MODULE

   
Module  Code:  ARC  80530    
Level:  3  Semester:  1    
Module  Title:  Building  Technology  III    
27th  November  2023  
 
OGAH  Ogbole  G.A  (Instructor)  
0780870284  
ogah4eternity@gmail.com  
 
Cell:  0780870284  
MEP  
MECHANICAL  
ELECTRICAL  
PLUMBING  
PLUMBING  
SYSTEM  
Understanding  
and  Designing  
Plumbing  Systems  
IntroducSon  
The  plumbing  and  sanitary  system  is  an  essenSal  part  of  every  
house  or  building.  
 
Proper  planning  and  designing  of  plumbing  system  is  crucial  
as  it  takes  care  of  the  hygiene  requirements  of  the  occupants.  
 
It  has  been  reported  that  about  8  per  cent  of  the  construcSon  
cost  of  a  building  is  marked  for  plumbing  and  sanitary  
work.  
A  plumber’s  job  role  consists  of  installaSon,  repair,  
maintenance  and  servicing  of  plumbing  fi]ngs  and  
fixtures.    
 
Besides  having  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  
mechanisms  required  for  performing  various  tasks,  
a  plumber  should  be  laborious,  have  effecSve  
communicaSon  skills  and  be  a  result-­‐oriented  
workerwith  a  posiSve  a]tude.  
Role  of  Plumbing  
As  you  may  be  aware,  water  is  supplied  to  a  house  or  a  
building  from  storage  tanks  through  pipes.    
 
Similarly,  the  waste  water  from  kitchen  and  washrooms  is  drained  out  
with  the  help  of  pipes.    
 
Any  building,  be  it  a  residenSal,  commercial  or  industrial,  cannot  
funcSon  properly  without  having  plumbing  and  sanitary  arrangements  
in  place.  
 
It  is,  therefore,  important  to  have  regular  and  adequate  water  supply  
and  a  proper  system  for  the  disposal  of  waste  water.    
 
 
Plumbing  cycle  refers  
to  a  mechanism  through  which  water  
is  taken  from  a  source,  then  supplied  
to  the  users,  and  finally  waste  water  
is  collected  and  recycled  to  the  source  aaer  proper  treatment    
 
Plumbing  and  pipe-­‐fi]ngs  play  
a  major  role  in  the  construcSon  of  
all  types  of  buildings.    
 
An  efficient  plumbing  work  keeps  the  atmosphere  free  from  
bad  smell  and  ensures  becer  
sanitaSon.  
Plumbing    
The  skill  and  art  that  is  needed  to  transport  water  from  the  
source  to  the  users,  then  to  the  treatment  plants,  and  finally  
supplying  the  treated  water  to  the  users  through  a  distribuSon  
system  is  known  as  plumbing.  It  is  a  system  of  pipes  and  fi]ngs  
that  carry  water.  
 
Sanitary  Work    
Sanitary  work  refers  to  carrying  the  waste  water  to  the  waste  
disposal  system  (sewerage  system)  through  
 
plumbing  fixtures.  
The  plumbing  installaSon  is  governed  by  the  regulaSons  and  
rules  adopted  by  the  concerned  municipal  corporaSons  or  
commicees  of  different  States  and  Union  Territories.  Plumbing  
and  sanitaSon  work  thus  plays  an  important  role  in  the  
construcSon  of  a  building.  
 
 
A  plumbing  system  consists  of  pipe  fi]ngs  and  
appliances  used  for  water  supply  and  drainage,  as  you  see  the  fi]ng  
for  the  washbasin    different  pipes  are  used  for  different  purposes.  
The  plumbing  system  includes:  
•  water  supply,  galvanized  iron  (or  plasSc)  pipes  
and  fixtures;  
•  soil  pipes  and  fixtures;  
•  sanitary  drainage  system;  and  
•  rainwater  drainage  system.  
 
For  an  efficient  plumbing  system,  it  is  important  that  standard  
plumbing  and  sanitary  material,  as  per  the  Bureau  of  Indian  
Standards  (BIS),  are  used.    
 
It  is  also  important  that  quality  workmanship,  pracScal  checks  and  
supervision  are  ensured  during  plumbing  and  sanitary  work.  It  helps  
in  ge]ng  the  best  out  of  the  
skilled  and  unskilled  labour.  
Before  starSng  the  work,  the  plumber  must  keep  the  
following  points  into  consideraSon.  
1.  Water  supply  system:  sources  of  clean  and  potable  
water  
2.  Plumbing  fixtures  and  pipes:  knowledge  about  
different  requirements  and  specificaSons  
3.  Sanitary  and  drainage  system:  knowledge  about  
sewerage  system  
4.  Rainwater  drainage  system  
5.  Plumbing  drawing  and  their  uses:  role  of  plumbing  
drawing  
Provision  of  water:    
Basic  cold  water  supply,    
hot  water  supply,    
storage,  
distribuSon    
Method  of  supplying  water:  
•  Direct  Water  Supply  System  
•  All  appliances  of  a  house  are  
directly  connected  to  the  main  
supply  line  of  Municipality/city  
government/  supply  
company.  
 
•  Indirect  Water  Supply  System  
•  Only  the  kitchen  sink  and  
storage  tank  is  connected  to  the  
main  supply  line.    
 
All  other  appliances  are  fed  with  
water  from  the  storage  tank  on  
the  terrace  of  the  house.  
Direct  System  of  Cold  Water  
Supply  
•  For  efficient  operaSon,  a  high  
pressure  water  supply  is  essenSal  
parScularly  at  periods  of  peak  
demand.  
 
Pipework  is  minimal  and  the  storage  
cistern  supplying  the  hot  water  
cylinder  need  only  have  115  liters  
capacity.  The  cistern  may  be  located  
within  the  airing  cupboard  or  be  
combined  with  the  hot  water  
cylinder.    
 
Drinking  water  is  available  at  every  
draw-­‐off  point  and  maintenance  
valves  should  be  ficed  to  
•  isolate  each  secSon  of  pipework.  
With  every  outlet  supplied  from  the  
main,  the  possibility  of  back  
siphonage  must  be  considered.  
Water  supply  and  DistribuKon  systems  
Water  supply  and  distribuSon  components  They  consist  
of  three  major  parts:  Fixtures  DistribuSon  components  
DistribuSon  accessories  
 
Fixtures  These  fixtures  are  used  in  a  building  according  to  
codes  ,  owners  choice,  or  architect/engineer  decision.    
 
They  consStute  the  device  which  use  water  such  
as:Water  closets  (eastern  and  western)Lavatories  (sink  
with  hot  and  cold  water)Hose  bibsWaterfountains  
Bathtubs  Janitor  sinks    
DistribuKon  components  
These  include  piping  connecSng  fixtures  to  the  water  sources,  
valves,  tanks  and  other  componentsPiping  :  Ferrous  (include  
iron)  rust  Non-­‐ferrous  (include  copper)  PlasScOther  
components:  valves,  shock  absorbers,  pressure  regulaSng  
equipment  

DistribuKon  accessories  
These  include  HeatersPumpsWater  soaeners.  
 
Water  supply  systems  Include  the  following:  
Water  sources  :  public  (mains),  private  (wells)Hot  and  cold  
service  water  DomesSc  hot  water  (DHW)  systems    
Pumped  up-­‐feed  distribuKon  
1.  Pumps  are  used  to  deliver  water  to  various  
parts  of  the  building2.  Pumps  are  of  variable  
speed  type  operaSng  in  sequence  according  
to  water  demand  as  called  for  by  a  pressure  
sensor  at  the  base  of  the  riser  (  meets  the  
requirements  for  increasing  supply  at  nearly  
constant  pressure  
 
 3.  Used  for  medium  size  buildings  –  those  
too  tall  to  rely  on  street  main  pressure  but  
not  so  tall  to  necessitate  heavy  storage  tanks  
on  the  roof4.  A  surge  tank  ,  filled  by  casual  
flow  from  street  main,  can  be  used  to  avoid  
sucSon  demand  on  the  street  min  at  full  
operaSon.    
 
This  could  seriously  reduce  the  available  
water  pressure  in  the  neighborhood5.  Up-­‐
feed  pumping  eliminates  the  house  tank  
problems  of  weight,  volume  ,  and  periodic  
cleaning.  However  ,  it  lacks  reverse  storage  
in  case  of  electric  power  failure  unless  
emergency  pumping  is  arranged  
Example  for  Determining  Storage  Capacity  of  Water  Tanks  
Example:  You  are  designing  a  boarding  school  of  200  
students  and  staff.  What  should  be  the  volume  of  the  cold  
water  tank?  
 
SoluSon:  
Example  for  Determining  Storage  Capacity  of  Water  Tanks  
From  the  first  table  for  a  boarding  school  the  storage  
required  is  91  Liters  per  person.  
 
Therefore  the  total  volume  
required  is:  
•  Volume  =  91  L/person  x  200  persons  =  18200  L  
This  is  the  same  as  18.2  m3  or  18.2  
Direct  System  of  Cold  Water  Supply  
•  For  efficient  operaSon,  a  high  pressure  water  
supply  is  essenSal  parScularly  at  periods  of  
peak  demand.  
 
Pipework  is  minimal  and  the  storage  cistern  
supplying  the  hot  water  cylinder  need  only  
have  115  
liters  capacity.    
 
The  cistern  may  be  located  within  the  airing  
cupboard  or  be  combined  with  the  hot  water  
cylinder.    
 
Drinking  water  is  available  at  every  draw-­‐off  
point  and  maintenance  valves  should  be  ficed  
to  
•  isolate  each  secSon  of  pipework.  With  every  
outlet  
supplied  from  the  main,  the  possibility  of  back  
siphonage  must  be  considered.  
Indirect  System  of  Cold  Water  
Supply  
•  The  indirect  system  of  cold  
water  supply  has  only  one  
drinking  water  outlet,  at  the  sink.    
 
The  cold  water  storage  cistern  
has  a  minimum  capacity  of  230  
liters,  for  locaSon  in  the  roof  
space.    
 
In  addiSon  to  its  normal  supply  
funcSon,  it  provides  an  adequate  
emergency  storage  in  the  event  
of  water  main  failure.    
 
The  system  requires  more  
pipework  than  the  direct  system  
and  is  therefore  more  expensive  
to  install,  but  uniform  pressure  
occurs  at  all  cistern-­‐supplied  
outlets.  
Direct  water  supply  
•  Direct  Water  Supply  System  provides  potable  water  to  all  
fixtures  including  bath,  bathroom  basin  and  kitchen  sink.  
Rising  main  (the  pipe  that  supplies  municipal  water  to  a  
house)  directly  supplies  water  to  all  the  taps  (faucets).  All  
fixtures  receives  water  from  water  supply  authority  at  the  
pressure  same  as  that  of  main.  Generally,  pressure  of  
0.5kg/cm²  to  1.00kg/cm²  i.e  head  of  5m  to  10m  is  required  
at  all  taps.  Main  pressure  is  usually  high  because  mains  
have  to  supply  water  to  downstream  areas,  taking  care  of  
level  variaSons.  
Direct  water  supply  
•  To  reduce  the  pressure  and  to  maintain  constant  
pressure  
depending  on  the  locaSon  at  which  water  enters  house,  a  
pressure  reducing  valve  is  someSmes  introduced  at  the  
main  and  than  the  water  is  distributed  to  other  pipes  of  
the  house.    
 
