INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, NIRMA UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD – 382 481, 08-10 DECEMBER, 2011 1

A Critical Review on Dye Sensitized Solar Cells

Ayyan S. Karmakar, Jayesh P. Ruparelia

Abstract-- A Dye sensitized solar cell comprises of many II. WORKING PRINCIPLE
important components which include the electrolyte, sensitizer, a
The basic operating principle for any solar cell consists of
light source, etc. Among all, the dye sensitizer is the particular
focus area of this particular paper. Metal complex dyes are absorption, separation and collection. Different types
mostly used as a dye sensitizer. A lot of research has been done optimize these parameters accordingly to attain better
using the platinum group metals like ruthenium, rhodium, efficiency. Thus, absorption occurs in the first step of the
palladium, rhenium, osmium, etc. While other metal complexes reactions occurring in DSSC. Under illumination, sensitizer
have shown promising efficiency but ruthenium has been the dye D absorbs a photon which leads to excited sensitizer state
most efficient of all. The polypyridyl complexes of ruthenium
D*. Photoexcitation of this sensitizer is then followed by the
have shown the best results in terms of solar efficiency which is
as high as 11%. Natural dyes such as fruit extracts like mulberry electron injection into the conduction band of the
and cabbage-palm fruit have also been worked upon as an semiconductor (mesoporous). This takes the sensitizer to an
alternative to the conventional ruthenium and other metal dyes. oxidized state D+. With the electron donation from the
But their performance has not shown appreciable results electrolyte, containing a redox couple, the original state of the
comparatively. Moreover, photochemical stability, which is the dye restored. Iodide/triiodide couple is the preferred and
other important characteristic apart from solar efficiency, is also
not achieved much in these dyes. Although, the first dye
effective redox couple used. Iodide regenerates the sensitizer,
sensitized solar cell (DSSC) was first made in 1991, its and itself gets regenerated by the reduction of triiodide at the
commercialization has been a gradual process and till date very counter electrode. This way the circuit gets completed by
scarce production has taken place. With overcoming the transfer of electron via the external load. The following
shortcomings of the DSSC, it will prove to be an efficient reactions summarize the working in a lucid manner: [1], [ 2]
alternative to the commercial silicon based solar cells. The
present paper aims at bringing out the history of DSSC as well
as focus on the recent developments of the applications of dyes in
D (absorbed) + hv D*(absorbed) (1)

this specific area which focuses on solid state DSSCs.

D*(absorbed) D+ (absorbed) + e -(injected) (2)

Index Terms--DSSC, dye sensitizer, efficiency, metal complex ,

natural dyes, ruthenium. I -3 + 2 . e - (cathode) 3 I -(cathode) (3)

I. INTRODUCTION D+ (absorbed) + I - D (absorbed) + I -3 (4)

D epletion of fossil fuels has led the world to shift from the
conventional energy sources to renewable energy to meet
The construction of a Dye Sensitized Solar Cell can be
the growing energy demand. Although the process is gradual
categorized as follows: [2]
but the potential of renewable energy has been well talked (1) A mechanical support coated with Transparent
about in the past decade. Wind energy has been effective but Conductive Oxides
due to the inconsistency of the blowing wind, it has not been (2) The semiconductor film, usually TiO2
quite efficient. Unlike wind energy, solar energy has a fair (3) A sensitizer absorbed onto the surface of the
amount of consistency. As a result, the conversion of solar semiconductor
energy into different forms has been the core of the research (4) An electrolyte containing a redox mediator
for the recent past years. (5) A counter electrode capable of regenerating the redox
Photovoltaic devices have been found to convert the solar mediator
energy into electrical energy. In these devices the charge
separates at an interface of two materials of different Due to the non-toxic, easily available and low cost
conduction mechanism. Silicon based solar cells have been characteristics, TiO2 has been the mostly preferred as the
the most effective under this technology. They are the solid semiconductor for the photoelectrode. ZnO and Nb 2O5 have
state junction devices. Dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC), a also been worked upon for the same. Sensitizer is in the form
third generation cell, has been the competitive technology for of a dye, mostly metal complex dyes. Although a lot of dyes
have been tested and investigated including natural dyes,
the above. DSSC fabricated with the inclusion of
Ruthenium complexes have proved to be the most effective
nanocrystalline materials has been effective in diverting from
consistently.
the classical solid state junction devices. [1]
2 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY, ‗NUiCONE – 2011‘

