CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITON
As we all know that in the bible, the book of Gen 1:28, God blessed them and said to them be
fruitful, multiply, fill the earth and subdue it. In other word 'reproduction' is the process by which
organism produce their offspring by fusion of gametes or by colones in which the offspring is
biologically similar to the parent.
Abiogenesis said that the first life-forms generated were very simple and through a gradual
process became increasingly complex.
 HISTORY
Genesis and generation, it's all part of the same story, whether it's the universe or a family or
a set of crops. Reproduction was a word that has a whole different set of meanings that weren't
really stable. The notion of reproduction has a history and it's a history that is often paired with
the history of generations. So what's the difference between the history of generations and the
history of reproduction.
Generation is the active creation of everything from minerals and plants to animals and
humans reproduction is more like copying, and the way that propagation was understood through
most of history.
Charles Darwin first diagram of an evolutionary tree from his first notebook on
transmutation of species ( 1837 ) on view at the museum of the natural history in Manhattan.
People in early modern Europe associated the making of babies with sexual intercourse in
some form or another that wasn't a mystery though the are people who argue that there are
groups of people in the world who do not make the link between getting pregnant and having had
sex. The question that people exercised in early modern Europe were about when life began,
when ensoulment ( that was their definition of when life began) occurred and when and why one
offspring resemble a parent or not.
Louise Brown, the first baby conceived after IVF, was born on 25 July 1978 and turned 27
last year. From one perspective, her birth can be seen as the culmination of 300 years of medical
and scientific investigation aimed at understanding the fascinating process of reproduction. This
essay was written as a tribute to mark the unique contribution to assisted reproductive technology
(ART) which resulted from the collaboration of a scientist, 'Bob Edward and a clinician',
Patrick Steptoe, who pioneered the successful conical use of IVF.
Aristotle and William devoted a considerable amount of his time to study the process of
reproduction, performed exacting trial on the kings herd of deer and wrote a major treatise on the
subject (De generate animalium, 1651) which contains in the front spiece a drawing of Jove
releasing a plethora of creatures from an egg on which is inscribed his famous dictum
1.2 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
Human reproductive organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring. Provided
all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly, the essential features of
human reproduction are
(1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle
(2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells,
(3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb
(4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the
wall of the uterus
(5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period
of gestation
(6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta
(7) suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to virtually their
original state.
For this biological process to be carried out, certain organs and structures are required in both the
male and the female. The source of the ova (the female germ cells) is the female ovary; that of
spermatozoa (the male germ cells) is the testis. In females, the two ovaries are situated in the
pelvic cavity; in males, the two testes are enveloped in a sac of skin, the scrotum, lying below
and outside the abdomen. Besides producing the germ cells, or gametes, the ovaries and testes
are the source of hormones that cause full development of secondary sexual characteristics and
also the proper functioning of the reproductive tracts. These tracts comprise the fallopian tubes,
the uterus, the vagina, and associated structures in females and the penis, the sperm channels
(epididymis, ductus deferens, and ejaculatory ducts), and other related structures and glands in
males. The function of the fallopian tube is to convey an ovum, which is fertilized in the tube, to
the uterus, where gestation (development before birth) takes place. The function of the male
ducts is to convey spermatozoa from the testis, to store them, and, when ejaculation occurs, to
eject them with secretions from the male glands through the penis.
At copulation, or sexual intercourse, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina, and spermatozoa
contained in the seminal fluid (semen) are ejaculated into the female genital tract. Spermatozoa
then pass from the vagina through the uterus to the fallopian tube to fertilize the ovum in the
outer part of the tube. Females exhibit a periodicity in the activity of their ovaries and uterus,
which starts at puberty and ends at the menopause. The periodicity
is manifested by menstruation at intervals of about 28 days; important changes occur in the
ovaries and uterus during each reproductive, or menstrual, cycle. Periodicity, and subsequently
menstruation, is suppressed during pregnancy and lactation.