The  pressure  of  hot  water  and  cold  water  should  
be  same  at  the  faucet  
Indirect  water  supply  
•  Indirect  water  supply  system  is  the  most  common  type  
in  modern  houses,  in  countries  like  India,  Pakistan,  and  
countries  in  Asia  and  Africa.  
 
 Here,  water  enters  house  from  the  rising  main  (main  
pipe  from  where  water  enters  house),  which  is  branched  
off  into  kitchen  sink  and  storage  tank  either  underground  
or  overhead.    
 
Only  kitchen  sink  receives  potable  water  directly  from  
municipal  mains.    
 
All  the  other  appliances  receive  water  from  the  storage  
tank.  The  storage  tank  is  kept  at  height  so  that  water  
comes  down  into  fixtures  through  gravity  at  sufficient  
pressure.  
Pressure  of  water  
•  Direct  Water  Supply  System  
Water  directly  comes  from  main,  it  has  high  pressure  and  
someSmes  a  pressure  reducing  valve  is  required  to  save  from  
damage  due  to  higher  pressure.  
 
•  Indirect  Water  Supply  System  
In  order  to  get  sufficient  pressure,  water  storage  tank  has  to  
be  at  some  height,  which  is  not  always  achieved  and  hence  
the  user  on  the  floor  just  below  suffer  from  lower  pressure,  
due  to  which  shower,  flush,  etc.  do  not  work  efficiently  
Quality  of  water  
•  Direct  Water  Supply  System  
Becer  water  quality  as  water  directly  comes  aaer  
treatment.  
 
•  Indirect  Water  Supply  System  
Water  quality  is  affected  as  water  is  stored  in  
storage  tanks  
and  then  supplied  to  appliances.  
DistribuKon  of  Pipes  
•  Direct  Water  Supply  System  
Water  enters  house  from  
main  supply  pipe  and  is  
branched  off  to  all  fixtures  
and  hence  less  length  and  
cost.  
 
•  Indirect  Water  Supply  
System  Water  enters  house  
from  main  supply  pipe  and  is  
branched  off  to  kitchen  sink  
and  water  storage  tank  either  
overhead  or  underground.    
 
Then  all  other  fixtures  receive  
water  from  storage  tank.  
Maintanance    
 
•  Direct  Water  Supply  System  Requires  less  
maintenance  compared  to  indirect  water  supply  
system.    
 
•  Indirect  Water  Supply  System  Tanks  (overhead  at  
some  level/underground  with  pumps)  require  
regular  maintenance,  cleaning,  protecSon  from  UV  
rays.  
Water  Supply  
Direct  Water  Supply  System  
•  Water  supply  is  conSnuous  throughout  day.  Ifwater  supply  is  only  for  
certain  period  of  Sme  in  a  day,  it  is  cumbersome,  as  user  would  be  
without  water  for  certain  Sme  of  day.  
 
•  If  main  supply  pipe  is  damaged,  whole  water  supply  of  
house  will  have  to  be  stopped  Sll  it  is  repaired.  
 
Indirect  Water  Supply  System  
•  Once  water  is  stored  in  storage  tank  it  can  be  used  at  any  hour  of  a  
day,  but  a  definite  storage  capacity  is  needed.  
•  In  case  if  any  pipe  is  damaged  only  that  fixture  water  supply  is  
stopped.  Rest  fixtures  gets  water  supply  from  tank.  
MODULE    
Module  Code:  ARC  2113  
Level:  3  Semester:  1    
Module  Title:  Building  Technology  III    
30th  November  2022  
 
OGAH  Ogbole  G.A  (Instructor)  
0780870284  
ogah4eternity@gmail.com  
• INTRODUCTION  Hot  and  
Cold  water  systems  in  
buildings  are  used  for  
washing,  cooking,  
An  Overview  of  a  Hot  and  cold  
water  supply  systems  
In  the  hot-­‐water  supply  system,  
cold  water  is  drawn  from  the  
ground,  and  then  heated  by  an  
electric  resistance  heater  or  a  gas  
boiler.    
   
The  hot  water  is  sent  to  a  fixture  
faucet  when  you  wish  to  use  it.    
 
The  cold-­‐water  supply  system,  on  
the  other  hand,  involves  
supplying  water  from  a  source  of  
cold  water  (ground/river)  to  your  
various  plumbing  fixtures  via  
gravity  or  under  pressure.  
Components  of  a  cold  water  supply  system  
The  cold  water  supply  system  has  the  following  
components:  
• Cold  water  tank  
• Rising  main  
• Water  meter  
• Stop  valve  
• Water  mains  
• Cold  water  storage  tank  
   
A  water  tank  is  a  container  
for  storing  water  for  use  in  
the  home  over  several  
different  applicaSons.    
 
It  can  supply  any  number  
of  uses  include  drinking,  
washing,  bathing,  
showering,  cooking,  and  
the  flushing  of  toilets.  
   
OverSme  your  tank  will  
suffer  wear  and  tear  which  
if  not  caught  can  cause  all  
sorts  or  costly  damage.    
Steel  Water  Tanks  
Although  steel  tanks  can  sSll  be  found  in  many  homes,  they  do  have  
some  limitaSons.  
They  can  suffer  from  rust  and  corrosion.  
They  are  heavy  and  oaen  need  to  be  liaed  by  crane  into  your  
property.  
 
Where  the  tank  is  to  be  placed  will  need  a  lot  of  preparaSon  before  
installaSon  can  occur.  
They  are  circular  with  a  coned  roof  and  may  not  suit  the  space  you  
have  available.  
 
They  oaen  have  parts  welded  or  bolted  together  that  can  weakened  
over  Sme.  
 
Steel  tanks  are  galvanised  with  a  zinc  wall  which,  while  not  a  health  
risk,  can  affect  the  taste  of  drinking  water  and  some  steel  tanks  may  
have  harmful  level  of  lead.  
Water  meter  
To  measure  the  amount  of  water  used,  a  
water  meter  is  installed  at  the  beginning  
of  the  supply  pipe.  The  water  meter  
works  on  the  principle  of  displacement  
or  velocity  giving  a  reading  in  meters  per  
hour.    
   
It  is  made  of  a  cast  iron  or  cast  steel  body  
with  an  inner  mechanism  that  can  be  
removed  with  licle  difficulty  for  
servicing.  Water  meters  are  generally  
classified  as  either  posiSve  displacement  
meters,  which  are  more  precise  and  
intended  for  measuring  large  flow  rates,  
or  velocity  type  meters,  which  use  
impeller  blades  to  measure  flow  rate  and  
are  suited  for  smaller  flows  such  as  those  
found  in  residenSal  homes.    
   
Modern  domesSc  water  meter  designs  
fall  into  one  of  three  categories:  single-­‐
jet  (velocity),  mulS-­‐jet  (displacement),  
and  oval  gear  type  (displacement).  
   
MODULE    
Module  Code:  ARC  80530    
Level:  3  Semester:  1    
Module  Title:  Building  Technology  III    
30th  November  2023  
 
OGAH  Ogbole  G.A  (Instructor)  
0780870284  
ogah4eternity@gmail.com  
 
Cell:  0780870284  
IndicaSve  Content:   • Refuse  disposal  systems  
Provision  of  water:  Basic   such  as  chutes,    
cold  water  supply,     incinerator,    
hot  water  supply,    storage,   garchery  systems,  and  
distribuSon  and  drainage.   macerator  equipment.    
Electrical  installaSon,     • Mechanical  systems,    
wiring  faciliSes,     pumps  sizes  and  locaSon.    
ducts,     • Provision  of  specialized  
Fire  protecSon:  means  of   services  such  as    
escape,     • lias,  escalators  and    
fire  regulaSons,     • air  condiSoning.  
grading,  resistance,    
detecSon  systems.  
 
Where  interlinked  storage  cisterns  are  used  to  supply  
drinking  water,  stagnaSon  of  water  in  some  parts  of  the  
cisterns  may  cause  the  quality  of  the  water  to  
deteriorate.  
 
The  installaSon  of  inter-­‐linked  storage  cisterns  should  be  
avoided  wherever  possible.  
 Where  it  is  unavoidable,  the  
number  of  inter-­‐linked  cisterns  should  be  minimised.  
 
To  avoid  stagnaSon  connect  the  cisterns  so  that  water  
flow  throughout  each  cistern  is  encouraged.    
 
Ways  to  do  this  are  shown  in  the  diagram    
•  Cisterns  storage  volume  kept  to  a  minimum;  
•  Cisterns  connected  in  parallel  
•  Inlets  and  outlets  at  opposite  ends  of  the  
cistern;  
•  Use  of  delayed  acSon  float  valves  may  help  
minimise  the  risk  of  stagnaSon.  
   
Stop  valve  
The  stop  valve  is  usually  located  next  
to  the  water  meter.  
 
 It  is  a  brass  valve  that  can  be  turned  
to  shut  off  the  water  supply.    
 
This  typically  takes  the  form  of  a  gate  
valve  (shown  below)  or  a  ball  valve.    
   
The  stop  valve  is  someSmes  referred  
to  as  a  stopcock,  and  it  allows  for  
simple  water  isolaSon  for  
installaSons  such  as  taps,  showers,  
and  toilets.    
 
Stop  valves  are  generally  installed  in  
areas  where  there  isn’t  already  
another  type  of  isolaSon  method.    
Rising  main  
Water  is  a  serious  business.  
It’s  vital  to  your  health,  and  it  
gets  turned  on  and  off  in  your  
house  mulSple  Smes  a  day  
(or,  at  least,  it  should).    
 
If  there’s  one  thing  that  can  
go  wrong  with  any  water  
system  and  there  are  many  
it’s  a  rising  main.    
   
EssenSally,  this  is  where  the  
water  pressure  from  your  
house  rises  above  the  
threshold  of  the  pipes’  
capacity!  
   
  
 
Every  pipe  immediately  starts  pouring  water  into  
every  other  pipe  unSl  all  of  them  overflow  or  back  
up  into  the  street.    
   
In  turn,  this  can  cause  problems  with  your  toilet  
flushing,  sprinklers  flowing  erraScally  in  your  yard  
and  garden,  and  even  just  dripping  water  on  people  
waiSng  for  the  bus  
DIRECT  WATER  SYSTEM-­‐Water  is  supplied     directed  from  
mains  to  fixtures.  
 
UPFEED  SYSTEM-­‐  Water  is  provided  by  the  city  
watercompanies  using  normal  pressure  from  public  sewer  
main.  
 
Advantage:  Fresh  drinking  water  may  be  obtained  at  any  
point  
 
Disadvantages:  Pressure  from  water  main  is  inadequate  to  
supply  tall  buildings.    
Types  of  Cold  Water  DistribuSon  System  
¬INDIRECT  WATER  SYSTEM-­‐Water  going  to  
overhead  tank  and  then  the  water  is  supplied  to  
different  floors  by  gravity.    
Whilst  we  all  use  our  bathrooms  every  single  day,  
many  of  us  don't  really  understand  how  they  
actually  work.  In  this  arScle,  we'll  be  looking  at  
home  water  systems  and  how  they  funcSon.  
 
If  you  are  undertaking  a  bathroom  project,  it'll  
certainly  do  you  no  harm  to  familiarize  yourself  
with  home  water  systems.    
 
