Encountered
*Average Ranges of
Zon Legend Depth Soil Description SPT (N) CPT Value
e (m) value qc(Kgf/sq.cm
)
1 0 -2.25 Loose, brown silty fine-medium grained
sand with occassional fine gravels 5 5 – 60

2 2.25 - Soft, dark grey silty clay 2 5 – 45

6.75

3 6.75 - Medium dense to dense, grey sand (fmc) 25 60 – 145

30.0 with clay in places

Water Table – 1.50 m.

SPT (N) is the blow count value for 300 mm penetration after initial seating drive of 150 mm.

3. DISCUSSION
Integrating both geoelectrical and geotechnical results for subsoil characterization revealed the
presence of a competent layer inform of compacted clayey sand unit down to the depth of about
20 meters. Also the delineated clay units in the study area are suspected to be non-expansive
type, they are not prone to anomalous dilatation (volume changes) through swelling and
shrinking; therefore, they may not compromise the integrity of building foundations in the area.
Furthermore, the boring log and penetrometer plots show that the near surface soil consists
approximately 2 m thick of loose silty sand. Underlying this near surface silty sand stratum is
a formation of soft silty clay down to depth of about 7 m. The loose relative density/soft
consistency and high compressibility potential of the near surface soil materials coupled with
the high groundwater table encountered at about 1.50 m below ground surface indicate that
limited magnitude of structural loading from the proposed building can be supported by the
near surface in-situ soil materials using conventional near surface shallow foundation such as
rafts so as to allow for foundation settlement to be within the tolerable acceptable limit. It is
however suggested that where higher loadings are expected to be exerted on the soil from the
proposed building, then it will be necessary to avoid the weak material stratum of soft clay by
employing pile foundation to transmit the building load to the underlying medium dense sand
stratum.
Thus the above findings have further demonstrated that conducting geophysical
investigations before boring and other geotechnical methods can serve as good prospects in
subsoil characterization for foundation design. Combining geophysical methods such as ERT
with geotechnical techniques will assist and improve the confidence levels of engineers in
making decisions regarding the suitable foundation type for building construction. Also,
acquisitions of geophysical data like electrical resistivity tomography will help guiding the
engineers in designing restoration interventions where necessary by optimizing borehole
locations for coring and collection of soil samples purposes. ERT is a robust, cost effective and
non-destructive geophysical technique that can be conducted using several array such as
Wenner, Wenner-Schlumberger and Dipole-Dipole array configurations for better vertical and

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 Oyeyemi, K. D, Aizebeokhai, A. P, Adagunodo, T. A, Olofinnade, O. M, Sanuade, O. A and Olaojo,
A. A

lateral subsurface resolutions without compromising their depth of investigation (DOI). This
technique produces two dimensional subsurface imaging to predict and characterize the subsoil
materials, which will enable the engineers to obtain more data economically. Electrical
resistivity tomography is therefore recommended as a preliminary geophysical technique in
geotechnical engineering because it is non-invasive and eliminates any form of site near –
surface damageability, thereby contributing significantly to the sustainable green environment
in construction industry.

Table 2 Approximate Relationship between Relative Density, SPT, CPT and ° for In-Situ Soil
(Meyerhof, 1965)
Average Average
Zon Legend Depth Soil SPT (N) CPT Relative ∅°
e (m) State value Value Density
qc(MPa)
1
0-2.25 Loose 5 3.24 0.2 30