This articles describes the organs, both male and female, that are involved in human
reproduction. The reproductive process itself is covered in other articles. For a detailed
discussion of the series of changes that occur in a woman’s body as her fetus
develops, see pregnancy. For a description of the stages of labour and delivery, see parturition.
For the development of the unborn child during gestation, see human embryology.
The sex of a child is determined at the time of fertilization of the ovum by the spermatozoon. The
differences between a male and a female are genetically determined by the chromosomes that
each possesses in the nuclei of the cells. Once the genetic sex has been determined, there
normally follows a succession of changes that will result, finally, in the development of an adult
male or female. There is, however, no external indication of the sex of an embryo during the first
eight weeks of its life within the uterus. This is a neutral or indifferent stage during which the sex
of an embryo can be ascertained only by examination of the chromosomes in its cells.
The next phase, one of differentiation, begins first in gonads that are to become testes and a week
or so later in those destined to be ovaries. Embryos of the two sexes are initially alike in
possessing similar duct systems linking the undifferentiated gonads with the exterior and in
having similar external genitalia, represented by three simple protuberances. The embryos each
have four ducts, the subsequent fate of which is of great significance in the eventual anatomical
differences between men and women. Two ducts closely related to the developing urinary system
are called mesonephric, or wolffian, ducts. In males each mesonephric
duct becomes differentiated into four related structures: a duct of the epididymis, a ductus
deferens, an ejaculatory duct, and a seminal vesicle. In females the mesonephric ducts are largely
suppressed. The other two ducts, called the paramesonephric or müllerian ducts, persist, in
females, to develop into the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and part of the vagina; in males they are
largely suppressed. Differentiation also occurs in the primitive external genitalia, which in males
become the penis and scrotum and in females the vulva (the clitoris, labia, and vestibule of the
vagina).
At birth the organs appropriate to each sex have developed and are in their adult positions but are
not functioning. Various abnormalities can occur during development of sex organs in embryos,
leading to hermaphroditism, pseudohermaphroditism, and other chromosomally induced
conditions. During childhood until puberty there is steady growth in all reproductive organs and
a gradual development of activity. Puberty marks the onset of increased activity in the sex glands
and the steady development of secondary sexual characteristics.
In males at puberty the testes enlarge and become active, the external genitalia enlarge, and the
capacity to ejaculate develops. Marked changes in height and weight occur as hormonal secretion
from the testes increases. The larynx, or voice box, enlarges, with resultant deepening of the
voice. Certain features in the skeleton, as seen in the pelvic bones and skull, become accentuated.
The hair in the armpits and the pubic hair becomes abundant and thicker. Facial hair develops, as
well as hair on the chest, abdomen, and limbs. Hair at the temples recedes. Skin glands become
more active, especially apocrine glands (a type of sweat gland that is found in the armpits and
groin and around the anus).
In females at puberty, the external genitalia enlarge and the uterus commences its periodic
activity with menstruation. The breasts develop, and there is a deposition of body fat in
accordance with the usual contours of the mature female. Growth of axillary (armpit) and pubic
hair is more abundant, and the hair becomes thicker.
Human reproductive system, organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring.
Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly, the essential
features of human reproduction are
(1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle,
(2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells,
(3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb,
(4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the
wall of the uterus,
(5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period
of gestation, (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta, and
(7) suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to virtually
their original state

 DEVELOPMENT OF REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The sex of a child is determined at the time of fertilization of the ovum by the spermatozoon. The
differences between a male and a female are genetically determined by the chromosomes that
each possesses in the nuclei of the cells. Once the genetic sex has been determined, there
normally follows a succession of changes that will result, finally, in the development of an adult
male or female. There is, however, no external indication of the sex of an embryo during the first
eight weeks of its life within the uterus. This is a neutral or indifferent stage during which the sex
of an embryo can be ascertained only by examination of the chromosomes in its cells.