Most  systems  are  incredibly  efficient,  rarely  cause  
issues  and  aren't  as  complex  as  you  might  think.  
Basically,  there  are  two  main  types  of  household  water  
system:  
•  Supply  systems  
•  Drainage  systems  
 
 For  each  of  these  systems,  there  are  two  common  forms:  
Supply  systems  
•  Indirect  
•  Direct  
Drainage  systems  
•  Single  stack  
•  Two  pipe  
 
• Supply  systems  
• Indirect  water  system  
 
The  most  common  type  of  water  system  in  the  UK,  the  
indirect  system  sends  fresh  water  into  your  property  
through  to  the  household  stopcock  valve  (main  on/off  
tap)—usually  located  underneath  the  kitchen  sink.  
 
 Once  the  water  has  reached  this  area,  you  can  get  
drinking  water  from  the  kitchen  sink,  but  the  rest  of  the  
water  is  moved  to  a  storage  cistern  which  supplies  the  
water  for  the  rest  of  the  house.  
 
This  means  it  doesn’t  supply  drinking  water  to  all  taps  in  
the  house.  
The  indirect  system  has  a  degree  of  flexibility.  If  the  mains  are  
turned  off,  or  pressure  is  low  for  example,  there  is  a  stored  
supply  of  water  to  run  off  unSl  mains  flow  is  returned.    
 
In  addiSon,  indirect  systems  are  also  quieter  than  their  direct  
counterparts.    
 
These  advantages  don’t  necessarily  outweigh  the  significant  
disadvantages  associated  with  the  system.    
 
They’re  much  more  expensive  to  install,  suffer  from  the  risk  of  
contaminaSon  of  stored  water  and  can  become  complex  and  
problemaSc  when  faced  with  higher  demand    
Direct  water  system  
This  is  the  system  that  more  modern  houses  are  
usually  equipped  with.  The  direct  system  sends  
mains  pressured  drinking  standard  water  to  
every  cold  tap  in  the  house,  including  the  bath,  
bathroom  basin  and  kitchen  sink.  Depending  on  
the  hot  water  system,  the  cold  feed  will  either  
enter  the  hot  water  cylinder  or  the  combinaSon  
boiler.  
Drainage  systems  
As  well  as  supply  systems  to  get  water  in,  you  also  need  a  
drainage  system  to  get  rid  of  waste  water  from  your  
property.  Again,  there  are  2  main  types  of  system:  
 
Single  stack  system  
The  single  stack  system  is  one  large  pipe  in  which  all  of  
the  wastes  in  the  house  are  connected  to.    
 
All  feeding  downwards  towards  the  sewer,  these  systems  
have  a  vent  which  extends  above  roof  level,  allowing  
gases  to  escape,  and  are  much  more  common  in  modern  
properSes    
Two  pipe  system  
This  system  has  different  pipes  for  toilet  waste  to  the  other  wastes.  Usually  
found  in  older  properSes  (pre  1960s),  it  sends  toilet  waste  directly  into  the  
manhole  inspecSon  chamber,  before  leading  into  the  sewer.  
   
Water  system    
•  Cold  feed:  This  is  the  pipe  that  sends  (or  feeds)  cold  mains  water  through  to  
the  hot  water  system  
•  Float  valve:  Otherwise  known  as  a  “float  operated  valve”  or  “ball  valve”-­‐  this  
is  a  floaSng  device  on  top  of  the  tank  connected  to  a  lever  that  closes  when  
the  tank  gets  full  
•  Overflow:  This  is  also  referred  to  as  the  “warning  pipe”,  a  system  that  
prevents  the  tank  in  indirect  systems  from  overflowing  
•  Stop  cock:  This  can  also  be  known  as  the  “stop  valve”  or  “stop  tap”.    It’s  the  
main  on/off  tap  for  water  in  your  property  
•  Storage  cistern:  This  is  where  in  an  indirect  system  cold  water  is  stored  and  
in  a  direct  system  where  water  is  stored  before  it  goes  into  the  hot  water  
system  
How  do  I  test  for  leaks?  
Ever  wondered  why  your  water  bills  are  so  high?  You  should  check  if  
you’ve  got  a  leak.    
 
A  great  way  to  do  this  (so  long  as  you  have  a  meter)  is  taking  a  meter  
reading  and  then  uncoupling  any  water  consuming  appliance  from  the  
mains  and  turning  all  taps  off.    
 
Wait  for  as  long  as  you  can  (overnight  is  always  a  safe  bet)  and  then  
check  the  meter  reading  again  the  next  day.    
 
If  there  has  been  a  change  in  the  meter  reading  then  you  know  you  
have  a  leak.  If  it’s  not  immediately  obvious  call  a  professional  
tradesperson.  
Where  does  it  become  my  responsibility?  
Where  your  water  supply  and  drainage  becomes  your  
responsibility  is  the  boundary  of  your  property.    
 
There  will  be  a  supply  line,  tradiSonally  a  lead  pipe,  
bringing  water  in,  and  a  drainage/waste  pipe  taking  away  
all  the  foul  waste  from  your  property.  
 
With  waste  systems  it’s  a  bit  more  complicated.  Although  
a  general  rule  of  thumb  is  that  any  drains  on  your  
property  leading  to  the  main  sewer  are  your  
responsibility,  for  properSes  built  prior  to  1937  the  local  
authority  is  responsible.    
 
However,  even  if  the  local  authority  have  to  organise  the  
work,  you  can  sSll  be  liable  for  charge.  
   
Cold  Water  Tank  
The  cold  water  tank  in  a  vented  
cold  water  system  stores  the  large  
volume  of  water  to  supply  the  hot  
and  cold  water  systems  that  are  not  
directly  fed  by  the  rising  main.  
 
The  water  level  within  the  tank  is  
controlled  by  a  float  operated  valve  
which  is  set  to  allow  water  to  enter  
when  the  water  level  drops  below  
the  required  level.    
   
If  the  float  operated  valve  should  
fail,  water  will  conSnue  to  enter  
the  tank,  raising  the  water  level  
unSl  it  reached  the  overflow  pipe,  
at  which  point  the  water  will  be  
discharged  though  the  overflow  
pipe  and,  hopefully,  give  a  warning  
of  the  problem.    
Hot  water  supply  systems  are  
installaSons  that  provide  hot  
water  using  a  clean  water  source,  
heated  in  various  ways,  either  
directly  from  the  heaSng  
appliance  or  piping  system.    
 
As  usual  for  clean  water,  hot  
water  equipment  must  also  meet  
sanitary  requirements.  
 
 In  outline  there  are  two  kinds  of  
installaSon,  the  installaSon  of  a  
Local  and  the  installaSon  of  
Central.    
 
Where  the  installaSon  will  be  
selected  at  the  design  stage  
depends  on  several  factors,  
Among  other  sizes  and  types  of  
use  of  the  building.  
House  Drainage    
 Building  Drainage  
General  Principles    
The  arrangement  
provided  in  a  house  or  
building,  for  collecSng  
and  conveying  
wastewater  through  
drain  pipes,  by  gravity,  
to  join  either  a  public  
sewer  or  a  domesSc  
sepSc  tank,  is  termed  
as  House  Drainage  or  
Building  Drainage.  
   
Aims  of  House  Drainage  
House  Drainage  is  provided  to  –  
   
• maintain  healthy  condiSons  in  the  building  
• dispose  off  waste  water  as  early  and  quickly  as  possible  
• avoid  the  entry  of  foul  gases  from  the  sewer  
• facilitate  quick  removal  of  foul  macer  
• collect  and  remove  waste  macers  systemaScally  
 
Principles  of  House  Drainage  
The  following  principles  adopted  for  the  efficient  House  Drainage  system  :  
•  The lavatory blocks should be so located that the length of drainage line is
minimum.
• Drainage pipe should be laid by the side of the building rather than below the
building.
• All the drains should be aligned straight between successive inspection chambers.
Therefore, sharp bends and junctions should be avoided through chambers.
 
• The slope of the drains should be sufficient to develop self
cleansing velocity.
• All the connections should be water tight.
• Drainage system should contain enough number of traps at
suitable locations.
• The size of drain should be sufficient, so that flooding of the
drain doesn’t take place while handling the maximum
discharge.
• Rain water pipes should drain out rain water directly into the
street gutters from where it is carried to the storm water drain.
• All the materials and fittings of drainage system should be
hard, strong, resistant to corrosive action.
• FormaSon  of  air  locks,  siphon-­‐age,  under  deposits  etc.  
should  be  minimized.  
Pipes      
In  a  house  drainage  system,  a  pipe  may  have  the  following  
designaSons,  depending  upon  the  funcSon  it  carries  :  
   
• Soil  Pipe  –  A  soil  pipe  is  a  pipe  through  which  human  
excreta  flows.  
• Waste  Pipe  –  It  is  a  pipe  which  carries  only  the  liquid  waste.  
It  doesn’t  carry  human  excreta.  
• Vent  Pipe  –  It  is  a  pipe  which  is  provided  for  the  purpose  of  
venSlaSon  of  the  system.  A  vent  pipe  is  open  at  top  and  
bocom,  to  facilitate  exit  of  foul  gases.  It  is  1  m  higher  than  
the  roof  level.  
• Rain  water  Pipe  –  It  is  a  pipe  which  carries  only  the  rain  
water.  
• AnS-­‐siphonage  Pipe  –  It  is  a  pipe  which  is  installed  in  the  
house  drainage  to  preserve  the  water  seal  of  traps.  
 
The  following  sizes  of  pipes  are  commonly  used  in  House  Drainage  :  
• Soil  Pipe  :  100  mm  
• Waste  Pipe  :  horizontal  :  30  to  50  mm  
• Waste  Pipe  :  verScal  :  75  mm  
• Rain  water  Pipe  :  75  mm  
• Vent  Pipe  :  50  mm  
• AnS-­‐siphonage  Pipe  :  ConnecSng  soil  pipe  :  50  mm  
• AnS-­‐siphonage  Pipe  :  ConnecSng  waste  pipe  :  40  mm  
 
Traps  
A  trap  is  a  depressed  or  bent  fi]ng  which,  when  provided  always  
remains  full  of  water,  thus  maintaining  a  water  seal.  It  prevents  the  
passage  of  foul  gases.  
CharacterisKcs  of  traps  
• It  should  be  self  cleansing.  
• It  should  be  of  non-­‐absorbent  material.  
• Its  internal  and  external  surface  should  have  smooth  
finishing,  to  avoid  dirt  from  sScking  to  it.  
• It  should  be  free  from  any  inside  projecSons,  so  that  
flow  is  not  obstructed  or  retarded.  
• It  should  be  cheap  and  readily  available.  
 