Since sensitizer is a very critical part of the DSSC, it has

some essential characteristics. The ideal sensitizer for a single
junction photovoltaic cell converting standard global AM 1.5
sunlight to electricity should absorb all light below a
threshold wavelength of about 920 nm. Moreover, it should
also graft the semiconductor oxide surface with help of
attachment groups like carboxylate and phosphonate. The
attachment group of the dye ensures that it spontaneously
assembles as a molecular layer upon exposing the oxide film
to a dye solution. It will make a high probability that, once a
photon is absorbed, the excited state of the dye molecule will
relax by electron injection to the semiconductor conduction
band. It should inject electrons upon excitation and its energy
level should be well matched with the lower bound of the
conduction band to avoid energy transfer losses. It should be
rapidly regenerated by the mediator layer in order to avoid
electron recombination processes and be fairly stable, both in
the ground and excited states. Also, it should be stable
enough to sustain about 108 turnover cycles. Many different
Fig1. Operating Principles and Energy level diagram of DSSC[2] compound have been investigated for semiconductor
sensitization, such as porphyrins, phtalocyanines, coumarin,
The present paper mainly deals with this section of the carboxylated derivatives of anthracene and polymeric films.
DSSC comparing different metal complexes and natural dyes Among the photosensitizers investigated, transition metal
which have been investigated for achieving better efficiency. complexes have been the best so far. [4]-[ 6]
Iodide/triiodide has been accepted as the redox mediator,
although electrochemical studies of Co(III)/Co(II) (dbbip) 2
1.) Metal complex sensitizers
redox couple as a mediator for DSSC have also been done.
[2]-[3] Metal complex sensitizers have two ligands specifically,
ancillary and anchoring. Anchoring ligands are required for
the complex adsorption on the semiconductor surface
whereas, ancillary are important for tuning of the overall
properties of the complex. Photovoltaic performances can be
analysed in terms of conversion yield and long term stability.
Fulfilling both the criterion in the best possible way have
been the polypyridyl complexes of Ruthenium and Osmium.
The general structure which is preferred and has proven good
for sensitizers is ML2(X)2, where M can be Ru or Os and L is
2,2‘-bipyridyl-4,4‘ –dicarboxylic acid and X presents a
halide, cyanide, thiocyanate, acetyl acetonate, thiacarbamate
or water substituent group. [1]
A. Ruthenium
Fig2. Schematic diagram of a Dye Sensitized Solar Cell[2] Among all the Polypyridyl complexes of Ruthenium dyes
are the most efficient ones. They can be categorised under
carboxylate polypyridyl ruthenium dyes, phosponate
III. SENSITIZERS ruthenium dyes and polynuclear bipyridyl ruthenium dyes. [7]
Mainly dye sensitizers can be classified into two: (1) N3 dye has been the most promising dye sensitizer (shown in
organic dyes (2) inorganic dyes. Inorganic dyes have given fig3). In 1993, Grätzel reported cis-[Ru(dcbH2)2(NCS)2],
better results of the two as the stability towards known as N3 dye. Other efficient dyes been investigated are
photodegradation is less for organic dyes. Inorganic dyes used N719, N749 and Z907. N3 dye having two NCS ligands
for this purpose are mainly metal complex dyes such as absorbs 800 nm radiation whereas N749, also known as Black
complexes of Ruthenium, Osmium, Iridium, etc. Organic dyes dye, absorbs 860 nm making it better in terms of
mainly consist of fruit dyes and natural extract dyes. Since the performance. However other factors like low adsorption
first DSSC was made 20 years back, a lot of research has coefficients turns out to be a limitation for N749. [6]-[7]
been carried out to find transition-metal complexes as well as Apart from the ruthenium complexes mentioned in Table
natural or organic dyes, but none has been able to match the 1, there have been a lot of other Ruthenium based dye
performance of the ruthenium complexes based on the sensitizers investigated and reported to be efficient. The
conversion yield and durability or long term stability. panchromatic sensitizers have low molar extinction
coefficient in near IR region which turns out to be a drawback
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, NIRMA UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD – 382 481, 08-10 DECEMBER, 2011 3