Uman reproductive system human reproductive system, organ system by which
humans reproduce and bear live offspring. Provided all organs are present, normally constructed,
and functioning properly, the essential features of human reproduction are
1.3 EVOLUTION OF SEXUALITY, REPRODUCTION AND BEHAVIOR
Sexual reproduction in animals and plants is far more prevalent than asexual reproduction, and
there is no dearth of hypotheses attempting to explain why. Even bacteria and viruses, which
reproduce by cloning, engage in promiscuous horizontal gene exchange (“parasexual
reproduction”) on such short time scales that they evolve genotypic diversity even more rapidly
than eukaryotes. (We confront this daily in the form of antimicrobial resistance.) The host-
parasite and host-pathogen arms race purports to explain the prevalence of sexual reproduction,
yet there are over a dozen other hypotheses, including the proposition that sexual reproduction
purges the genome of deleterious mutations. An equally daunting challenge is to understand, in
terms of evolutionary logic, the jungle of diverse courtship and mating strategies that we find in
nature. The phenotypic plasticity of sex determination in animals suggests that the central
nervous system and reproductive tract may not reach the same endpoint on the continuum
between our stereotypic male and female extremes. Why are there only two kinds of gametes in
most eukaryotes? Why are most flowering plants, and few animals, hermaphroditic? Why do
male animals compete more for access to females than the other way around in most animals that
have been studied?This review presents more questions than answers, but an extraordinary
wealth of data has been collected, and new genetic techniques will provide new answers. The
possible relevance of these data to human sexuality will be discussed in a future article.
Children learn that most plants and animals reproduce sexually and come in two sexes. They also
learn that many plants and a few animals have both sexual organs in the same body
(hermaphrodites) yet still reproduce with two distinct kinds of gametes, eggs and sperm. They
also learn that sexual reproduction is much more common than asexual.
It is critical to distinguish between natural selection and sexual selection, whenever this is
possible. The psychologist Geoffrey Miller stated: “Natural selection is about living long enough
to reproduce; sexual selection is about convincing others to mate with you.” This is an excellent
comparison in a nutshell, even though it leaves out male-male competition. The
Before looking at hypotheses about the ubiquity of sexuality, I’d like to describe some of the
extraordinary ways the two sexes differ in form and behavior, especially during courtship and
mating. I’ll stick to nonhuman animals in this article and venture into the more controversial
waters of human behavior in a future article.
 SEXUAL SELECTION: EXAMPLES OF SEXUAL DIMORPHISM AND MALE-
MALE COMPETITION
When we observe animals in nature or pets in our homes, do we see a difference in form or
behavior between the sexes? I am referring to more than just the anatomy of their reproductive
organs. Is there a difference in size, color, ornaments, or behavior between the sexes of the same
species of animal? More often than not, the answer is a resounding yes. The difference is called
“sexual dimorphism.”
Birds provide a striking example of sexual dimorphism. In many species the male is more
colorful or ornamented than the female and is the one who sings, displays, and chases away other
males. It is surprising that the huge peacock tail is compatible with survival in wild, the male is
encumbered with a monstrous burden of feathers and is surely handicapped if attacked by a
predator. Such baggage could hardly evolve by natural selection, as it would be a handicap, not a
survival advantage. The color and displays of males also render them more visible to predators.
So how could such handicaps evolve? The answer is by female choice, one kind of sexual
selection in which one sex prefers to mate with a partner having a particular trait or resource.
Sexual selection is not the same as natural selection, even though it is “natural.” It can even be
antagonistic to natural selection; if it goes too far, it is countered by natural selection, in some
cases because males become vulnerable to predators.
Sexual selection is a little-appreciated but critically important evolutionary mechanism, moving
certain alleles preferentially into the future just as natural selection does. Females who choose
showy mates have showy male offspring, who will in turn be more attractive to females in the
future, so genes that promote the preference are passed on.
Experimental support for the evolutionary advantages of female choice is abundant and well
accepted. In one study, the long tails of male widowbirds in Africa were trimmed, and the
removed portions were glued onto those of other males, making their tails abnormally long.