ClassificaKon  of  traps  
(a)  ClassificaSon  according  to  shape  
P-­‐Trap  
Q-­‐Trap  
S-­‐Trap  
 
ClassificaKon  according  to  use  
• Floor  Trap  
• Gully  Trap  
• IntercepSng  Trap  
P-­‐Trap  
This  resembles  the  shape  of  lecer  P,  in  which  the  legs  are  
at  right  angles  to  each  other.  
Q-­‐Trap  
Also  known  as  half-­‐S-­‐trap.  This  resembles  the  shape  of  
lecer  Q,  in  which  two  legs  meet  at  an  angle  other  than  a  
right  angle.  
S-­‐Trap  
This  resembles  the  shape  of  lecer  S,  in  which  both  the  
legs  are  parallel  to  each  other,  discharging  in  the  same  
direcSon    
Sanitary  FiRngs  in  House  Drainage  
The  following  fi]ngs  are  commonly  used  in  buildings,  for  
efficient  collecSon  and  removal  of  wastewater  from  the  
House  Drainage  –  
   
Wash  Basins  
Sinks  
Bath  Tubs  
Water  Closets  
Urinals  
Flushing  Cisterns  
   
1.  Wash  Basin  
Wash  basins  usually  
made  up  of  pocery  or  
porcelain  ware.  It  is  
oval  in  shape  as  bowl,  
with  an  overflow  slot  
at  the  top.  
Water  Closets  
Water  closet  designed  
to  receive  and  
discharge  human  
excreta  directly  from  
the  person  using  it.  It  is  
of  three  types    
Urinals  
The  Bowl  type  used  in  
residenSal  buildings  
while  Slab  or  Stall  type  
used  in  public  
buildings.  
   
6.  Flushing  Cisterns  
Flushing  Cistern  used  for  flushing  
out  water  closets  and  urinals.  
   
Valveless  siphonic  type  
Valve  ficed  siphonic  type  
Most  commonly  used  with  Indian  
type  is  Bell  Type  Flushing  Cistern,  
is  the  example  of  valveless  
siphonic  type  flushing  cistern.  
   
   
Electrical  installaKon,    
wiring  faciliKes,    
ducts,    
5  December  2023  
th
IndicaSve  Content:   • Refuse  disposal  systems  
Provision  of  water:  Basic   such  as  chutes,    
cold  water  supply,     incinerator,    
hot  water  supply,    storage,   garchery  systems,  and  
distribuSon  and  drainage.   macerator  equipment.    
Electrical  installaSon,     • Mechanical  systems,    
wiring  faciliSes,     pumps  sizes  and  locaSon.    
ducts,     • Provision  of  specialized  
Fire  protecSon:  means  of   services  such  as    
escape,     • lias,  escalators  and    
fire  regulaSons,     • air  condiSoning.  
grading,  resistance,    
detecSon  systems.  
 
What  does  
electrical  
installaSon  
mean?  
An  electrical  installaSon  is  a  group  of  items  of  electrical  
equipment  that  are  permanently  electrically  connected  
together  and  can  be  supplied  with  electricity  from  the  
works  of  an  electricity  enSty  or  from  a  generaSng  source.    
 
An  item  of  electrical  equipment  may  be  part  of  more  
than  1  electrical  installaSon.  
 
An  item  of  electrical  equipment  connected  to  electricity  
by  a  plug  and  socket  outlet  is  not  permanently  electrically  
connected.  
 
  What  does  electrical  installaSon  mean?  
• An  electrical  installaSon  is  a  group  of  items  of  
electrical  equipment  that  are  permanently  
electrically  connected  together  and  can  be  
supplied  with  electricity  from  the  works  of  an  
electricity  enSty  or  from  a  generaSng  source.    

• An  item  of  electrical  equipment  may  be  part  of  

more  than  1  electrical  installaSon.  

• An  item  of  electrical  equipment  connected  to  

electricity  by  a  plug  and  socket  outlet  is  not  
permanently  electrically  connected.  
• Examples  of  an  electrical  installaSon:  
• The  switchboard,  
• t’s  the  first  point  your  property’s  electricity  supply  
meets  aaer  being  supplied  by  the  interconnected  
community  supply,  otherwise  known  as  ‘the  grid’,  
there’s  probably  a  licle  more  you  should  know  about  
how  to  use  that  switchboard  and  what  it  all  really  
means  and  does.  

• Whenever  we  flip  a  switch,  plug  in  an  appliance,  or  

adjust  a  reading  light,  we  interact  with  the  electrical  
system  in  a  house.  A  good  electrician  can  make  those  
interacSons  easier  in  a  hundred  licle  ways,  so  it's  best  
to  communicate  your  needs  early—ideally  aaer  the  
house  is  framed  and  before  the  drywall  or  insulaSon  
goes  up.  
The  Basic  Concepts  in  Electronics  
• To  understand  electrical  design  as  a  whole,  it’s  crucial  to  start  with  the  
basics.  The  basic  concepts  and  measurements  in  electronics  are:  
•    
• Resistance  –  measured  in  Ohms  
• Voltage  –  measured  in  Volts  
• Current  –  measured  in  Amps  and  refers  to  the  electric  charge  that  the  
electrons  carry  
 
• SchemaScs  or  schemaSc  diagrams  –  these  tell  you  how  to  properly  
connect  the  right  components  to  make  the  wanted  circuit  
• Electric  charge  –  can  be  posiSve  and  negaSve,  depending  on  the  two  
types  of  parScles:  protons  and  electrons  
• Electric  circuit  –  a  closed  loop  made  of  all  the  necessary  electrical  
components  and  elements  to  make  sure  that  the  electric  current  can  
flow  
•    
Basic  Electronic  Components  
• The  most  basic  components  that  are  most  commonly  used  
within  electrical  design  are:  
   
• Resistors  –  resist  the  current  
• Capacitors  –  serve  as  baceries  with  a  low  capacity  
• LEDs  –  small  lights  
• Transistors  –  electronic  switches  
• Inductors  –  let  direct  currents  (DC)  flow  while  resisSng  
alternaSng  currents  (AC)  

Integrated  circuits  
• Diodes  –  conduct  current  in  one  direcSon  
• Conductors  –  let  the  current  flow  easily  
• Insulators  –  don’t  let  the  current  flow  easily    
Electric  Circuits  
• Electric  circuits  are  the  very  foundaSon  of  every  electrical  
installaSon  and  design.  To  control  the  current  and  let  it  flow  freely,  
you  need  a  closed  loop  made  of  all  the  necessary  electrical  
elements  and  components  like  conductors.  
   
Basically,  every  electrical  device  you  have  in  your  home  or  workplace  
is  some  form  of  an  electric  circuit.  To  make  a  simple  electric  circuit  like  
a  lamp  in  your  home,  you  need  three  basic  elements:  
• Bacery  
• Lamp  
• Wire  to  connect  the  two  
Even  though  there  are  extremely  complex  circuits  that  consist  of  thousands,  even  
millions  of  individual  elements  and  separate  components,  all  these  elements  need  
to  be  connected  with  conductors  in  an  organized  and  precise  way  so  that  the  circuit  
can  fulfill  its  purpose.  
   
Circuits  can  also  be  connected  to  each  other  in  the  same  way,  but  all  of  them  must  
obey  the  basic  principle:  no  circuit  can  work  properly  if  it  isn’t  a  closed  loop.  
   
• Types  of  Electric  Circuit-­‐    
• Closed  circuits,    
• open  circuits,    
• short  circuits,    
• series  circuits,  and    
• parallel  circuits    
• are  the  five  main  types  of  electric  circuits.  
 
Every  lighSng  system  needs  a  cable  from  the  mains  to  supply  power  to  all  the  
lighSng  points  and  a  switch  that  can  interrupt  the  supply  to  each  individual  point.  
Here  we  outline  the  two  most  common  ways  to  meet  that  requirement  -­‐  the  loop-­‐
in  wiring  and  the  radial  wiring  (also  referred  to  as  'juncSon  box)  installaSons.  
Loop-­‐in  wiring  
• The  Picture  we  will  see  in  other  slides    shows  the  
basic  principle  of  wiring  a  loop-­‐in  lighSng  system  
(the  most  modern/common).    

• The  power  from  the  mains  consumer  unit  runs  

into  each  ceiling  rose  and  out  again,  then  on  to  
the  next  ceiling  rose.    

• The  switch  cable  and  the  flex  to  the  lighSng  

fi]ng  are  connected  at  the  ceiling  rose  -­‐  
examples  of  the  wiring  found  at  ceiling  roses  on  
loop-­‐in  installaSons  are  given  on  this  page  -­‐  Loop-­‐
in  circuits.    
Radial  (or  juncSon  box)  wiring  
• Picture  2  below  shows  a  typical  radial  (or  juncSon  
box)  lighSng  system,  a  two-­‐core  and  earth  cable  runs  
from  the  consumer  unit  to  a  series  of  juncSon  boxes  -­‐  
one  for  each  lighSng  point  (ceiling  rose).    

• From  each  juncSon  box  a  separate  cable  runs  to  the  

light  and  another  runs  to  the  switch.  Whilst  this  
system  is  rarely  used  now,  it  is  much  less  complicated  
for  the  consumer  to  connect  new  light  fi]ngs.    

• Examples  of  the  wiring  found  at  ceiling  roses  on  

radial/juncSon-­‐box  installaSons  are  given  on  this  
page  -­‐  Radial  circuits  
 
• Under  modern  Building  RegulaSons,  a  householder  
can  carryout  a  'like  for  like'  replacement  or  extend  an  
exisSng  lighSng  circuit  providing  that  it  is  not  within  a  
kitchen  or  special  area  (defined  as  a  room  with  a  bath,  
shower  basin,  pool  or  sauna).  

•  Any  addiSon  or  change  within  a  kitchen  or  special  

area  is  noSfiable  or  should  be  carried  out  by  a  suitably  
qualified  person.  

• House  electrical  wiring  is  a  process  of  connecSng  

different  accessories  for  the  distribuSon  of  electrical  
energy  from  the  supplier  to  various  appliances  and  
equipment  at  home  like  television,  lamps,  air  
condiSoners,  etc.    
Examples  of  an  electrical  installaKon:  
 
The  switchboard,  wiring,  lighSng,  socket  outlets  
and  other  electrical  equipment  permanently  
connected  for  a  shop  in  a  shopping  centre  
 
The  electrical  installaSon  for  the  residenSal  unit  
complex  generally  includes  the  electrical  
installaSons  for  the  individual  residenSal  units  
The  switchboard  
t’s  the  first  point  your  
property’s  electricity  
supply  meets  aaer  
being  supplied  by  the  
interconnected  
community  supply,  
otherwise  known  as  
‘the  grid’,    
The  Basic  Concepts  in  Electronics  
To  understand  electrical  design  as  a  whole,  it’s  crucial  to  start  
with  the  basics.  The  basic  concepts  and  measurements  in  
electronics  are:  
   
• Resistance  –  measured  in  Ohms  
• Voltage  –  measured  in  Volts  
• Current  –  measured  in  Amps  and  refers  to  the  electric  charge  
that  the  electrons  carry  
• SchemaScs  or  schemaSc  diagrams  –  these  tell  you  how  to  
properly  connect  the  right  components  to  make  the  wanted  
circuit  
• Electric  charge  –  can  be  posiSve  and  negaSve,  depending  on  
the  two  types  of  parScles:  protons  and  electrons  
• Electric  circuit  –  a  closed  loop  made  of  all  the  necessary  
electrical  components  and  elements  to  make  sure  that  the  
electric  current  can  flow  
Electronic  Components  
The  most  basic  components  that  are  most  commonly  
used  within  electrical  design  are:  
   
• Resistors  –  resist  the  current  
• Capacitors  –  serve  as  baceries  with  a  low  capacity  
• LEDs  –  small  lights  
• Transistors  –  electronic  switches  
• Inductors  –  let  direct  currents  (DC)  flow  while  resisSng  
alternaSng  currents  (AC)  
• Integrated  circuits  
• Diodes  –  conduct  current  in  one  direcSon  
• Conductors  –  let  the  current  flow  easily  
• Insulators  –  don’t  let  the  current  flow  easily  
Electric  Circuits  
Electric  circuits  are  the  very  foundaSon  
of  every  electrical  installaSon  and  design.  
To  control  the  current  and  let  it  flow  
freely,  you  need  a  closed  loop  made  of  
all  the  necessary  electrical  elements  and  
components  like  conductors.  
   
