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Characteristics of Soils for Civil Engineering Foundations in Part of North

Central Nigeria, Using Electrical Resistivity Method

Article in Nigerian Journal of Technological Development · June 2023

DOI: 10.4314/njtd.v18i4.1261

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23 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 20, NO.2, JUNE 2023

Characteristics of Soils for Civil Engineering

Foundations in Part of North Central Nigeria, Using
Electrical Resistivity Method
O. S. Ayanninuola1*, U. D. Msughter1, C. O. Ofoegbu1, E. D. Uko2
1
Department of Physics, Nasarawa State University, Keffi
2
Department of Physics, River State University, Port Harcourt

ABSTRACT: A geophysical investigation was carried out using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) in part of North
Central Nigeria to evaluate the subsoil thickness, competence, and corrosivity for civil engineering foundations. A
total of 60 VES stations were covered within the study area using the Schlumberger configuration array with half
current electrode separation (AB/2) varying from 1m to a maximum of 100m while the half potential electrode spacing
(MN/2) varied by 0.3 m to a maximum of 5m. The analysis of data was done using IP2win and Surfer 12 softwares.
The first layer has resistivity values between 4.728 Ωm to 4210 Ωm and varied in thickness between 0.15 m to 1.42
m, the second layer has resistivity values between 24.7Ωm to 355000 Ωm and varied in thickness between 0.0355 m
to 8.983 m while the third layer has resistivity values ranging between 8.361 Ωm to151,608 Ωm and varied in thickness
between 1.05 m to 34.2 m, the fourth layer which is the last of the geoelectric layers has resistivity values between
27.95 m to 77000 m. The subsoil within the study area is composed of clay, sandy clay, clayey sand, sand, and laterite.
From the qualitative interpretation of the Isoresistivity and Isopach maps, the Southwestern, Southeastern and
Northwestern parts of the study area are moderately corrosive to extremely corrosive subsoil with resistivity values
ranging between 4.728 Ωm and 50.48 Ωm. The third layer consists of an incompetent low resistivity soft material that
underlain the entire study area except at the central region which is essentially noncorrosive and highly competent.
VES curves interpretations revealed the thickness and depths of the geoelectric layers within the study area. The results
of this research could enable civil engineers to ascertain the requisite depth of soil evacuation for the sustainability of
structures within the study area.

KEYWORDS: Corrosivity, clay, foundation, lithology, resistivity, and, soil competence

[Received Nov. 24, 2021; Revised May 15, 2022; Accepted May 26, 2022] Print ISSN: 0189-9546 | Online ISSN: 2437-2110

I. INTRODUCTION al., 2006, Bayowa and Olayiwola 2015). Topsoil thickness is

also vital in foundation design. The electrical resistivity
The alarming rate of failures or the collapse of civil method involves the measurement of the apparent resistivity of
engineering structures in Nigeria cannot just be attributed to soils and rock as a function of depth or position which helps to
the general perception of poor quality of building materials and determine resistivity distributoin of the sounding soil volume.
inadequate foundation designs, but can also be due to It is in view of this that the Electrical Resistivity (ER) method
inadequate knowledge of the soils (Ofomola et al., 2018, is adopted to measure the resistivity and hence the competence
Fadele et al., 2012, Coker et al., 2013, 2010; Ayolabi et al., and corrosivity of the soil within the study area.
2010, Fajana et al., 2016, Olorode et al., 2016). All civil
engineering structures are seated on the earth’s geological II. STUDY AREA AND ITS GEOLOGY AND SOIL
materials, therefore the knowledge of the soils is very The study area is located within the Basement Complex
fundamental in foundation planning and management (Bayowa of the North Central Nigeria which is part of the Middle Benue
and Olayiwola, 2015, Ofomola et al., 2018, Adewuyi and Trough. It lies within latitude 8033'30''N to 8035'01''N and
Philips, 2018, Ologo and Augie, 2007). longitude 7043'30''E to 7044'03''E (Figure 1). The Basement-
Soil competence evaluation provides useful information Cretaceous Basin consists of faulted contacts which are evident
about the ability of the soil to withstand stress and strain that on the magnetic map over the Benue Trough (Ofoegbu, 1986).
may emanate from the weight of the engineering structures The Benue Trough originated as the failed arm of an
(Ofomola et al., 2018, Idornigie et al., 2006, Ayolabi et al., Aulacogen during the separation of the African plate from the
2010). There are several factors that determine the competence South American plate and consists of three major parts; the
of soils. These factors include; mineralogy, resistivity, soil Upper Benue Trough, Middle Benue Trough, and the Lower
particle contact, and the agent of the weathering (Idornigie et Benue Trough (Ofoegbu, 2019). The Basement Complex rocks