Those males had the highest mating success, and the males with short tails had the lowest
success. Peacocks with eyes trimmed from their tails have the least mating success. Roosters
with large bright combs are the most attractive to females. Male swordtail fish with the longest
tails or brightest tail coloration are the most attractive to females. The brightest and most
ornamented male birds, or those with territory, are the most attractive to females. Tungara frogs
with the loudest calls attract the most females. Female crickets prefer males whose songs have
the greatest complexity. In most cases the choices made by females are sound in an evolutionary
sense, in that the males they choose have the greatest freedom from parasites and greatest fitness.
Female choice is usually not arbitrary but based on genetically determined preferences for traits
in males that are “badges” of quality genes.
Sexual selection is not just about female choice but also about it, which may result in the
evolution of males that are much larger than females and endowed with weaponry. Elephant
tusks and deer antlers are larger in males and confer greater competitive ability on their owners;
in some cases female choice may also contribute to a male’s weaponry. In the case of elk, sea
lions, and gorillas, the strongest male gains a harem by male-male competition. Any alleles that
contribute to his greater strength and size are passed on to his male offspring. The weaponry may
exact a high cost to the bearer; Irish elk from the Siberian Arctic became extinct about 7700
years ago, and it is estimated that the huge antlers of the male contained up to 16 pounds of
calcium and 8 pounds of phosphate, a high nutritional price to pay as antlers are regrown every
year.
Natural selection, in contrast, fine-tunes adaptations of both sexes to the dynamic changes that
occur constantly in the biotic and abiotic environment, such as changing virulence of pathogens
and parasites, changing relationships between mutualists, changing immune system challenges to
pathogens, changing climate, and changing food availability. The latest mass extinction, caused
by humans, is occurring at such a breakneck pace that evolutionary change can’t keep up, except
perhaps in micro-organisms.
A remarkable study of both natural and sexual selection operating simultaneously describes an
“antiaphrodisiac” chemical deposited on a female moth by the male who mates with her (1). The
chemical, benzyl cyanide, repels other male moths, serving as a kind of chastity belt and
increasing the male’s certainty of paternity. This is not a conscious activity on his part, of course,
but simply a programmed behavior brought about by genes that are favored by sexual
selection—in this case, male-male competition. All else being equal, his genes may outcompete
those of males whose genes don’t promote the behavior. But there is a catch: a tiny parasitic
wasp has learned to home in on the smell of the chemical and hitches a ride on the mated female
to the place where she will lay her eggs. The female wasp then injects her own eggs into the
larger moth eggs, which serve as food for her offspring. The “antiaphrodisiac” chemical, then,
repels other male moths but inadvertently dooms his genetic contribution. We are seeing natural
selection constraining sexual selection, with a kind of selection arms race going on. If this
strategy is widespread in nature, it could constrain the evolution of sexual communication
between hosts, as parasites learn to home in on host pheromones.

CHAPTER 2
2.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
There are two types of reproduction: asexual and sexual reproduction. Though asexual
reproduction is faster and more energy efficient, sexual reproduction better promotes genetic
diversity through new combinations of alleles during meiosis and fertilization.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent because the
offspring are all clones of the original parent. This type of reproduction occurs in prokaryotic
microorganisms (bacteria) and in some eukaryotic single-celled and multi-celled organisms.
Animals may reproduce asexually through fission, budding, fragmentation, or parthenogenesis.
Fission
Fission, also called binary fission, occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in some
invertebrate, multi-celled organisms. After a period of growth, an organism splits into two
separate organisms. Some unicellular eukaryotic organisms undergo binary fission by mitosis. In
other organisms, part of the individual separates, forming a second individual. This process
occurs, for example, in many asteroid echinoderms through splitting of the central disk. Some
sea anemones and some coral polyps also reproduce through fission.
BUDDING
Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or
body region leading to a separation from the original organism into two individuals. Budding
occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as corals and hydras. In hydras, a bud forms
that develops into an adult, which breaks away from the main body; whereas in coral budding,
the bud does not detach and multiplies as part of a new colony.