for the improvement in the performance of the DSSC. As a TABLE I

RUTHENIUM COMPLEX BASED DYE SENSITIZERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [5],
consequence, there have been research carried out on near IR
[8]
dyes as sensitizer for DSSC which include ruthenium
complexes containing biquinoline or 1,8-naphthyridyl
moieties, cyclometallated ruthenium complexes, osmium
polypyridyl complexes, and phthalocyanine and perylene
dyes. A new ruthenium(II) – polypyridyl
complex was synthesized with 2,6-bis(quinolin-2-yl) pyridine
derivatives giving excellent results in terms of IPCE value of
35% at 900 nm. [9],[10]
A heteroleptic Ru dye (RC730) containing crown-ether
moities on 4,4‘ positions of the bipyridine ligand was
successfully synthesized yielding overall efficiency of 2% and
IPCE of 31% at 530 nm. [11] A novel heteroleptic ruthenium
complex of the type [Ru(bpin)(dcbpyH2)Cl]Cl (where bpin is
2,6-bis(pyrazol-1-yl)isonicotinic acid and dcbpyH2 is 4,4_-
dicarboxy-2,2_-bipyridine) was synthesized and characterized
for tuning the LUMO level of the ruthenium sensitizer to
achieve greater stabilization in the excited state which keeps
the excess energy to maintain high driving force for electron
injection. The photovoltaic performance of this complex as
photosensitizer in a nanocrystalline TiO2-based solar cell was
studied and its overall energy conversion efficiency was
determined (1.9%). [12]
Another heteroleptic sensitizer, Ru((4,4-dicarboxylic acid-
2,2¢-bipyridine)(4,4¢-bis(p-hexyloxystyryl)-2,2-
bipyridine)(NCS)2, gave a conversion yield of 7.1% in
conjunction with binary ionic liquid electrolyte and excellent
stability when soaked under light at 60oC.[13] methods are
now available for the preparation of Ru(II)bipyridine
analogous complex that is coordinated by 1-(2,4,6-
trimethylbenzyl)-2-(20-pyridyl)benzimidazole ligand. nc-
DSC, sensitized with CS23 exhibits 3.40% electrical
conversion efficiency which is nearly the same with reference
ruthenium complex Z-907 under the same conditions. [14]

Fig4. Structure of N3 dye

Fig3. Structures of N719 and Z907

Fig5. Structure of near IR synthesized dye

4 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY, ‗NUiCONE – 2011‘

B. Osmium
Osmium sensitizers were found to 50% less efficient than
Ru complexes, but they have greater photochemical stability
compared to Black dye. The complex ion
[OsII(H3tcterpy)(CN)3]− (H3tcterpy = 4,4‘,4‘‘-tricarboxy-
2,2‘:6‘,2‘‘-terpyridine) and osmium sensitizers containing
2,2‘-bipyridine-4,4‘-bisphosphonic acid ligand were
synthesized and characterized and it was found that IPCE
values were lower than the Ru Complex for the former, but
the values above 900 nm were slightly higher than Ru. The
complex in CH3OH showed a reversible OsII → OsIII
oxidation process and allow at the same time to extend the
spectral response of the TiO2 photoanodes. [7], [15], [16]
C. Platinum
A square-planar platinum(II) based dye containing 4,4’-
dicarboxy-2,2‘- bipyridine and quinoxaline-2,3-dithiolate
ligands achieves efficient sensitization of nanocrystalline
TiO2 solar cells over a wide visible range, generating a short-
circuit photocurrent of 6.14 mA cm-2 and an open-circuit
potential of 600 mV under simulated AM 1.5 solar
irradiation, with a solar energy conversion efficiency of 2.6
%. [7],[17] Fig7. Structure of Platinum based dyes containing 4,4’-dicarboxy-2,2‘-
D. Rhenium bipyridine (1) and quinoxaline-2,3-dithiolate (2) ligands

Rhenium (I) complexes based benzathiazole derivatives

have been reported to exhibit solar energy efficiency of
around 1.43-1.76%. One of the chlorotricarbonyl rhenium (I)
complex is shown in Fig 8. [7], [18]
E. Iridium
A novel type of efficient iridium (III) sensitizers with
carboxyl pyridine ligands was synthesized, yielding a
maximum of 66% IPCE and 2.16% power conversion
efficiency under simulated AM 1.5 sunlight. The energy
conversion efficiency can be improved by fine tuning of the
spectral overlap between the Ir (III) dye and the solar
Fig8. Structure of
spectrum. Cyclometalated Ir(III) complexes may have two rhenium complex
advantages. First, the high stability found in chelate ring
systems of cyclometalated Ir(III) complexes and second,
because the excited-state lifetime of cyclometalated Ir(III)
complex is longer than that of N3, the higheroverall solar
energy conversion efficiency may be anticipated.[19]