*Corresponding author: ayanninuola@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njtd.v18i4.1261

24 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 20, NO.2,JUNE 2023

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing the Study Area and the VES Stations
III. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
within the area are; magmatite, granulitic gneisses, and the A. The Schlumberger Array and the Geometric Factor
older granites with minor traces of pegmatite and quartz The Schlumberger array, as shown in Figure 3, consists of
(Ayanninuola et al., 2018; Anudu et al., 2012; Rowland and two current electrodes and two potential electrodes. The
Nur 2019, Ofoegbu, 1986 and Ofoegbu, 2019; Abidemi et al., current electrodes are the outer electrodes (A and B) while the
2022). Figure1 outlines the arrangement of the VES stations potential electrodes are the middle electrodes (M and N). The
within the study area. Within the study area 75%, of the separation between the potential electrodes is very small,
landmass consists of Biotite Gneiss while the remaining 25% usually less than one-fifth of the current electrode separation.
is mainly the granite Gneiss. The Biotite Gneiss covered the The apparent resistivity for the Schlumberger array can be
entire Eastern and Northern region of the study area running determined by using Eqn. (4) which was deduced of Ohms law
through the North-East and South-East regions of the study from the first principle:
area with the Granite Gneiss covering only the South-West
region as shown in Figure 2. The near-surface soils and rocks V  I −  I (1)
consist, predominantly, of sandstones intercalated with = =
calcareous shale, claystone, laterite, and volcanic rocks  r q 2 r 2
(Clifford et al., 2018; Akpan et al., 2020).

Figure 2: Geologic Map of the Study Area

AYANNINUOLA et al: CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING FOUNDATIONS IN PART OF NORTH 25

The potential difference:  V = P1 − P2 Table 2: Soil Competence Rating

Apparent resistivity (Ωm)
I   1 1   1 1 
Lithology Competence
V =  −  −  −  = I  G
<100 Clay Incompetent
2   r1 r2   r3 r4 
(2) 100 – 350 Sandy clay Moderately competent
350 - 750 Clayey sand Competent
>750 Sand/Laterite/bedrock Highly competent

1  1 1   1 1 
G=  −  −  −  (3) IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2  r1 r2   r3 r4 
A. Data Acquisition
where G = Geometric factor, and conversely the apparent This research was carried out using the Electrical
Resistivity (ER) method for the field data acquisition. The
resistivity a is given as:
method involves the measurement of apparent resistivity along
V 1
a = (4) the earth’s surface using Eqn.4. The Vertical Electrical
I G Sounding field procedure was employed to investigate the
The soil resistivity guidelines (Bayowa and Olayiwola, variation of electrical resistivity of the soil with depth using the
2015; Zoran et al., 2015; Ofomola et al., 2018) on thickness, Schlumberger electrode array. A total of 60 VES stations
competence, and corrosivity for interpreting and classifying arranged along 5 West-East transverses were planned and
soils are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The composition of the pegged within the study area (Figure 1). The spacing between
soil varies from place to place. Corrosive soils are aggressive each VES station was 100m while the spacing between the
to concrete and the effect most times is intensive. It is therefore transverses was between 80 m – 100 m depending on the
necessary to take into consideration the corrosivity of the soil terrain. From the data acquired on the field, the values of the
when designing the building as well as climate factors that apparent resistivity were plotted against the AB/2 values on the
influence soil corrosion such as; water content in pores and rate bi-log graph for each VES station. Preliminary interpretation
of precipitation and chloride contamination (Falowo and of the data was carried out based on the Partial Curve Matching
Otuaga, 2020; Miguel et al., 2019).