FRAGMENTATION
Fragmentation is the breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration. If the
animal is capable of fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate individual will regrow.
Many sea stars reproduce asexually by fragmentation. For example, if the arm of an individual
sea star is broken off it will regenerate a new sea star. Fishery workers have been known to try to
kill the sea stars that eat their clam or oyster beds by cutting them in half and throwing them
back into the ocean. Unfortunately for the workers, the two parts can each regenerate a new half,
resulting in twice as many sea stars to prey upon the oysters and clams. Fragmentation also
occurs in annelid worms, turbellarians, and poriferans.
Fragmentation is the breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration. If the
animal is capable of fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate individual will regrow.

 Sexual reproduction in single-celled organisms

In single-celled organisms such as bacteria, sexual reproduction is done by conjugation. It is
when two bacterial cells join together transiently to transfer genetic material via the plasmid of
the donor cell to the recipient cell. The plasmid may either be solitary or part of a chromosome.
Bacterial conjugation is essential to bacteria. It is through it that they can acquire a gene, which
may be beneficial for their survival. For instance, the acquired gene might be a novel
characteristic that enables the recipient cell to thrive in a rather harmful condition. Or, it may be
a gene enabling the recipient to utilize a new metabolite. It is also through this process that
resistance to antibiotics can be transferred from one bacterial cell to another. In protozoans,
conjugation is also the process whereby two protozoans, e.g. ciliates, come together in a
temporary fusion to exchange micronuclear material, then separate, each being a fertilized cell.
This is also what basically occurs in other single-celled organisms. In certain algae and fungi, a
male gamete unites with a female gamete resulting in the union of their nuclei and the
subsequent formation of a zygote.
As for viruses, some references suggested that they were capable of sexual reproduction as there
had been evidence of genetic recombination between different individual viruses. This
interchange of genes was likened to the crossing over between homologous chromosomes during
meiosis in higher life forms. (2) Nonetheless, the idea that viruses reproduce sexually is still
contested to this day as some would not even consider viruses as a life form.

 Syngamy in Multicellular Organisms

In multicellular organisms, the type of sexual reproduction is syngamy. It is generally a two-step
process. The first step is plasmogamy. It pertains to the union of the cytoplasms of the two
gametes. The second step, karyogamy, pertains to the union of nuclei of the two gametes. This
union results in a single cell with two sets of chromosomes. At this point, the resulting diploid
cell is called a zygote. The zygote then divides mitotically to form an embryo. This means that
every parent cell component of the embryo gives rise to two daughter cells, each possessing two
sets of chromosomes. There are many ways to classify syngamy.
The plants have a life cycle comprised of two generations — the gametophyte and
the sporophyte. The gametophyte generation is the sexual phase of the plant life cycle. It starts at
a haploid spore that undergoes mitosis to give rise to a haploid gametophyte that bears the sex
organs. The sex organs, in turn, produce gametes that will participate later in fertilization. The
union of male and female gametes gives rise to a diploid zygote that later develops into a
sporophyte.
The sporophyte generation is the phase in the plant life cycle that starts off with the zygote up to
the time that spores are produced. The sporophyte produces spores within
the sporangium through meiosis. In tracheophytes (vascular plants), the sporophyte is the
dominant form of the plant and is in the multicellular form. In contrast, the dominant form of the
bryophytes, such as mosses and liverworts, is the gametophyte.
The plant sex organ is the flower. The plant that bears both male and female reproductive organs
is called monoecious. Conversely, the plant that bears only one type of reproductive organ is
called dioecious. In flowering plants, the female reproductive organ is the pistil whereas the male
reproductive organ is the anther. The pistil contains the ovary, which in turn, contains ovules.
Inside the ovules are the egg cells. The anther bears the pollen grains. Inside the pollen grains are
the sperm cells.