Fig9. Structure of Iridium complex

F. Other Metal Complexes

Fig6. Structure of an Osmium complex OsII (H3tcterpy)(CN)3]
(TBA)(H3tcterpy = 4,4‘,4‘‘-tricarboxy-2,2‘:6‘,2‘‘-terpyridine) Other metal complexes that have been researched are
copper and iron. While copper (I) complex has shown
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, NIRMA UNIVERSITY, AHMEDABAD – 382 481, 08-10 DECEMBER, 2011 5

surprisingly higher IPCE(incident photon to current IV. CHARACTERIZATION OF DSSC

efficiency) values with solar efficiency of 1.9 to 2.3%, Iron Once the DSSC is fabricated, it is now important to
(II) ligands have shown higher stability towards evaluate its performance. The two main criterions to do the
photochemical degradation with solar energy efficiency of same is (1) Overall Efficiency (2) Photochemical stability.
0.29%. [7], [20], [21] Other required parameters are IPCE (Incident Photon to
Apart from these mentioned metal complexes, a new type Current Efficiency also known as Quantum efficiency), Isc
of ruthenium complex containing a 2-quinolinecarboxylate (short-circuit current), Voc (open circuit voltage), FF (fill
ligand was designed and synthesized for the same purpose. factor).
The DSSC based on this sensitizer proved effective in the The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell
visible region as well as near IR region with the overall when the voltage across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the
conversion efficiency being 8.2% and fill factor of 0.72. [22] solar cell is short circuited). Open Voltage Current is the
A solar efficiency of 7.2% has been observed in DSSC maximum voltage available from a solar cell and this occurs
working on Mordant dyes as sensitizers. A group of 6 best at zero current. Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the
performing mordant dyes were investigated and it was found maximum power from the actual solar cell to the maximum
that they produced photocurrents > 0.2mA which is power from a ideal solar cell. Efficiency is defined as the
comparable to the conventional N3 dye. One of the mordant ratio of energy output from the solar cell to input energy
dyes has been shown in fig 9. [23] from the sun.
Any photovoltaic device should have a serviceable life of
2.) Natural Dyes about 20 years without significant loss of performance.
The second type of dye sensitizers used is the organic or Efficient dyes like N3 sustained 108 cycles after long time
the natural dyes. Coumarin derivatives, merocyanine illumination. Regeneration is an important factor here, and it
derivatives and polyene dyes have been designed successfully should occur fast to maintain the long term stability of the
as organic-dye photosensitizers in DSSCs, and high solar cell. Common tests are based on1000h stability tests at 80 oC
energy to electricity conversion efficiencies of up to 8% for evaluating the photochemical stability of the DSSC.
under AM 1.5 irradiation have been attained. The lower
performance of DSSCs based on organic dyes compared to V. SOLID STATE DSSC
those based on Ru complexes is probably due to the lower
open-circuit voltage (Voc) that is generated in the DSSCs As observed, the liquid state DSSCs i.e. the electrolyte
based on organic dyes, rather than the performance of the being in liquid form have shown efficiency as high as 11 %
short-circuit photocurrent density (Jsc), which is almost the (AM 1.5 light). But, due to the liquid state of the electrolyte
same. [24] Novel iminocoumarin dyes having carboxyl and there are some limitations to the cell. The liquid can get
hydroxyl anchoring groups have been investigated.The IPCE evaporated if the cell is not sealed properly. Moreover, there
value for iminocoumarin dye sensitized solar cell was could be a reaction between the electrolyte and compounds
21.38%. The overall low efficiency of the dyes is ascribed to like water and oxygen molecules due to this lapse. Also, the
the lack of light harvesting ability at longer wavelength production of multi-cell modules is a tougher process for
region. [25] liquid electrolyte. The Solid state DSSC have been the
Fruit dyes like mulberry and others have also been tested ultimate solution to all the above mentioned problems. With
for DSSC. Fill factor values of 0.40 to 0.61 have been the replacement of the liquid electrolytes with solid state or
achieved on dye sensitization of dye extracts from mulberry, quasi solid state hole conductor. The types of hole conductors
chaste tree fruit and cabbage palm fruit. [26] used can be p-type semi conductor, ionic electrolyte and
polymer electrolyte. [27]

VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS

A lot of study and research has been carried out on
DSSC. Different aspects of Dye sensitized solar cell have
been focused and investigations have been thus carried on.
Many sensitizers including inorganic and organic dyes have
been used. Of all the sensitizers reported the Ruthenium
complexes have been the most preferred because of their high
conversion efficiency which now have reached to 11%.
Although Organic dyes have higher molar extinction
coefficients, their lower stability limits them to be preferred.
On the other hand, Ruthenium complex have higher costs but
polypyridine complexes of Ruthenium have intense charge
Fig10. Structure of Mordant Black 5 (bis–azo)
transfer absorption across the whole visible range and have
easy tuneable redox properties making them gain an upper
hand on other metal sensitizers. Lately, a modified DSSC has
been reported known as the e DSSC. This has come into
6 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY, ‗NUiCONE – 2011‘

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