Basically,  every  electrical  device  you  have  
in  your  home  or  workplace  is  some  form  
of  an  electric  circuit.  To  make  a  simple  
electric  circuit  like  a  lamp  in  your  home,  
you  need  three  basic  elements:  
   
• Bacery  
• Lamp  
• Wire  to  connect  the  two    

Even  though  there  are  extremely  

complex  circuits  that  consist  of  
thousands,  even  millions  of  individual  
elements  and  separate  components,  all  
these  elements  need  to  be  connected  
with  conductors  in  an  organized  and  
precise  way  so  that  the  circuit  can  fulfill  
its  purpose.    
Circuits  can  also  be  connected  to  each  other  in  the  same  
way,  but  all  of  them  must  obey  the  basic  principle:  no  
circuit  can  work  properly  if  it  isn’t  a  closed  loop.  
   
Types  of  Electric  Circuit-­‐    
• Closed  circuits,    
• open  circuits,    
• short  circuits,    
• series  circuits,  and    
• parallel  circuits    
   
Every  lighSng  system  
needs  a  cable  from  the  
mains  to  supply  power  
to  all  the  lighSng  points  
and  a  switch  that  can  
interrupt  the  supply  to  
each  individual  point.    
 
there  two  most  common  
ways  to  meet  the  
requirement  -­‐  the  loop-­‐
in  wiring  and  the  radial  
wiring  (also  referred  to  
as  'juncSon  box)  
installaSons.  
   
Radial  (or  juncSon  box)  wiring  
The  diagram  shows  a  typical  radial  
(or  juncSon  box)  lighSng  system,  a  
two-­‐core  and  earth  cable  runs  from  
the  consumer  unit  to  a  series  of  
juncSon  boxes  -­‐  one  for  each  lighSng  
point  (ceiling  rose).    
 
From  each  juncSon  box  a  separate  
cable  runs  to  the  light  and  another  
runs  to  the  switch.    
 
Whilst  this  system  is  rarely  used  
now,  it  is  much  less  complicated  for  
the  consumer  to  connect  new  light  
fi]ngs.    
 
Examples  of  the  wiring  found  at  
ceiling  roses  on  radial/juncSon-­‐box  
installaSons  are  given  on  this  page  -­‐  
Radial  circuits  
Fire  protecKon:  means  of  
escape,    
fire  regulaKons,    
grading,  resistance,    
detecKon  systems.  
Fire  ProtecKon  
• Fire  protecSon  is  an  issue  that  separates  private  security  and  
asset  protecSon  from  public  law  enforcement.  Fire  can  
destroy  almost  anything.    

• It  is  a  chemical  process  whereby  heat,  fuel,  and  oxygen  

combine  in  a  chemical  chain  reacSon  to  turn  a  solid  or  liquid  
into  a  gas.  With  adequate  amounts  of  heat  and  oxygen,  
virtually  anything  can  become  fuel  for  a  fire.  

ProtecSon  officers  are  frequently  responsible  for  fire  prevenSon  

duSes  including    
• inspecSons,    
• training,  and    
• possibly  response.  
• The  threat  of  fire  varies  with  the  environment  
and  percepSon  of  that  threat  also  changes.  fire  
insurance  execuSves  generally  viewed  fire  as  
good  for  business  (Purpura,  1991).    

• Fires  were  similar  to  airplane  crashes  in  that  they  

were  relaSvely  improbable  events  that  created  
hysteria  and  spurred  the  purchase  of  insurance  
policies.    

• Insurance  companies  made  money  on  these  

policies  unSl  excessive  fires  in  heavily  populated  
areas  where  buildings  were  constructed  of  wood  
caused  enormous  amounts  of  claims  to  be  paid.    
• These  “Great  Fires”  occurred  around  the  world  
and  destroyed  large  secSons  of  many  ciSes,  such  
as  the  London,  New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  San  
Francisco,  and  Seacle.    

• While  these  oaen  spurred  the  passage  of  

ordinances  and  regulaSon  relaSng  to  building  
construcSon,  it  was  in  1894  that  the  
Underwriter's  Laboratories  (UL)  was  formed  and  
began  independently  tesSng  materials,  and  in  
1896  that  the  NaSonal  Fire  ProtecSon  
AdministraSon  began  developing  standards  for  
fire  protecSon.    
PASSIVE  FIRE  
PROTECTION  –  WHAT  IS  
IT,  AND  WHY  IS  IT  SO  
IMPORTANT?  
PASSIVE  FIRE  PROTECTION    
• Passive  fire  protecKon  is  a  crucial  element  of  fire  
protecKon  that  should  be  planned  for  from  the  
very  iniKal  design  stages  of  any  new  building  –  
and  retrofi[ed  where  possible  into  all  exisKng  
building  fit-­‐outs.  
•    
• Passive  fire  protecKon  saves  lives  &  property  
• ConstrucKon  elements  in  a  building  can  be  used  
to  prevent,  or  delay,  fire  and  smoke  spreading  
through  the  building  using  physical  barriers  and  
fire  cells  to  create  passive  fire  protecKon.  
• To  be  effecKve,  architects  should  plan  for  passive  fire  protecKon  
from  the  iniKal  design  stages  of  any  building  project,  as  can  
contribute  hugely  to  the  fire  safety  of  any  building.    

• Of  course  passive  fire  protecKon  should  be  complemented  by  the  

use  of  fire  alarms,  sprinkler  systems,  fire  evacuaKon  plans  and  
great  safety  training    but  implemenKng  passive  fire  protecKon  can  
greatly  reduce  the  danger  to  people  and  property  in  a  fire  
emergency.    
   
• These  illustraKons  show  various  forms  of  passive  fire  protecKon.  
Each  form  of  passive  fire  protecKon  is  designed  to  provide  smoke  
separaKon  as  well  as  fire  resistance.  
How  passive  fire  protecKon  works  
• Passive  fire  protecKon  is  designed  to  act  as  physical  
barriers  that  contain  fire  and  smoke  and  limit  fire,  
and  to  protect  crucial  structural  components  from  
fire  to  delay  or  prevent  structural  collapse.    

• To  do  this,  flammability  and  fire  resistance  of  the  

building’s  construcKon  materials  need  to  be  
controlled  and  carefully  planned  during  design.  
   
• Passive  fire  protecKon  has  two  key  components:  
• Fire  resistance  –  focused  on  using  a  fire-­‐separaKng  
element  (a  wall,  floor  or  ceiling)  to  limit  the  spread  
of  fire  through  the  element,  or  to  prevent  
structural  collapse  of  load-­‐bearing  elements    
• ReacKon  to  fire  –  restricKng  flammability  (surface  burning  
behaviour  of  an  element  or  material  and  how  it  promotes  
rapid  flame  spread,  hot  gases  or  smoke  producKon).  
   
• Passive  fire  protecKon  provides  protecKon  simply  by  
being  there  

• Passive  fire  protecKon  is  an  important  part  of  building  fire  
safety  and  should  be  subject  to  the  same  rigorous  
installaKon  documentaKon,  inspecKon  and  sign-­‐off  as  
acKve  fire  protecKon.  Passive  fire  protecKon  systems  
should  be  correctly  specified,  installed  and  maintained.    
Passive  fire  protecKon  through  separaKon  of  fire  
cells  
• Dividing  building  construcKon  into  firecells  with  fire  resistant  materials  
can  help  prevent  smoke  and  fire  spread,  and  contain  fire  for  a  specified  
period  of  Kme.    
   
• Considerable  evidence  exists  to  show  that,  in  a  large  proporKon  of  
buildings,  passive  fire  protecKon  is  not  being  effecKvely  designed,  
specified  and  delivered  This  potenKally  poses  a  serious  life  safety  risk  for  
building  occupants  and  firefighters  in  the  event  of  fire  occurring,  as  well  
as  increasing  risk  of  fire  spread  and  subsequent  property  damage.    

• There  is  an  overwhelming  need  for  comprehensive  guidance  on  how  to  
design,  specify,  install,  inspect,  cerKfy  and  maintain  effecKve  and  resilient  
passive    

• To  this  end  many  countries  have  created  this  useful  Guide  to  Passive  Fire  
ProtecSon  which  describes  good  pracSce  for  the  specificaSon,  approval,  
installaSon  and  verificaSon  of  passive  fire  protecSon,  and  idenSfies  the  
requirements  of  the  New  fire  protecSon  in  some  countries.  
Performance-­‐Based  Design  
• A  performance-­‐based  fire  protecSon  approach  is  an  alternaSve  to  following  
a  rigid  set  of  guidelines  by  evaluaSng  hazards  and  planning  the  most  
appropriate  protecSon  in  innovaSve  ways  to  meet  performance  goals.  
Supported  by    

• Codes,  this  approach  is  also  driven  by  computer  soaware  that  runs  fire  
models,  technical  analysis  that  is  less  subjecSve  than  tradiSonal  planning,  
and    
• Performance-­‐based  design  that  offers  comparisons  of  products.    
   
 “Performance-­‐based  design  is  an  engineering  approach  to  fire  protecSon  that  
is  based  on  a  specific  design  goal  as  opposed  to  the  normal  prescripSve  code  
requirements  based  on  occupancies.”    
 
For  example,  a  fire  code  might  require  exit  travel  distance  at  90m.  This  
requirement  may  not  be  appropriate  in  all  cases.  Performance-­‐based  design  
would  seek  fire  safety  through  a  goal,  such  as  evacuaSon  of  the  building  within  
4  minutes  
FIRE  SUPPRESSION  SYSTEMS  
• A    fire  suppression  system  is,  to  a  degree,  precisely  what  it  sounds  like    a  
system  used  to  suppress  and/or  exSnguish  a  fire  within  a  building.  

• Note  that  fire  suppression  systems  are  different  than  fire  sprinkler  systems.  
Fire  sprinklers  always  use  water  in  copious  amounts  to  exSnguish  and/or  
control  a  fire.  Water  damage  to  the  contents  of  the  room/building  can  
oaen  occur  as  a  result,  but  lives  are  saved,  as  is  the  structure.  

• With  fire  suppression  systems,  however,  they  use  other  types  of  
suppressing  agents  besides  water.  These  suppressing  agents  include  CO2,  
chemical,  or  inert  gases.  As  we  will  discuss  in  detail  later,  these  agents  have  
unique  properSes  that  are  ideal  for  protecSng  sensiSve  equipment  and  
contents  within  a  building  even  while  suppressing  a  fire.  