The sperm cells in the pollen have to reach the ovule and this is facilitated by pollination. There
are two types of pollination: self-pollination and cross-pollination. Self-pollination occurs
especially in monoecious flowers since the male and female organs are present in a single flower.
In cross-pollination, the pollen is transferred from the male flower to the female flower. The
transfer may be facilitated by wind or by insects. Based on the mode of pollination, the types of
sexual reproduction in plants are autogamy (for self-fertilization) and allogamy (for cross-
fertilization). Allogamy is the more common type of reproduction among higher plants.
For pollination to occur, the pollen sticks to the stigma of the pistil and grows a tube through
the style of the pistil to reach the carpel containing the ov hiule. Fertilization occurs when the
sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell whereas another sperm cell fertilizes the endosperm nuclei.
Thus, the zygote will be diploid whereas the endosperm will be triploid from the union of a
sperm cell and two female cells. The zygote develops into an embryo whereas the endosperm
develops into nutritive tissue surrounding the embryo within the seed.
Animal syngamy
Most animals reproduce sexually. Because finding a mate is essential in reproducing by sexual
means most animals display sexual dimorphism, sexual selection, and courtship rituals. Sexual
dimorphism refers to the occurrence of two sexually distinct forms such that the male differs
morphologically from the female of the same species. For example, male birds have colorful
plumage compared with the plumage of female birds. Female birds choose a mate based on
desirable qualities. Mate selection and courtship rituals are ostensible in other animals as well,
including humans.
Human syngamy
Sexual reproduction in humans naturally is by sexual means only. The process entails courtship
and mate selection, copulation, pregnancy, childbirth, and prenatal care. The partner chooses a
potential mate essentially based on the qualities that ensure siring an offspring. The couple
engages in sexual intercourse for internal fertilization to take place. The semen containing sperm
cells is released by the male into the female’s reproductive organ. Only a single sperm would be
able to fertilize a viable ovum produced immediately by meiosis. The haploid sex cells form the
diploid zygote that will next undergo mitosis to become an embryo.
The embryo then develops organs and becomes a fetus inside the female womb. The fetus
receives nutrients inside the mother’s womb via an umbilical cord. After the gestation period
(usually, about 266 days), the female gives birth by pushing the fetus out of the birthing canal.
The newly born child, then, receives nutrition by lactation. Postnatal care continues until the
child becomes independent.

 IMPORTANCE OF REPRODUCTION
1) it ensures continuation of organism from generation to generation
2) it plays a role in evolution, as it creates variation by genetic recombination
3) it helps to increase number of species in eco-system
4) it essential for the existence of all living things.
5) it helps to sustain an equilibrium between different biotic

 RISK FACTORS OF REPRODUCTION

Every pregnancy carries its risks. But good prenatal care and support can help you minimize
those risks. Factors like age and overall health status can increase your chances of experiencing
complications during pregnancy.
Reproductive abnormalities
Structural problems in the uterus or cervix can heighten the risk of difficulties like miscarriage,
an abnormally positioned fetus, and difficult labor.
Underdeveloped pelvis.
Young women’s bodies are still growing and changing. An underdeveloped pelvis can lead to
difficulties during childbirth.Nutritional deficiencies. Young women are more likely to have poor
eating habits. Nutritional deficiency can lead to extra strain on the body that causes more
complications for both the mother and child.High blood pressure. Developing high blood
pressure in pregnancy can trigger premature labor. This can lead to premature
or underweight babies who require specialized care to survive.
Health Risks Associated with Pregnancy
Every pregnancy carries its risks. But good prenatal care and support can help you minimize
those risks. Factors like age and overall health status can increase your chances of experiencing
complications during pregnancy.