2 2.25 - Loose 2 2.45 < 0.2 30

6.75

3 6.75 - Medium 25 10.10 0.5 35

30.0 Dense

Table 3 Summary of Laboratory Test Results

Sample Depth Natural Atterberg Grading Analysis Sample Remarks
No. (m) Moisture Limits (% Passing) Description
Content
(%) WL WP PI 3.35 2.0 425 300 600 75
mm mm µm µm µm µm
Non-
BH1/3 1.50 11.5 100 99 87 77 65 1 Sand plastic
Organic
BH1/5 3.75 66.0 84 30 54 Clay Plastic
Silty Non-
BH1/7 5.25 23.0 100 99 93 86 75 17 sand plastic
Non-
BH1/13 9.75 15.0 100 99 93 86 77 5 Sand (fmc) plastic
Non-
BH1/18 13.50 15.8 100 99 91 86 75 0 Sand (fmc) plastic
Non-
BH1/24 18.00 13.5 100 99 91 86 76 0 Sand (fmc) plastic
Non-
BH1/32 24.00 14.0 96 74 36 28 23 0 Sand (fmc) plastic
Non-
BH1/38 28.50 14.3 95 75 32 24 18 0 Sand (fmc) plastic
Non-
BH1/39 29.50 14.0 95 73 32 24 19 0 Sand (fmc) plastic
Non-
BH1/41 30.00 15.6 96 77 35 28 25 0 Sand (fmc) plastic
WL: Liquid Limit, WP: Plastic Limit, P.I: Plasticity Index

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 Subsoil Characterization Using Geoelectrical and Geotechnical Investigations: Implications For
Foundation Studies

Table 4 Summary of Particle Size Distribution and Soil Grained Classification

Uniformity
Grading Analysis Coefficient of USCS
Coefficient
(% Passing) Curvature (Cc) Classification
Sample Depth (Cu)
No. (m)
3.35 2.0 425 300 600 75
mm mm µm µm µm µm

BH1/3 1.50 100 99 87 77 65 1 2.50 1.16 SP

BH1/7 5.25 100 99 93 86 75 17 SM

BH1/13 9.75 100 99 93 86 77 5 2.75 1.11 SP

BH1/18 13.50 100 99 91 86 75 0 1.71 1.07 SP

BH1/24 18.00 100 99 91 86 76 0 2.30 1.41 SP

BH1/32 24.00 96 74 36 28 23 0 8.42 1.00 SW

BH1/38 28.50 95 75 32 24 18 0 7.50 1.00 SW

BH1/41 30.00 96 77 35 28 25 0 7.50 1.05 SW

USCS – Unified Soil Classification System
SP: Poorly Graded Sand, SW: Well Graded Sand, SM: Silty Sand

4. CONCLUSION
Investigation with a view to understand the near surface geoengineering characteristics for
foundations studies and other building construction projects was done using integrated
electrical resistivity tomography and geotechnical studies. Two main lithologies including loose
silty sand and clayey sand units were delineated based on their geoelectrical and geotechnical
properties. Relatively low cone penetrating test (CPT) and standard penetrating tests (SPT)
values of the strata above 6.75 m render them not suitable for foundation design. The soil
stratigraphy encountered on the test site using ASTM [35] revealed a near surface of loose silty
sand to a depth of 2.25 m underlain by soft silty clay to a depth of 6.75 m below the existing
ground level. Underlying this stratum of soft silty clay to depth of boring of 30 m occur medium
dense sand becoming dense sand at depth. The subsoil conditions revealed within the
investigated area is predominantly cohesionless soil materials, except for the 4.5 m thick of
plastic silty clay layer encountered. In view of the medium compressibility of the near surface
soil material, the use of raft foundation can be used to support some magnitude of load from
the proposed building. However, loading the near surface soil will result in consolidation
settlement of the plastic clay layer and this should be taking into consideration during the design
and construction stages. The choice of deep seated foundation such as pile foundation is
considered a better alternative to shallow foundation for proposed buildings in the investigated
area where higher loadings are anticipated to transmit the loads to a stable soil layer.

AKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to express their appreciations to the two reviewers and the editor for their
efforts and their valuable comments that have improved this paper. A lot of thanks due to
Covenant University centre for research innovation and development (CUCRID) for sponsoring
this research.

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Oyeyemi, K. D, Aizebeokhai, A. P, Adagunodo, T. A, Olofinnade, O. M, Sanuade, O. A and Olaojo,
A. A

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