Figure 3: Schlumberger Electrode Configuration Array Setup

approach and based on the preliminary interpretations, the
initial parameters (numbers of layers) of the soil at each VES
Table 1: Soil Corrosivity Rating based on Resistivity Values
Setup Soil resistivity Corrosivity Rating
station within the study area were determined.
(Ωm) A more detailed graphical analysis of the VES curves
> 200 Essentially non-corrosive (plotted on bi-log graphs) was done using IP2Win software to
100 -200 Mildly corrosive obtain the thickness, depth, and resistivity values of the
50 - 100 Moderately corrosive
different layers. The layer thickness and resistivity values were
30 - 50 Corrosive
10 - 30 Highly corrosive then analyzed using Surfer 12 software to generate Isopach and
<10 Extremely corrosive isoresistivity maps. The maps were used to categorize the soil
within the study area into different soil competence and
26 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 20, NO.2,JUNE 2023

Corrosivity zones, which will serve as an important tool for the B. Discussion
designs and maintenance of foundation within the study area. The data analysis was done using IP2win to obtain the
resistivity, thickness, and depths of the study area while the
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION layer thickness and resistivity values were then analyzed using
A. Result Surfer 12 software to generate Isopach and isoresistivity maps.
A total of 60 VES stations were occupied within the study The curve types that are identified within the study area are:
area. The results from the 60 VES stations are tabulated in six KH, KQ, QH, QQ, HK, K, and H-Types which are an
tables, each containing the results from 10 VES stations. The indication of lithology variations within the study area. The
thickness of the first layer was qualitatively analyzed to obtain area is mostly underlain by four geoelectric layers of various
an Isopach map (Figure 7) and the resistivity values of the top lithologies with a few cases of three layers at about eight VES
layer were also analyzed graphically using Surfer 12 software Stations.
to obtain the Isoresistivity map (Figure 8) for the first layer. The first layer has resistivity values ranging from 4.728 Ωm to
The thickness of all the four geolectric layers were collectively 4210 Ωm with variations in thickness from one VES station to
analyzed using Surfer 12 software to obtain the contour map another within the study area (Jatau et al., 2017).
for the depth to basement within the study area (Figure 9).

Table 3: VES Curves Results for VES Stations 1-10

VES Layers Resistivity Thickness Depth Probable Corrosivity Curve
Station Ωm (m) (m) Lithology Status Type
VES 1 1 459 1.42 1.42 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 1660 1.12 2.55 Sand Essentially non corrosive KH
3 116 24.7 27.2 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 21,273 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 2 1 278 0.721 0.721 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 641 3.82 4.54 Clayey sand Essentially non corrosive KH
3 130 27.8 32.30 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 27,812 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 3 1 349 0.34 0.34 Sandy clay Essentially non corrosive
2 5,137 0.759 1.1 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 30.4 3.61 4.7 Clay Highly corrosive
4 1.2E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 4 1 12.15 0.45 0.45 Clay Highly corrosive
2 31,669 0.57 1.02 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive K
3 116.6 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
VES 5 1 201.1 1.145 1.145 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 1707 0.8739 2.019 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 85.76 2.541 4.56 Clay Moderately corrosive
4 396,966 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 6 1 272 0.593 0.593 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 1380 1.36 1.95 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 115 34.2 36.2 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 12,801 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 7 1 466 0.32 0.32 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 4746 0.609 0.929 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 146 17.6 18.6 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 57,811 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 8 1 470 0.323 0.323 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 4707 0.613 0.936 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 146 17.7 18.6 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 66,636 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 9 1 531 0.323 0.323 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 23,958 0.613 0.936 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1035 17.7 18.6 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 1.4E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 10 1 292.5 1.046 1.046 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 1666 0.8811 1.927 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 87.39 1.215 3.142 Clay Moderately corrosive
4 972.4 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
AYANNINUOLA et al: CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING FOUNDATIONS IN PART OF NORTH 27