• A  suppression  system  aims  to  take  acSon  before  a  fire  gets  a  chance  to  
grow  and  spread,  truly  minimizing  potenSal  damages.  This  oaen  means  
that  these  systems  acSvate  at  a  much  earlier  stage  in  the  fire’s  
development  than  do  fire  sprinklers.  
MODULE    
Module  Code:  ARC  2113  
Level:  3  Semester:  1    
Module  Title:  Building  Technology  III    
6TH  December    20223  
0780870284  
ogah4eternity@gmail.com  
 
Cell:  0780870284  
• IndicaSve  Content:   • Refuse  disposal  systems  
• Provision  of  water:  Basic   such  as  chutes,    
cold  water  supply,    
incinerator,    
• hot  water  supply,    storage,  
• distribuSon  and  drainage.   garchery  systems,  and  
• Electrical  installaSon,     macerator  equipment.    
wiring  faciliSes,     • Mechanical  systems,    
• ducts,     pumps  sizes  and  locaSon.    
• Fire  protecSon:  means  of  
• Provision  of  specialized  
escape,     services  such  as    
• fire  regulaSons,    
• grading,  resistance,     • lias,  escalators  and    
• detecSon  systems.   • air  condiSoning.  
Fire  protecKon:  means  of  
escape,    
fire  regulaKons,    
grading,  resistance,    
detecKon  systems.  
Fire  ProtecKon  
means  all  aspects  of  fire  safety  
including  but  not  limited  to  
•  fire  prevenSon,  
•  firefighSng  or    
• Fire  Suppression,    
• pre-­‐fire  planning,    
• fire  invesSgaSon,    
• public  educaSon  and  informaSon,  
training  or  other  staff  
development;  
   
Fire  ProtecSon  means  a  range  of  
programs  designed  to  protect  the  lives  
and  property  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  
fire  Department  response  area  from  
the  adverse  effects  of  fires,  sudden  
medical  emergencies  or  exposure  to  
dangerous  condiSons  created  by  and/
or  nature  and  includes  fire  prevenSon  
and  public  educaSon,  rescue  and  
suppression  services.  
Maintaining  structural  stability  and  limiSng  the  spread  of  
fire/smoke  throughout  the  duraSon  of  a  credible,  
structurally-­‐severe  design  fire  scenario  (e.g.,  total  
burnout)  are  important  requirements  to  saSsfying  overall  
fire  life  safety  objecSves  for  any  very  tall  building  design.    
 
In  todays  class  we  will  describes  how  structural  fire  safety  
engineering  approaches  provide  sufficient  Sme  for  
building  occupants  to    
• exit  the  building  or    
• reach  a  place  of  relaSve  safety  with  minimal  fire  
exposure,    
• enable  fire  fighSng      
• Enable  search-­‐and-­‐rescue  acSviSes,  and    
• limit  fire  exposure  to  people  and  buildings  in  the  
surrounding  area  
The  purpose  of  a  fire  protecSon  system  is  to  safeguard  a  
building’s  occupants  while  minimizing  fire  damage.  It  provides  
the  largest  feasible  window  for  a  safe  evacuaSon  while  
minimizing  future  repair  expenditures.  
   
What’s  Fire  ProtecKon?  
• Fire  protecSon  involves  every  form  of  strategy  that  can  be  
implemented  to  protect  against  fire  outbreaks,  and  training  
to  combat  fire  outbreaks  in  the  event  of  one.  Other  Strategies  
Include  
• a.  Pu]ng  in  place  safety  planning  and  exercises  
b.  EducaSng  people  about  the  dangers  of  fire  and  how  to  
avoid  them  
c.  InvesSgaSng  and  conducSng  research  
d.  Planning  for  safety  is  essenSal.  
e.  Building  materials  and  techniques  that  are  fire-­‐resistant  
f.  OperaSonal  safety  
g.  MiSgaSon  system  training  and  tesSng  
The  3  phases  of  Fire  protecKon  
• Fire  Assessment/Study  
• AcSve  Fire  ProtecSon  Systems  
• Passive  Fire  ProtecSon  Systems  
• Fire  Assessment/Study:  To  protect  against  damages  
that  may  be  caused  by  fire,  it’s  important  you  know  
the  various  risks/elements  that  may  cause  a  fire  as  
well  as  various  training  such  as  using  fire  
exSnguishers  and  other  kinds  of  exSnguishing  
equipment,  regulaSons  and  rules  related  to  
buildings  and  their  construcSon    
AcSve  fire  protecSon  systems  (such  as  fire  alarms  and  
sprinklers)  are  designed  to  help  combat  fires.  Anything  that  
requires  a  certain  amount  of  starSng  response  from  an  outside  
source  to  work  as  intended  falls  under  this  category  of  the  three  
fundamentals.    
 
This  is  most  commonly  encountered  in  manual  and  automaSc  
fire  detecSon  (smoke  alarms,  for  example),  but  it  also  applies  to  
first  aid  and  firefighSng,  as  these  are  both  acSve  responses  to  
an  emergency.  
   
A  passive  fire  protecSon  system  refers  to  structural  features  
that  prevent  flames  and  smoke  from  spreading.  It  comprises  the  
facility’s  architecture,  firewalls  and  doors,  fireproof  building  
material,  firefighSng  training,  good  visual  indicators,  evacuaSon  
procedures,  and  smoke  doors,  among  other  things.  
Key  Components  
of  Fire  
ProtecKon  
Systems  
Fire-­‐protecSon  and  life  safety  systems  include;    
• building  exit  systems,    
• fire-­‐alarm  systems,  and    
• fire-­‐suppression  systems.    
Fire-­‐prevenSon  codes  specify  the  proper  maintenance  
and  repair  of  these  systems.    
 
Fire  protecSon  involves  the  installaSon  and  use  of  
structural  and  operaSonal  systems  to  minimize  the  
impact  of  fire  on  people  and  property.    
 
Fire-­‐protecSon  systems  fall  into  two  main  categories  —    
• passive  fire  protecSon  and    
• acSve  fire  protecSon.  
Passive  fire  protecSon  involves  the  use  of  
building  components  to  control  or  limit  a  fire.    
• Walls,    
• floors,  and    
• ceilings    
 
All  these  can  be  designed  and  constructed  to  
resist  the  passage  of  fire  and  smoke.  
  
For  example,  a  wall  with  a  one-­‐hour  fire  resistance  raSng  
is  built  as  a  barrier  to  resist  the  passage  of  a  standard  fire  
for  one  hour.    
 
These  barriers  are  arranged  to  provide  
compartmentaSon,  so  they  subdivide  the  building  into  
areas  to  reduce  the  size  and  spread  of  a  standard  fire.  
 
The  most  important  thing  to  remember  about  
compartmentaSon  is  that  it  does  not  work  if  the  wall,  
floor  or  ceiling  has  an  unprotected  opening  in  it  through  
which  fire  and  smoke  can  spread.    
 
Managers  must  be  sure  penetraSons  through  fire-­‐
rated  barriers  are  kept  to  a  minimum.  
 
If  a  penetraSon  is  necessary,  managers  need  to  be  
sure  the  penetraSon  is  protected  according  to  code  in  
order  to  maintain  the  barrier’s  fire  raSng.    
 
Too  oaen,  the  installaSon  of  piping,  telephone  lines  
or  data-­‐transmission  cables  through  fire-­‐rated  
barriers  renders  them  useless.  
Older  high-­‐rise  office  buildings  typically  relied  on  
compartmentaSon  as  a  primary  fire  protecSon  system,  
but  over  Sme,  fire-­‐rated  compartmentaSon  is  oaen  
penetrated  to  accommodate  new  office  technologies  and  
space  requirements.  
 
Walls  and  doors.  
A  typical  compartmentaSon  system  uses  fire-­‐rated  walls  
and  associated  fire  doors  to  contain  a  fire.    
 
The  goal  of  fire-­‐rated  walls  is  to  prevent  the  horizontal  
passage  of  fire.  The  fire  raSng  of  the  wall  can  vary  from  
20  minutes  to  four  hours  and  can  be  calculated  for  a  fire  
exposure  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  wall.  
The  doors  in  these  walls  also  have  a  fire  raSng,  which  is  usually  lower  than  the  fire  
raSng  of  the  wall.    
 
The  theory  behind  the  lower  raSng  is  that  the  building  contents,  which  serve  as  the  
fuel,  are  not  located  in  front  of  the  door.    
 
So  the  fire  exposure  to  the  door  can  be  less  than  that  of  the  wall.  But  while  a  fire  door  
is  designed  to  resist  the  passage  of  fire,  it  is  ineffecSve  if  it  is  blocked  open  or  
inoperable,  and  the  fire-­‐rated  wall  in  which  the  door  is  located  is  no  longer  a  sufficient  
fire  barrier.  
 
The  following  types  of  walls  have  a  fire-­‐resistance  raSng:  
•  Fire  walls  and  fire  parSSons,  which  include  fire-­‐resistance-­‐rated  walls  that  extend  
conSnuously  from  slab  to  slab,  have  fire-­‐rated  protected  openings,  and  restrict  the  
spread  of  fire  
 
•  Party  walls,  which  are  fire  walls  on  an  interior  lot  line  used  or  adapted  for  joint  
service  between  two  buildings  
•  Smoke  barriers,  which  are  conSnuous  membranes  that  resist  the  movement  of  
smoke  
 
   
Floors  and  ceilings.  Another  form  of  compartmentaSon  is  a  
fire-­‐resistant-­‐rated  floor-­‐and-­‐ceiling  assembly,  which  creates  
a  horizontal  barrier  to  prevent  the  spread  of  fire  from  one  
floor  to  the  next.  
 
 It  might  consist  of  a  concrete  or  protected  steel  floor  slab,  a  
fire-­‐rated  ceiling  system,  or  combinaSons  of  those  
components.      
 
As  with  fire-­‐rated  walls,  fire-­‐rated  floors  and  ceilings  should  
have  the  fewest  possible  penetraSons.  If  penetraSons  occur,  
they  must  be  constructed  to  the  same  raSng  as  the  floor  or  
ceiling  they  pass  through.  
Passive  fire  protecSon,  to  use  the  proper  term,  is  one  of  the  
most  important  aspects  of  any  building  services  installaSon,  
whether  it  involves  components  such  as  cables  or  cable  trays  
or  potenSally  sizeable  elements  such  as  pipes  and  ductwork.    
 
A  building  with  incorrect  fire-­‐stopping  can  be  as  dangerous  as  
a  building  with  none  at  all.For  example,  a  wall  with  a  one-­‐hour  
fire  resistance  raSng  is  built  as  a  barrier  to  resist  the  passage  
of  a  standard  fire  for  one  hour.    
 
These  barriers  are  arranged  to  provide  compartmentaSon,  so  
they  subdivide  the  building  into  areas  to  reduce  the  size  and  
spread  of  a  standard  fire.  
AcSve  fire-­‐protecSon  measures  
are  those  that  take  direct  physical  
acSon  to  reduce  the  growth  rate  
of  fire  or  the  migraSon  of  smoke.  
These  systems  most  oaen  are  fire  
sprinkler  and  smoke-­‐control  
systems  that  receive  manual  and  
automaSc  signals  to  perform  
their  intended  funcSon.  
 
Fire-­‐alarm  systems  are  also  part  
of  acSve  fire  protecSon.  They  
usually  idenSfy  the  presence  of  
fire  by  detecSng  smoke  or  heat,  
and  they  are  used  for  acSvaSon  
of  exSnguishing  systems  or  the  
noSficaSon  of  building  occupants  
and  the  fire  department.  
 