Miscarriage
According to the Mayo Clinic, the risk of miscarriage increases for women who are over the age
of 35. While the reason for this is unclear, it’s believed to be due to an increased risk of
preexisting medical conditions combined with a decrease in the quality of a woman’s eggs as she
ages. One Study Trusted Source even found that paternal age can have an effect on miscarriage
— if the father is over 40 and the mother is over 35, the risk for miscarriage is much greater than
if just the woman is over 35. Other complications Women over 35 are more likely to have
complications commonly associated with pregnancy regardless of age, including: an increased
risk of developing high blood pressure or gestational diabetes while pregnant bring more likely
to have a multiple pregnancy (twins or triplets)higher likelihood of low birth weight needing
a cesarean delivery Weight
Being either overweight or underweight can lead to complications during pregnancy.
Obesity
Women who are obese are at a higher risk than normal-weight women of having babies with
certain birth defects, including: spina bifida heart problems hydrocephalus palate and lip Obese
women are also more likely to be diagnosed with gestational diabetes during the pregnancy or to
have high blood pressure. This can lead to a smaller than expected baby as well as increase the
risk for preeclampsia.
Underweight
Women who weigh less than 100 pounds are more likely to deliver prematurely or give birth to
an underweight baby. Diabetes People with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes may experience
complications during pregnancy. Poor control of diabetes can increase the chances of birth
defects in the baby and can cause health concerns for the mother. If you haven’t had diabetes
before the pregnancy, you may be diagnosed with diabetic symptoms during pregnancy. This is
called gestational diabetes. If you’re diagnosed with gestational diabetes, you should talk with
your doctor about the specific recommendations to control blood sugar. Dietary changes will be
recommended. You’ll also be advised to monitor your blood sugar levels. You may have to
take insulin to control your blood sugar levels. Women who have gestational diabetes are at
much higher risk for developing diabetes after their pregnancy is over. Testing for diabetes once
your pregnancy is over is recommended.
 CHAPTER 3
3.1 PREVENTIVE MEASURES AND CONTRACEPTION
Contraception, or birth control, helps prevent pregnancies and plan the number and spacing of
children. There are many options to choose from to prevent pregnancy. Some methods are more
effective than others, and no one product is best for everyone.
Birth Control Methods
Birth control falls into two broad categories: reversible and permanent. Reversible methods
allow individuals to stop birth control when they would like to become pregnant. Permanent
methods cannot generally be undone once completed. The Food and Drug Administration has
information about approved medical birth control options in English and in Spanish.
Multiple-birth pregnancies
Complications arise in multiple-birth pregnancies because more than one baby is growing in the
womb. Because of the limited amount of space and the additional strain multiple fetuses put on a
woman, these babies are more likely to arrive prematurely. Many pregnancy complications, like
high blood pressure and diabetes, are more common in multiple pregnancies. Previous
complications with pregnancy If you’ve had complications in a previous pregnancy, you may be
more likely to have the same complication in subsequent pregnancies. Examples include things
like a prior preterm delivery, a prior stillbirth, or prior incidence of genetic or chromosomal
problems. Takeaway While every pregnancy has risks, some factors such as age, weight, and
preexisting medical conditions can lead to an increased risk of complications. If you fall into any
of these groups, you should be sure to speak to your doctor about it. That way, you can get
the prenatal care and assistance that you need while reducing any risks.
Contraceptive Shots
The contraceptive shot is an injection of progestin, one of the hormones found in birth control
pills. Individuals using this method get the shot from their doctor once every three months.
Short-acting Hormonal Methods
These contraceptive methods use hormones to keep the ovaries from releasing eggs and possibly
prevent the sperm from reaching and fertilizing an egg.