Table 4: VES Curves Results for VES Stations 11-20

VES Layers Resistivity Thickness Depth Probable Corrosivity Status Curve

Station (Ωm) (m) (m) Lithology Type
VES 11 1 296 1.177 1.177 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 1159 2.167 3.343 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 110.5 18.92 22.26 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 88,905 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 1 2 1 27.25 0.4744 0.4744 Clay Highly corrosive
2 7563 4.823 5.298 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive K
3 8.361 Clay Extremely corrosive
VES 13 1 1000 0.55 0.55 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 173 3.06 3.61 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive QH
3 38.7 8.29 11.9 Clay Corrosive
4 16,975 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 14 1 4210 0.149 0.149 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 63.4 1.22 1.37 Clay Moderately corrosive QH
3 8.55 1.35 2.72 Clay Extremely corrosive
4 175 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
VES 15 1 50.48 0.7794 0.7794 Clay Moderately corrosive
2 25.68 2.324 3.103 Clay Highly corrosive HK
3 18,764 12.84 15.94 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
4 164.2 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
VES 16 1 4.728 0.2844 0.2844 Clay Extremely corrosive
2 1073 0.3467 0.6311 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 13.21 2.685 3.316 Clay Highly corrosive
4 846.8 Sand Essentially noncorrrosive
VES 17 1 581.5 0.7637 0.7637 Clayey Essentially noncorrosive
sand
2 287.2 6.686 7.45 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive QH
3 55.29 6.54 13.99 Clay Moderately corrosive
4 126,363 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 18 1 345.1 0.4764 0.4764 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 228.9 2.054 2.53 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive QQ
3 152 8.776 11.31 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 27.95 Clay Highly corrosive
VES 19 1 753 0.397 0.397 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 20,245 0.578 0.975 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KQ
3 1792 7.99 8.97 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 545 Clayey Essentially noncorrosive
sand
VES 20 1 476 0.292 0.292 Clayey Essentially noncorrosive
sand
2 32,469 0.466 0.768 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1014 26 26.8 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 3.0x105 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive

Based on the Isopach, map the first layer thickness varied these VES stations are a potential threat to concretes and steel
between 0.15 m to 1.42 m with a lithology that constitutes iron.
predominantly of clayey sand, sandy clay and a little mixture The third layer which varied in thickness between 1.05 m
of sand at VES points 1, 13, 14, 19, and 30. This layer is to 34.2 m has resistivity values ranging from 8.361 Ωm to
basically competent and noncorrosive except at about 17 VES 151,608 Ωm. The depth of the third layer as deduced from the
stations located mostly within the third, fourth, and fifth results varied between 1.3 m to 36.3 m with a lithology which
transverses in the Southeastern, Northwestern, and constitutes predominantly of sandy clay and clay with a little
Southwestern parts of the study area. Based on the mixture of clayey sand and laterite. The third layer is
Isoresistivity map these regions are the corrosive zones within characterized by low resistivity values except at the central
the study area. region of the study area which is an indication that the third
The second layer has resistivity values ranging from 24.7 layer is made of a soft material that is incompetent with
Ωm to 3.5 x 105 Ωm with its thickness varying from one VES corrosivity status ranging from “mildly corrosive” to
station to another between 0.0355 m to 8.983 m. The depth of “extremely corrosive”. However, there are few VES stations
the second layer as deduced from the results varied between within the central part of the study area with very high
0.39 m to 11.2 m with a lithology that constitutes majorly of resistivity values in the third layer. Along the first transverse,
laterite, sand and clayey sand with little mix up of sandy clay VES stations 9 and 12 have high resistivity values and in the
and clay at VES stations 14, 15, 25, 37 and 38. The second second transverse VES stations 19, 20 and 21 also have very
layer is highly competent and essentially non corrosive except high resistivity values in all the four layers. At the third and
at VES stations (14, 15, 25, 37 and 38) which are characterized fourth transverses, VES stations; 31, 32, 33, 35, 42, 43, 44, 45,
by low resistivity values within the second layer. The soils at 46 and 47 are characterized by high resistivity values in the
third layer which is an indication that the third layer at these
28 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 20, NO.2,JUNE 2023

Table 5: VES Curves Results for VES Stations 21-30

VES Layers Resistivity Thickness Depth Probable Corrosivity Status Curve
Station Ωm (m) (m) Lithology Type
VES 21 1 587 0.288 0.288 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 36,538 0.466 0.754 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1018 26.2 26.9 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 4.6 x105 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 22 1 146 0.273 0.273 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
2 4478 0.458 0.732 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 103 1.38 2.11 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 2822 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
VES 23 1 147 0.228 0.228 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
2 742 2.93 3.15 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 94.7 16.1 19.2 Clay Moderately corrosive
4 1.0x105 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 24 1 35.9 0.587 0.587 Clay Corrosive
2 50,348 0.664 1.25 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive K
3 223 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
VES 25 1 117 0.659 0.695 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
2 52.6 3.15 3.85 Clay Moderately corrosive QH
3 19 3.61 7.46 Clay Highly corrosive
4 33,811 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 26 1 6.67 0.275 0.275 Clay Extremely corrosive
2 593 0.403 0.677 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 9.23 1.88 2.56 Clay Extremely corrosive
4 26,834 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 27 1 17.4 0.355 0.355 Clay Highly corrosive
2 3.5x105 0.0355 0.39 Rock Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 197 4.32 4.71 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 7361 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
VES 28 1 388 0.32 0.32 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 9012 0.647 0.966 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KQ
3 179 8.62 9.59 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 53.6 Clay Moderately corrosive
VES 29 1 7.061 0.3471 0.3471 Clay Extremely corrosive
2 478 0.4335 0.7806 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 21.05 2.913 3.694 Clay Highly corrosive
4 68,116 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
VES 30 1 3152 0.206 0.206 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 299 2.04 2.24 Sandy clay Essentially corrosive QQ
3 173 6.2 8.45 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 61.2 Clay Moderately corrosive