Fire-­‐sprinkler  and  other  
exSnguishing  systems  
are  intended  to  
exSnguish  or  control  the  
fire.  Smoke  control  
systems  typically  are  
designed  to  limit  the  
spread  of  smoke,  which  
keeps  egress  routes  
passable  for  a  given  
period.    
 
Choosing  the  right  fire  
sprinkler  is  criScal  to  the  
success  of  a  sprinkler  system  
in  controlling  or  exSnguishing  
a  fire.  
 
Sprinklers  should  be  chosen  
by  evaluaSng  the  occupancy,  
hazards,  and  condiSons  
(ceiling  height,  type  of  
construcSon,  ambient  
temperature,  available  water  
supply,  etc.)  of  the  building,  
and  more  specifically,  the  
area  the  sprinklers  will  be  
protecSng.  
 
 
 How fire 2 This liquid is
designed to
expand and break

sprinklers work
On  the  surface,  sprinklers  seem  
the tube at a certain
temperature. The
most common are
designed to break at
1 The typical sprinkler head consists of a 155 degrees. In the

like  very  simple  devices,  but  a  lot  

plug held in place by a trigger mechanism. average sized room,
The most common type of trigger is a glass a 5mm diameter
ampule filled with a glycerin-based liquid that ampule will usually
expands when heated. break in about one

of  research  and  tesSng  goes  into  

to one and a half
minutes from
contact with a heat
A less commonly used type of source. Ampules as
trigger consists of two metal thin as 1mm are

their  design.  Sprinklers  are  

plates held together by a solder manufactured for a
point. When the solder melts, faster response time.
two spring arms pull the plates
apart, releasing the plug.
3 The plug is

classified  by  NFPA  13  Standard  

forced out by
Plug
the pressurized
Air bubble water behind it and
allows for deflected away by a

for  the  InstallaSon  of  Sprinkler  

normal beveled edge. The
expansion water sprays over
of liquid the deflector plate
Plug Spring which is designed to
arms Vacuum-
distribute it in an

Systems  in  several  ways,  

sealed
glass tube even pattern. Water
will continue to flow
Soldered plates Deflector until the main valve
plate is shut off.

including  temperature  raSng,  K-­‐

factor,  orientaSon,  response-­‐ How an uncontrolled
fire spreads
How a sprinkler system
puts the fire out

type,  design  and  performance   1 Smoke and toxic

gases rise from
the source of the fire.
1 Even a small smoldering
fire acts like a heat engine
as it steadily increases

characterisScs,  and  special  

They spread quickly the air temperature
along the ceiling directly above it.
and heat the air The hot air fans
in the room. out across the

service  condiSons.  Some  

ceiling, heating
up the nearest
sprinkler head.

sprinklers  are  designed  for  the  

protecSon  of  storage,  and  some   2 The current of hot
air forces a curtain of
deadly gases down
2 As soon as the trigger
mechanism is heated
to the required

are  designed  as  special  

the walls, making temperature, it
155º
escape more trips and the
difficult. In a water is released.
few minutes The immediate

applicaSon  sprinklers.  In  

the air will cooling of the
become so hot heat source
that the entire usually prevents
contents of the other sprinkler
room will ignite heads from
spontaneously. activating. Often,
This is known one or two
as flashover and sprinkler heads
usually occurs are enough to
between 1,000 and control a fire.
1,500 degrees.
SOURCES: Tyco Fire Products, Blaze, by Nicholas Faith JOURNAL GRAPHIC / TOM MURPHY
The  fire  alarm,  through  
both  the  acSvaSon  of  
the  fire-­‐sprinkler  system  
and  manual  or  
automaSc  detecSon  
devices,  provides  
warning  to  building  
occupants,  as  well  as  
noSficaSon  to  
emergency  personnel  
responding  to  the  alarm.  
5  Important  Reasons  You  Need  a  Quality  Fire  Alarm  System  
For  Your  Business  
No  macer  who  you  are,  and  what  you  do,  fire  is  always  going  to  
be  a  risk  you  should  look  out  for.  While  we  are  becer  equipped  
than  ever  before  to  handle  blazes  of  all  sizes,  fire  safety  is  
something  that  should  never  be  taken  for  granted.    
 
When  it  comes  to  running  a  business,  you  should  also  be  ready  
to  support  your  premises  and  the  people  within  it  with  a  fire  
alarm  system  they  can  depend  upon.  
 
However,  you  will  need  to  make  sure  that  you  have  a  fire  alarm  
installaSon  in  place  which  will  do  the  job  that’s  asked  of  it.  
Failure  to  upgrade  your  fire  alarm  or  to  at  least  test  it  could  be  
detrimental  not  only  to  your  company,  but  also  to  the  lives  of  all  
of  those  who  are  involved.  For  that  reason,  if  you  don’t  already  
have  a  fire  alarm  in  place,  it’s  Sme  to  start  thinking  about  
ge]ng  set  up.  
Here  are  five  important  
reasons  why  ge]ng  a  quality  
fire  alarm  macers  to  your  
business.  
• CUSTOMERS  NEED  TO  FEEL  
SAFE  
• EMPLOYEES  NEED  
REASSURANCE  
• AUTHORITIES  NEED  TO  
ALERT  THE  AUTHORITIES  
• REPUTATION  IS  AT  STAKE  
• THE  PREMISES  IS  AT  STAKE  
fire  compartmentaKon    
 
“A  building  or  part  of  a  building  comprising  one  or  more  rooms,  spaces  or  
storeys  constructed  to  prevent  the  spread  of  fire  to  or  from  another  part  of  
the  same  building  or  an  adjoining  building.”  
 
This  is  achieved  through  the  provision  of  fire  resisSng  walls  and  floors  
(commonly  offering  between  30  minutes  and  120  minutes  fire  resistance),  
and  will  include  special  measures  to  address  any  openings  in  the  
compartment  lines,  such  as  doors,  glazing,  service  penetraSons  and  
ductwork.  
 
The  wall  or  floor  must  remain  funcSonal  for  the  duraSon  of  the  designed  fire  
resistance  period.  The  compartment  wall  or  floor  should  not  crack  or  
develop  holes  that  allow  flames,  smoke  or  hot  gases  to  pass  through  it,  and  
if  appropriate,  it  should  maintain  a  suitable  degree  of  insulaSon.  
 
There  are  two  main  reasons  as  to  why  fire  compartmentaSon  is  required  –    
• for  life  safety  and    
• property  protecSon  purposes.  
In  high-­‐rise  buildings,  the  
most  important  safety  issue  is  fire  prevenSon.  The  
applicaSon  of  fire-­‐resistant  glass  in  the  curtain  wall  
of  high-­‐rise  buildings  has  become  the  focus  of  
acenSon.    
 
Fire-­‐resistant  glass  can  play  a  role  in  controlling  fire,  
smoke  and  high  temperature  diffusion  for  a  long  
Sme  when  a  fire  occurs.    
 
As  well  as  the  requirements  for  design  materials,  
we  will  discusses  the  precauSons  for  the  design  of  
curtain  walls  of  high-­‐rise  buildings  and  the  
promoSon  and  use  of  fire-­‐resistant  glass    
With  the  conSnuous  development  of  the  world  
economy  and  construcSon  industry  in  recent  years,  
more  and  more  high-­‐rise  building  exterior  walls  
have  adopted  glass  curtain  wall  construcSon  in  the  
design  of  high-­‐rise  building  exterior  walls  in  order  
to  pursue  a  certain  arSsSc  quality,  but  this  design  
style  exists    
   
There  is  a  great  fire  safety  hazard,  and  there  must  
be  a  fire.  Due  to  the  difficulty  of  fire  suppression  
and  the  rapid  spread  of  fire  in  high-­‐rise  buildings,  
serious  problems  and  loss  of  life  and  property  can  
occur.    
The  concept  of  fire-­‐resistant  glass  curtain  wall  Fire  
glass  curtain  wall,  we  generally  call  it  fire  glass  
curtain  wall  system  or  fire  glass  parSSon  system.    
 
Fire-­‐resistant  glass  curtain  wall  system  shall  be  
composed  of  steel  frame,  fire-­‐resistant  glass,  flame  
resistant  sealant  strip,  flame-­‐resistant  sealant,  steel  
connectors  and  hardware.    
 
The  anchors  connecSng  steel  frames  shall  not  use  
modified  epoxy  resin  as  the  anchoring  agent  .    
fire  
escape  
• The  means  of  escape  are  the  routes  and  doors  
that  occupants  need  to  use  to  get  out  of  a  
building  in  an  emergency.  It  should  be  
ensured  that  they  are  immediately  available  
for  use  at  all  material  Smes,  which  is  
whenever  people,  (staff,  visitors,  students  or  
contractors)  are  in  the  premises.  Exit  routes.  
Places  of  RelaKve  Safety  
It  is  oaen  necessary  to  devise  a  temporary  place  of  safety,  such  as  when  
evacuaSng  high  buildings.  This  may  be  defined  as  a  place  of  comparaSve  safety  
and  includes  any  place  that  puts  an  effecSve  barrier  (normally  30  minutes’  fire  
resistance)  between  the  person  escaping  and  the  fire.  Examples  are  as  follows:  

• A  storey  exit  into  a  protected  stairway  or  the  lobby  of  a  lobby-­‐approach  
stairway;  
• A  door  in  a  compartment  wall  or  separaSng  wall  leading  to  an  alternaSve  exit;  
• A  door  that  leads  directly  to  a  protected  stair  or  a  final  exit  via  a  protected  
corridor.  
• A  staircase  that  is  enclosed  throughout  its  height  by  a  fire  resisSng  structure  
and  doors  can  someSmes  be  considered  a  place  of  comparaSve  safety.    

In  these  cases,  the  staircase  can  be  known  as  a  ‘protected  route’.  However,  the  
degree  of  protecSon  that  enables  staircases  to  be  considered  a  place  of  
comparaSve  safety  varies  for  differing  building  types,  and  is  normally  defined  in  
the  relevant  codes  of  pracSce.  
   
Place  of  UlSmate  Safety  
   
• Ideally,  this  should  be  in  the  open  air,  where  
unrestricted  dispersal  away  from  the  building  can  be  
achieved.    

• Escape  routes  should  never  discharge  finally  into  

enclosed  areas  or  enclosed  yards,  unless  the  dispersal  
area  is  large  enough  to  permit  all  the  occupants  to  
proceed  to  a  safe  distance.  

•  (NB:  a  safe  distance  equates  to  at  least  the  height  of  
the  building,  measured  along  the  ground.)  Total  
dispersal  in  the  open  air    
IncineraKon  
• IncineraSon  is  the  process  of  controlled  combusSon  of  
garbage  to  reduce  it  to  incombusSble  macer  such  as  
ash  and  waste  gas.  The  exhaust  gases  from  this  process  
may  be  toxic,  hence  it  is  treated  before  being  released  
into  the  environment.    

• This  process  reduces  the  volume  of  waste  by  90  per  
cent  and  is  considered  as  one  of  the  most  hygienic  
methods  of  waste  disposal.  In  some  cases,  the  heat  
generated  is  used  to  produce  electricity.    