Birth Control Pill: This method is also known as oral contraceptive or “the pill.” There are two
main kinds: combined pills, which contain estrogen and progestin, and mini-pills, which only
contain progestin.Birth Control Patch: The birth control patch is a thin, beige plastic square about
two inches across that delivers hormones. Patches are used on a four-week cycle (three weeks on
and one week off).Vaginal Ring: This small, flexible, plastic ring is inserted in the vagina and
contains the same hormones (progestin and estrogen) found in most birth control pills
Barrier Methods
There are several birth control methods that involve using a physical barrier to block the sperm
from reaching and fertilizing an egg. When deciding how to prevent pregnancy, the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) encourages couples to consider methods that offer dual
protection from risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Male Condom: A male condom is a thin film cover that is placed over the penis and keeps sperm
from entering a partner’s body. Using a male condom consistently and correctly reduces the risk
for HIV infection and other STIs.Diaphragm and Cervical Cap: The diaphragm and cervical cap
are silicone cups that are used with spermicide gel or cream. It is inserted into the vagina and
over the cervix to keep sperm from entering the uterus.Female Condom: The female condom is a
thin, soft, loose-fitting pouch (or sheath) with a flexible soft ring on each end. One end of the
female condom fits inside of the vagina to keep it in place, and the other stays outside of the
vagina.Sponge with Spermicide: The sponge is a small, disk-shaped device made of soft plastic
foam that covers the cervix and contains the spermicide nonoxynol-9 (N-9). The spermicide in
the sponge is placed inside the vagina, covering the cervix, prior to having sex and works by
continuously releasing spermicide to kill sperm

 Other Forms of Pregnancy Prevention

The following forms of pregnancy prevention do not require any physical or medical materials.
Abstinence:
Sexual abstinence is defined as refraining from all forms of sexual activity and genital contact,
such as vaginal, oral, or anal sex. This method is the only 100 percent effective way to protect
against pregnancy, ensuring there is no exchange of bodily fluids (such as vaginal secretions and
semen).Natural Family Planning and Fertility Awareness: Fertility awareness-based
methods (FABM) help women and couples become more familiar with the signs of ovulation and
the pattern of the menstrual cycle to understand how to plan sexual activity to either avoid
pregnancy or become pregnant.Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM): LAM is a form of
natural birth control that relies on the new mother feeding her baby only breastmilk for up to six
months and having no periods or spotting during that time
Withdrawal
While having intercourse, before ejaculating, a person pulls the penis out of the partner’s vagina
and away from the partner’s genitals (sex organs). It prevents fertilization by not allowing semen
(and sperm) to enter the vagina so that sperm does not reach the egg.
Emergency Contraception
Emergency contraception is not a regular method of birth control. Emergency contraception is
birth control that a person can use after unprotected sex—if you did not use birth control or if
regular birth control failed. It should be used as soon as possible within three to five days after
unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy. Emergency contraception methods are more effective the
sooner they are taken. Emergency contraception does not work if the person is already pregnant.
There are two main types of emergency contraception: emergency contraceptive pills and the
copper T intrauterine device (IUD).

3.2 SUMMARY
Reproduction is the production of offspring. There are two main forms: sexual and asexual
reproduction. In sexual reproduction, an organism combines the genetic information from each
of its parents and is genetically unique. In asexual reproduction, one parent copies itself to form a
genetically identical offspring

CONCLUSION
The human reproductive system is an example of sexual reproduction involving reproductive
organs (with respective functions) of maleand female humans. The occurrence of fertilisation
which is the process of fusion between male and female gamete determines whether it will
proceed topregnancy or menstrual cycle in female human body. Hormones play essentialroles to
allow optimum development in certain aspects of either processes. The objectives of the
experiment which was to identify male and female reproductive structures and to describe
cyclical hormonal changes in women of reproductiveage were achieved through drawing a
labelled diagram of male and female reproductive systems and a line graph of hormones
involved during the menstrual cycle respectively.

3.3 REFERENCES
1. Alcock, J. (2013). Animal behavior :an evolutionary Approach 10th edn. Sunderland, MA:
sinauer Association .
2. Archibald J. M, Simpson, A. G. B and slamovits C. H. (Ed’s, 2017. Handbook of the protest
Cham: sprinkle international
3. Daftary, et al. (2011).Manual of Obstetrics, 3rd . Elsevier.
4.Martin S. Lipsky. (2006).American Medical Association Concise Medical Encyclopedia.
5.Romer, et al. (1977).The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Holt-saunders
international.