Lecture 2- Rocks

Rocks are grouped into three types, namely; Igneous, Metamorphic and
Sedimentary.

Rock Cycle

Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks (etymology from latin ignis, fire) are rocks formed by
solidification of cooled magma (molten rock), with or without
crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on
the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from
partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either the Earth's mantle or crust.
Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of the following processes:

 an increase in temperature,

 a decrease in pressure,

 or a change in composition.

Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed
beneath the surface of the Earth's crust.

Igneous rocks make up approximately ninety-five percent of the upper part of

the Earth's crust, but their great abundance is hidden on the Earth's surface by
a relatively thin but widespread layer of sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.

Igneous rocks are geologically important because:

 their minerals and global chemistry give information about the

composition of the mantle, from which some igneous rocks are
extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this
extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted;

 their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric

dating and thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata,
allowing a time sequence of events;

 their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic

environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions (see plate tectonics);

 in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits

(ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly
 associated with granites, whereas ores of chromium and platinum are
commonly associated with gabbros.

In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either intrusive

(plutonic) or extrusive (volcanic).

Intrusive igneous rocks

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies
within the earth. Surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock), the
magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained. The
mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye.
Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape and size of the
intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes.
Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, laccoliths, sills and
dikes. The extrusive rocks often produce lava flows.

The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks,
usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called batholiths)
may occupy huge areas of the Earth's surface.

Coarse grained intrusive igneous rocks which form at depth within the earth
are termed as abyssal; intrusive igneous rocks which form near the surface are
termed hypabyssal.

Extrusive igneous rocks

Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the Earth's surface as a result of the
partial melting of rocks within the mantle and crust.

The melt, with or without suspended crystals and gas bubbles, is called
magma. Magma rises because it is less dense than the rock from which it was
created. When it reaches the surface, magma extruded onto the surface either
beneath water or air, is called lava. Eruptions of volcanoes into air are termed
subaerial whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed
submarine. Black smokers and mid-ocean ridge basalt are examples of
submarine volcanic activity.

The volume of extrusive rock erupted annually by volcanoes varies with plate
tectonic setting. Extrusive rock is produced in the following proportions:[1]

 divergent boundary: 73%

 convergent boundary (subduction zone): 15%

 hotspot: 12%

Magma which erupts from a volcano behaves according to its viscosity,

determined by temperature, composition, and crystal content. High-
temperature magma, most of which is basaltic in composition, behaves in a
manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. Long, thin basalt flows
with pahoehoe surfaces are common. Intermediate composition magma such
as andesite tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and
may have viscosity similar to thick, cold molasses or even rubber when
erupted.

Felsic magma such as rhyolite is usually erupted at low temperature and is up

to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. Volcanoes with rhyolitic magma
commonly erupt explosively, and rhyolitic lava flows typically are of limited
extent and have steep margins, because the magma is so viscous.

Felsic and intermediate magmas that erupt often do so violently, with

explosions driven by release of dissolved gases — typically water but also
carbon dioxide. Explosively erupted pyroclastic material is called tephra
and includes tuff, agglomerate and ignimbrite. Fine volcanic ash is also
erupted and forms ash tuff deposits which can often cover vast areas.

Because lava cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is fine grained. If the cooling
has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals after
extrusion, the resulting rock may be mostly glass (such as the rock obsidian).
If the cooling of the lava happened slowly, the rocks would be coarse-grained.

Because the minerals are mostly fine-grained, it is much more difficult to

distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than
between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral
constituents of fine-grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined
by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an
approximate classification can usually be made in the field.

Classification

Igneous rocks are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture,

mineralogy, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body.

The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us
with important information about the conditions under which they formed.
Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are
particle size, which largely depends upon the cooling history, and the mineral
composition of the rock. Feldspars, quartz or feldspathoids, olivines,
pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas are all important minerals in the
formation of almost all igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification
of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential in
almost all igneous rocks and are called accessory minerals. Types of igneous
rocks with other essential minerals are very rare, and these rare rocks include
those with essential carbonates.

In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of

the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks
with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.
Rocks containing quartz (silica in composition) are silica-oversaturated.
Rocks with feldspathoids are silica-undersaturated, because feldspathoids
cannot coexist in a stable association with quartz.
Igneous rocks which have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye
are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called
aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin;
aphanitic an extrusive one.

An igneous rock with larger, clearly discernible crystals embedded in a finer-

grained matrix is termed porphyry. Porphyritic texture develops when some
of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma
crystallizes as finer-grained, uniform material.

The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according both to their
composition and mode of occurrence.

Composition
Mode of occurrence Acid Intermediate Basic Ultrabasic

Intrusive Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite

Extrusive Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite

Essential rock forming silicates
Acid Intermediate Basic Ultrabasic
Coarse Grained Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
Medium Grained Micro Grainte Micro Diorite Dolerite
Fine Grained Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite

References
R. W. Le Maitre (editor) (2002) Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms,
Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of
the Systematics of Igneous Rocks., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-
66215-X

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rock is the result of the transformation of a pre-existing rock
type, the protolith, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change
in form". The protolith is subjected to heat (greater than 150 degrees Celsius)
and extreme pressure causing profound physical and/or chemical change. The
protolith may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older
metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and are
classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage
(metamorphic facies). They may be formed simply by being deep beneath
the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of
the rock layers above. They can be formed by tectonic processes such as
continental collisions which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion.
They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten
rock called magma from the Earth's interior.

The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth's surface

following erosion and uplift) provides us with very valuable information
about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the
Earth's crust.