• However,  some  consider  this  process,  not  quite  

environmentally  friendly  due  to  the  generaSon  of  
greenhouse  gases  such  as  carbon  dioxide  and  carbon  
monoxide.  
Refuse  disposal  
• The  discarding  or  destroying  of  garbage,  sewage,  or  other  waste  
macer  or  its  transformaSon  into  something  useful  or  innocuous.  
   
Methods  of  Waste  Disposal  
• Garbage  accumulaSon  has  never  been  much  of  a  concern  in  the  
past,  but  due  to  globalizaSon  and  industrializaSon,  there  is  a  need  
for  a  more  efficient  waste  disposal  method.  Following  are  some  of  
the  methods  that  are  used  today.  
   
Landfill  
• In  this  process,  the  waste  that  cannot  be  reused  or  recycled  are  
separated  out  and  spread  as  a  thin  layer  in  low-­‐lying  areas  across  a  
city.  A  layer  of  soil  is  added  aaer  each  layer  of  garbage.  However,  
once  this  process  is  complete,  the  area  is  declared  unfit  for  
construcSon  of  buildings  for  the  next  20  years.  Instead,  it  can  only  
be  used  as  a  playground  or  a  park.  
Refuse  disposal  
systems  such  as  
chutes,    
incinerator,    
garchery  systems,  
and  
macerator  
equipment.    
waste  disposal,  the  collecSon,  processing,  and  recycling  
or  deposiSon  of  the  waste  materials  of  human  society.    
 
Waste  is  classified  by  source  and  composiSon.  Broadly  
speaking,  waste  materials  are  either  liquid  or  solid  in  
form,  and  their  components  may  be  either  hazardous  or  
inert  in  their  effects  on  health  and  the  environment.  
 
 The  term  waste  is  typically  applied  to  solid  waste,  
sewage  (wastewater),  hazardous  waste,  and  electronic  
waste.  
    

In  industrialized  countries,  municipal  liquid  waste  is  

funneled  through  sewage  systems,  where  it  
undergoes  wastewater  treatment,  or  sewage  
treatment.  
 
This  process  removes  most  or  all  of  the  impuriSes  
from  wastewater,  or  sewage,  before  they  can  reach  
groundwater  aquifers  or  surface  waters  such  as  
rivers,  lakes,  estuaries,  and  oceans  
 
 
Refuse,  or  municipal  solid  waste  (MSW),  is  
nonhazardous  solid  waste  from  a  community  
that  requires  collecSon  and  transport  to  a  
processing  or  disposal  site.    
 
Refuse  includes  garbage  and  rubbish.  Garbage  is  
mostly  decomposable  food  waste,  and  rubbish  is  
mostly  dry  material  such  as  glass,  paper,  cloth,  
or  wood.    
Garbage  is  highly  putrescible  or  decomposable,  
whereas  rubbish  is  not.    
 
Trash  is  rubbish  that  includes  bulky  items  such  as  
old  refrigerators,  couches,  large  tree  stumps,  or  
construcSon  and  demoliSon  waste  (e.g.,  wood,  
drywall,  bricks,  concrete,  and  rebar  [a  steel  rod  
with  ridges  for  use  in  reinforced  concrete]),  all  of  
which  oaen  require  special  collecSon  and  handling.    
Some  forms  of  solid  and  liquid  waste  are   Electronic  waste,  or  e-­‐waste,  is  electronic  equipment  
classified  as  hazardous  because  they  are  harmful   that  has  ceased  to  be  of  value  to  users  or  that  no  longer  
to  human  health  and  the  environment.     saSsfies  its  original  purpose  as  a  result  of  either  
  redundancy,  replacement,  or  breakage.    
Hazardous  wastes  include  materials  that  are    
toxic,  reacSve,  ignitable,  corrosive,  infecSous,  or   Electronic  waste  includes  both  “white  goods”  such  as  
radioacSve.     refrigerators,  washing  machines,  and  microwave  ovens  
  and  “brown  goods”  such  as  televisions,  radios,  
computers,  and  cellular  telephones.    
Toxic  waste  is  essenSally  chemical  waste  from  
industrial,  chemical,  or  biological  processes  that    
can  cause  injury  or  death  when  it  is  either   E-­‐waste  differs  from  tradiSonal  municipal  waste.  
ingested  or  absorbed  by  the  skin.   Although  e-­‐waste  contains  complex  combinaSons  of  
  highly  toxic  substances  (such  as  lead  and  cadmium  in  
computers  and  cellular  telephones)  that  pose  a  danger  
ReacSve  wastes  are  chemically  unstable  and   to  health  and  the  environment,  which  should  be  treated  
react  violently  or  explosively  with  air  or  water.     as  hazardous  materials  with  respect  to  their  disposal,  it  
  also  contains  non-­‐recyclable  parts  that  enter  the  
InfecSous  wastes  (such  as  used  bandages,   municipal  solid  waste  stream.    
hypodermic  needles,  and  other  materials  from    
medical  and  research  faciliSes)  are  materials  that  
may  contain  pathogens.     Electronic  devices  also  contain  recoverable  parts  made  
of  gold,  silver,  plaSnum,  and  other  valuable  materials,  
  as  well  as  recyclable  materials  (such  as  plasScs  and  
RadioacSve  wastes  (such  as  spent  fuel  rods   copper),  that  can  be  used  to  make  new  electronic  
containing  fissionable  materials  used  in  nuclear   items.    
power  generaSon  and  isotopes  of  cobalt  and  
iodine  used  in  cancer  treatment  and  other  
medical  applicaSons)  emit  ionizing  energy  that  
can  harm  living  organisms.    
 
Hazardous  wastes  pose  special  handling,  storage,  
and  disposal  challenges  that  vary  according  the  
nature  of  the  material  
solid-­‐waste  management,  the  collecSng,  treaSng,    
and  disposing  of  solid  material  that  is  discarded  
because  it  has  served  its  purpose  or  is  no  longer   All  nonhazardous  solid  waste  from  a  
useful.     community  that  requires  collecSon  
  and  transport  to  a  processing  or  
Improper  disposal  of  municipal  solid  waste  can   disposal  site  is  called  refuse  or  
create  unsanitary  condiSons,  and  these  
condiSons  in  turn  can  lead  to  polluSon  of  the   municipal  solid  waste  (MSW).  
environment  and  to  outbreaks  of  vector-­‐borne    
disease  that  is,  diseases  spread  by  rodents  and  
insects.      Refuse  includes  garbage  and  
  rubbish.  Garbage  is  mostly  
The  tasks  of  solid-­‐waste  management  present   decomposable  food  waste;  rubbish  is  
complex  technical  challenges.  They  also  pose  a  
wide  variety  of  administraSve,  economic,  and   mostly  dry  material  such  as  glass,  
social  problems  that  must  be  managed  and   paper,  cloth,  or  wood.  Garbage  is  
solved.   highly  putrescible  or  decomposable,  
  whereas  rubbish  is  not.    
Solid-­‐waste  characterisScs  
ComposiSon  and  properSes    
The  sources  of  solid  waste  include  residenSal,   Trash  is  rubbish  that  includes  bulky  
commercial,  insStuSonal,  and  industrial  acSviSes.     items  such  as  old  refrigerators,  
  couches,  or  large  tree  stumps.  Trash  
Certain  types  of  wastes  that  cause  immediate   requires  special  collecSon  and  
danger  to  exposed  individuals  or  environments  
are  classified  as  hazardous;  these  are  discussed  in   handling.  
the  arScle  hazardous-­‐waste  management.    
 
ConstrucSon  and  demoliSon  (C&D)  waste  (or  
debris)  is  a  significant  component  of  total  solid  
waste  quanSSes  (about  20  percent  in  the  United  
States),  although  it  is  not  considered  to  be  part  
of  the  MSW  stream.  However,  because  C&D  
waste  is  inert  and  nonhazardous,  it  is  usually  
disposed  of  in  municipal  sanitary  landfills.  
Refuse  is  oaen  deposited  in  sanitary  landfill  that  
is,  pits  or  other  sites  sealed  with  impermeable  
syntheSc  bocom  liners  where  waste  is  isolated  
from  the  rest  of  the  environment.    
Landfill  
In  this  process,  the  waste  that  
cannot  be  reused  or  recycled  
are  separated  out  and  spread  
as  a  thin  layer  in  low-­‐lying  
areas  across  a  city.    
 
A  layer  of  soil    is  added  aaer  
each  layer  of  garbage.  
However,  once  this  process  is  
complete,  the  area  is  declared  
unfit  for  construcSon  of  
buildings  for  the  next  20  
years.  Instead,  it  can  only  be  
used  as  a  playground  or  a  
park.  
Waste  CompacKon  
The  waste  materials  
such  as  cans  and  
plasSc  bocles  are  
compacted  into  blocks  
and  sent  for  recycling.    
 
This  process  prevents  
the  oxidaSon  of  
metals  and  reduces  
airspace  need,  thus  
making  transportaSon  
and  posiSoning  easy.  
    
Biogas  GeneraKon  
Biodegradable  waste,  such  as  food  items,  animal  waste  or  
organic  industrial  waste  from  food  packaging  industries  
are  sent  to  bio-­‐degradaSon  plants.  In  bio-­‐degradaSon  
plants,  they  are  converted  to  biogas  by  degradaSon  with  
the  help  of  bacteria,  fungi,  or  other  microbes.  
 
 Here,  the  organic  macer  serves  as  food  for  the  micro-­‐
organisms.  The  degradaSon  can  happen  aerobically  (with  
oxygen)  or  anaerobically  (without  oxygen).  Biogas  is  
generated  as  a  result  of  this  process,  which  is  used  as  
fuel,  and  the  residue  is  used  as  manure.  
ComposKng  
All  organic  materials  decompose  with  Sme.  Food  scraps,  yard  
waste,  etc.,  make  up  for  one  of  the  major  organic  wastes  we  
throw  every  day.  The  process  of  composSng  starts  with  these  
organic  wastes  being  buried  under  layers  of  soil  and  then,  are  
lea  to  decay  under  the  acSon  of  microorganisms  such  as  
bacteria  and  fungi.  
   
This  results  in  the  formaSon  of  nutrient-­‐rich  manure.  Also,  
this  process  ensures  that  the  nutrients  are  replenished  in  the  
soil.  Besides  enriching  the  soil,  composSng  also  increases  the  
water  retenSon  capacity.  In  agriculture,  it  is  the  best  
alternaSve  to  chemical  ferSlizers.  
VermicomposKng  
• VermicomposSng  is  the  process  of  using  worms  
for  the  degradaSon  of  organic  macer  into  
nutrient-­‐rich  manure.  Worms  consume  and  
digest  the  organic  macer.  The  by-­‐products  of  
digesSon  which  are  excreted  out  by  the  worms  
make  the  soil  nutrient-­‐rich,  thus  enhancing  the  
growth  of  bacteria  and  fungi.  It  is  also  far  more  
effecSve  than  tradiSonal  composSng.  
Mechanical  
systems,    
pumps  sizes  and  
locaSon.  
Provision  of  specialized  
services  such  as    
ligs,  escalators  and    
air  condiKoning.  
Refuse  disposal  systems  
such  as  chutes,    
incinerator,    
garchery  systems,  and  
macerator  equipment.    
Mechanical  
systems,    
pumps  sizes  and  
locaSon.  
Provision  of  specialized  
services  such  as    
ligs,  escalators  and    
air  condiKoning.