Figure 3: A Typical KH-Type VES Curve

AYANNINUOLA et al: CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING FOUNDATIONS IN PART OF NORTH 29

Table 6: VES Curves Results for VES Stations 31-40

VES Layers Resistivity Thickness Depth Probable Corrosivity Status Curve
Station Ωm (m) (m) Lithology Type
VES 31 1 743 0.332 0.332 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 37,750 0.503 0.835 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1128 24.4 25.2 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 1.8E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 32 1 719.39 0.3144 0.3144 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 37,171 0.4690 0.7834 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1186 27.562 28.345 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 182,334 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 33 1 771 0.432 0.432 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 25,185 0.664 1.1 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 640 23.3 24.4 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 1.2E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 34 1 376 0.722 0.722 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 2457 0.75 1.47 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 122 1.14 2.61 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 1540 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
VES 35 1 264 0.291 0.291 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 5393 0.439 0.73 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KQ
3 282 5.1 5.83 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
4 54.6 Clay Moderately corrosive
VES 36 1 28.7 0.683 0.683 Clay Highly corrosive
2 44,358 0.824 1.51 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive K
3 23.7 Clay Highly corrosive
VES 37 1 220 0.753 0.753 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 24.7 7.59 8.35 Clay Highly corrosive H
3 44,151 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
VES 38 1 173.1 0.5319 0.5319 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
2 72.33 1.812 2.344 Clay Moderately corrosive QH
3 20.44 2.171 4.516 Clay Highly corrosive
4 29,505 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 39 1 184 0.316 0.316 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
2 2188 0.451 0.767 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 70.4 1.41 2.18 Clay Moderately corrosive
4 13228 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 40 1 14.5 0.324 0.324 Clay Highly corrosive
2 56,803 0.277 0.601 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 138 6.18 6.78 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 73,364 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive

Figure 4: A Typical K-Type VES Curve

30 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 20, NO.2,JUNE 2023

Table 7: VES Curves Results for VES Stations 41-50

VES Layer Resistivity Thickness Depth Probable Corrosivity Status Curve
Station s (Ωm) (m) (m) Lithology Type
VES 41 1 5.86 0.329 0.329 Clay Extremely corrosive
2 1077 0.464 0.792 Sand Essentially non corrosive KH
3 12.1 3.36 4.15 Clay Highly corrosive
4 14,743 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 42 1 383 0.273 0.273 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 6538 0.362 0.635 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 261 14.1 14.8 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
4 2.9E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 43 1 687 0.308 0.308 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 41,817 0.445 0.753 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1321 26.1 26.8 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 7.7E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 44 1 580 0.296 0.296 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 36,296 0.469 0.764 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1298 27.3 28 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 6.7E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 45 1 471 0.282 0.282 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 24,181 0.535 0.817 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KQ
3 823 8.84 9.66 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 208 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
VES 46 1 489 0.673 0.673 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 1963 0.736 1.41 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KQ
3 458 5.51 6.92 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 51 Clay Moderately corrosive
VES 47 1 551 0.686 0.686 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 101 10.5 11.2 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive H
3 1.2E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 48 1 18.7 0.396 0.396 Clay Highly corrosive
2 40,360 0.611 1.01 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive K
3 117 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
VES 49 1 590.2 0.4684 0.4684 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 172.6 0.9721 1.44 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive QH
3 32.52 4.478 5.919 Clay Essentially noncorrosive
4 75,241 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 50 1 227 0.15 0.15 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
2 447 3.4 3.55 Clayey sand Mildly corrosive KH
3 78.3 21.4 24.9 Clay Corrosive
4 73,198 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive

Figure 5: A Typical H-Type VES Curve

AYANNINUOLA et al: CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING FOUNDATIONS IN PART OF NORTH 31

Table 8: VES Curves Results for VES Stations 51-60

VES Layers Resistivity Thickness Depth Probable Corrosivity Status Curve
Station (Ωm) (m) (m) Lithology Type
VES 51 1 386 0.641 0.641 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 2091 0.564 1.2 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 77.5 1.05 2.25 Clay Moderately corrosive
4 1535 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
VES 52 1 45.11 0.2997 0.2997 Clay Corrosive
2 1321 0.3672 0.6669 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 62.07 1.409 2.076 Clay Moderately corrosive
4 517,464 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 53 1 8.08 0.302 0.302 Clay Extremely corrosive
2 426 0.489 0.79 Clayey sand Essentially non corrosive KH
3 14.4 2.8 3.59 Clay Highly corrosive
4 42,378 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive
VES 54 1 336 0.276 0.276 Sandy clay Essentially non corrosive
2 2736 1.02 1.29 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 187 13.1 14.4 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
4 81,007 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 55 1 723 0.333 0.333 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 35,310 0.491 0.824 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1267 26.7 27.5 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 7.4E+5 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 56 1 615.1 0.334 0.334 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 31,946 0.5408 0.8748 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 1015 22.3 23.17 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 615,775 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 57 1 529 0.321 0.321 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 165,900 0.494 0.815 Rock Essentially noncorrosive KQ
3 1137 7.78 8.59 Sand Essentially noncorrosive
4 194 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive
VES 58 1 576 0.85 0.85 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 3183 0.694 1.54 Sand Essentially noncorrosive KQ
3 317 7.86 9.41 Sandy clay Essentially noncorrosive
4 79.7 Clay Moderately corrosive
VES 59 1 571.1 0.7274 0.7274 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive
2 100.2 8.983 9.711 Sandy clay Mildly corrosive H
3 151,608 Bedrock Essentially noncorrosive
VES 60 1 6.98 0.276 0.276 Clay Extremely corrosive
2 606 0.467 0.742 Clayey sand Essentially noncorrosive KH
3 12.7 2.64 3.38 Clay Highly corrosive
4 40,566 Laterite Essentially noncorrosive

Figure 6: A Typical HK-Type VES Curve

32 NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 20, NO.2,JUNE 2023

Figure 7: Isopach Map for Soil Thickness

Figure 8: Isoresistivity map for Soil

AYANNINUOLA et al: CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING FOUNDATIONS IN PART OF NORTH 33

Figure 9: Isopach Contour map for Depth to Basement

VES stations are noncorrosive and highly competent for the x105 Ωm and varied in thickness between 0.0355 m to 8.983 m
construction of high rise buildings. while the third layer has resistivity values ranging between
The fourth layer has resistivity values ranging from 27.95 8.361 Ωm to151,608 Ωm and varied in thickness between 1.05
Ωm to 77005 Ωm and falls majorly within the Bedrock in m to 34.2 m, the fourth layer which is the last of the geoelectric
twenty -five VES stations. The layer also constitutes of laterite, layers has resistivity values between 27.95 m to 7.7 x 10 5 m.
sand, sandy clay and clay at other points. The fourth layer is The subsoil within the study area constitutes clay, sandy clay,
characterized by high resistivity values and is majorly clayey sand, sand and laterite.
noncorrosive and competent. There are however a few VES
stations (14, 18, 28, 30, 35, 46, 48, 57 and 58) where the fourth ACKNOWLEDGMENT
layer is mapped by low resistivity values. The depth to bedrock We acknowledge the staff of the Institute of Geoscience
within the study area ranges between 2.076m to 44.5m. The and Earth Resources, Nasarawa State University, Keffi.
depth to bedrock is shallower at VES 52, 3, and 49 while it is
deeper at VES 52. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
O.S. Ayanninuola: Conceptualization, writing original
VI. CONCLUSION draft, data acquisition and interpretation. U.D. Msughter:
Soil Corrosivity and competence evaluations have been Methodology, data processing and analysis. C.O. Ofoegbu:
carried out in parts of North Central Nigeria using Electrical Writing-review and editing. E.D. Uko: Supervision and
Resistivity method. The qualitative interpretation of the methodology.
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