The change in the particle size of the rock during the process of
metamorphism is called recrystallization. For instance, the small calcite
crystals in the sedimentary rock limestone change into larger crystals in the
metamorphic rock marble, or in metamorphosed sandstone, recrystallization
of the original quartz sand grains results in very compact quartzite, in which
the often larger quartz crystals are interlocked. Both high temperatures and
pressures contribute to recrystallization. High temperatures allow the atoms
and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high
pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their point of
contact.
Foliation

The layering within metamorphic rocks is called foliation (derived from the
Latin word folia, meaning "leaves"), and it occurs when a strong compressive
force is applied from one direction to a recrystallizing rock. This causes the
platy or elongated crystals of minerals, such as mica and chlorite, to grow
with their long axes perpendicular to the direction of the force. This results in
a banded, or foliated, rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals
that formed them.

Textures are separated into foliated and non-foliated categories. Foliated rock
is a product of differential stress that deforms the rock in one plane,
sometimes creating a plane of cleavage: for example, slate is a foliated
metamorphic rock, originating from shale. Non-foliated rock does not have
planar patterns of stress.

Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides, or those which
lack minerals with distinctive growth habits, will not be foliated. Slate is an
example of a very fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock, while phyllite is
coarse, schist coarser, and gneiss very coarse-grained. Marble is generally not
foliated, which allows its use as a material for sculpture and architecture.

Another important mechanism of metamorphism is that of chemical reactions

that occur between minerals without them melting. In the process atoms are
exchanged between the minerals, and thus new minerals are formed. Many
complex high-temperature reactions may take place, and each mineral
assemblage produced provides us with a clue as to the temperatures and
pressures at the time of metamorphism.

Metasomatism is the drastic change in the bulk chemical composition of a

rock that often occurs during the processes of metamorphism. It is due to the
introduction of chemicals from other surrounding rocks. Water may transport
these chemicals rapidly over great distances. Because of the role played by
water, metamorphic rocks generally contain many elements that were absent
from the original rock, and lack some which were originally present. Still, the
introduction of new chemicals is not necessary for recrystallization to occur.

Types of metamorphism

Contact metamorphism

Contact metamorphism is the name given to the changes that take place when
magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The
changes that occur are greatest wherever the magma comes into contact with
the rock because the temperatures are highest at this boundary and decrease
with distance from it. Around the igneous rock that forms from the cooling
magma is a metamorphosed zone called a contact metamorphism aureole.
Aureoles may show all degrees of metamorphism from the contact area to
unmetamorphosed (unchanged) country rock some distance away. The
formation of important ore minerals may occur by the process of
metasomatism at or near the contact zone.

Limestones, if pure, are often turned into coarsely crystalline marbles; but if
there was an admixture of clay or sand in the original rock such minerals as
garnet, epidote, idocrase, and wollastonite, will be present. Sandstones when
greatly heated may change into coarse quartzites composed of large clear
grains of quartz. These more intense stages of alteration are not so commonly
seen in igneous rocks, because their minerals, being formed at high
temperatures, are not so easily transformed or recrystallized.

Regional metamorphism
Regional metamorphism is the name given to changes in great masses of rock
over a wide area. Rocks can be metamorphosed simply by being at great
depths below the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great
pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Much of the
lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions.
Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create
orogenic belts, and cause high temperatures, pressures and deformation in the
rocks along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and
exposed by erosion, they may occur in long belts or other large areas at the
surface. The process of metamorphism may have destroyed the original
features that could have revealed the rock's previous history.
Recrystallization of the rock will destroy the textures and fossils present in
sedimentary rocks. Metasomatism will change the original composition.

Regional metamorphism tends to make the rock more indurated and at the
same time to give it a foliated, shistose or gneissic texture, consisting of a
planar arrangement of the minerals, so that platy or prismatic minerals like
mica and hornblende have their longest axes arranged parallel to one another.
For that reason many of these rocks split readily in one direction along mica-
bearing zones (schists).

In gneisses these alternating folia are sometimes thicker and less regular than
in schists, but most importantly less micaceous; they may be lenticular, dying
out rapidly. Gneisses also, as a rule, contain more feldspar than schists do,
and they are tougher and less fissile. Rocks which were originally
sedimentary and rocks which were undoubtedly igneous are converted into
schists and gneisses, and if originally of similar composition they may be very
difficult to distinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great.
A quartz-porphyry, for example, and fine feldspathic sandstone, may both
the converted into a grey or pink mica-schist.
Metamorphic rock textures

The five basic metamorphic textures with typical rock types are:

 Slaty: slate and phyllite; the foliation is called 'slaty cleavage'

 Schistose: schist; the foliation is called 'schistocity'

 Gneissose: gneiss; the foliation is called 'gneisocity'

 Granoblastic: granulite, some marbles and quartzite

 Hornfelsic: hornfels and skarn

Common Metamorphic Rocks

Slate is a fine grained metamorphic rock. It is created by minor

metamorphism of shale or mudstone. This rock is characterized by the
foliation of its mineral grains which causes it to have cleavage that is parallel.

Slate.

Schist is a medium to coarse grained foliated rock. Foliation is the result of

the rearrangement of mica, chlorite, talc, and hematite mineral grains into
parallel structures. When compared to slate, schists result from more intense
metamorphism.

Schist.

Gneiss is a coarse grained metamorphosed igneous rock. In this rock, you get
the recrystallization and foliation of quartz, feldspars, micas, and
amphiboles into alternating light and dark colored bands.

Gneiss.

Marble is a nonfoliated metamorphized limestone or dolomite.

 Marble.

Quartzite forms from the recrystallization of silica found in sandstone.

Quartzite.