Notes Evs

CHAPTER-1
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES AND NATURAL RESOURCES
UNIT I MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Definition – Scope and importance – Need for public awareness
NATURAL RESOURCES
Renewable and Non-renewable resources- Natural resources and Associated problems-
Forest resources:-Use and over – Exploitation – Deforestation – Case studies – Timber
extraction – Mining – Dams and their ground water – Floods – Drought – Conflicts over
water – Dams – Benefits and Problems – Mineral Resources:- Use Effects on Forests and
Tribal People – Water Resources:- Use and Over-Utilization of Surface and Exploitation,
Environmental Effects of Extracting and Using Mineral Resources, Case Studies – Food
Resources: World Food Problems, Changes caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing, Effects
of Modern Agriculture, Fertilizer- Pesticide Problems, Water Logging, salinity, Case Studies
– Energy Resources:- Growing Energy Needs, Renewable and Non Renewable Energy
Sources, Use of Alternate Energy Sources, Case Studies
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

INTRODUCTION
 The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means
to ‘encircle or surround’.
 Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical
conditions that surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and
development of people, animals and plants”
 This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment
as well as the cultural and social contexts that shape human lives.
 It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or
population at any point in the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a
particular occurrence and all the things that surrounds us.
Environmental Science 1 AITT & H&S

SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment consists of four segments.
1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
 The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various
branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science,
agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc.
 It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the
sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in
the air, water, soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
 As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different
environments like natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental
studies is inter disciplinary in nature including the study of biology, geology,
politics, policy studies, law, religion engineering, chemistry and economics to
understand the humanity’s effects on the natural world.
 This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental
issues and citizens and experts in many fields.
 By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the
interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that
enables them to facilitate the definition and solution of environmental problems.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of
areas and aspects, which may be summarized as follows:
 Natural resources- their conservation and management
 Ecology and Biodiversity
 Environmental pollution and control
 Human population and environment
 Social issues in relation to development and environment

These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance
to every section of society. Several career options have emerged in these fields that are
broadly categorized as:
(i) Research and development in environment:
Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various
environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for
developing cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable development.
(ii) Green advocacy:
With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to
environment, need for environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to
plead the cases related to water, air, forest, wildlife, pollution and control etc.
(iii) Green marketing:
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing
emphasis on marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have
ecomark or ISO 14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental
managers would be in great demand in the coming years.
(iv) Green media:
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like
television, radio, newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which
environmentally educated persons are required.
(v) Environmental consultancy:
Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are
engaging environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling
environment related problems.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

 The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmental
degradation can be reversed if people of educated communities are organized,
empowered and experts are involved in sustainable development.
 Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities.

 At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and
complexity day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. These issues
are studied besides giving effective suggestions in the environment studies.
 The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the
environment etc.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national
issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development:
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth,
Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become
phased out in the developed world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has,
fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories to South. When the West developed, it
did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently
such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land
area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and
organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution:
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an
alternative goal. We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally
sound and sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-
consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our
activities cause destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the
name of development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of
development. Our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at
2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts
considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the gains of
development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population
growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet
the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates.
2. Poverty: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty
and environmental degradation are mixed with one another. The vast majority of
our people are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their
basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still
below the poverty line.
3. Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor w ho depend upon the
resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the
challenge of environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge.
4. Agricultural Growth: The people must be made familiar with the methods to
sustain and increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. High
yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
5. Need to Increase Ground water: It is essential of rationalizing the use of
groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial effluents, chemical

fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the
groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other
water bodies. Suitable strategies for conservation of water, provision of safe
drinking water and keeping water bodies clean should be developed.
6. Development and Forests: Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With
increasing demand of water, plan to harness the mighty river through large
irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submerge forests; displace
local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada,
Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate.
Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of
agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once green, stand today as waste
lands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and animals give them
sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in restoring and conserving
forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be
integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities.
The strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a well
planned way.
7. Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha
possess any potential for production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly
and 85 suffers from varying degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha,
40 are completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land,
of which over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of
livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land
classified as pasture land, most of which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226 mha,
about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind
erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha This degradation is to be
avoided.
8. Evil Consequences of Urbanization: Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas.
Urbanization and industrialization has given birth to a great number of
environmental problems. Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of

India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment
facilities. Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
9. Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and
pollution causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of
treating their wastes. A great number of cities and industrial areas have been
identified as the worst in terms of air and water pollution. Acts are enforced in the
country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their implementation
needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again the people
are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement
these rules.
INSTITUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENT
Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local,
national, regional and global. Among the large number of institutions that deal with
environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known organization include
government organizations like the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs like the BNHS, WWF-1, etc.
 The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai
 World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi
 Centre or science and environment (CSE), New Delhi
 C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras
 Centre for Environment Education (CEE)
 Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education
& Research, Pune
 The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)
 Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun
 Zoological survey of India (ZSI)
 The madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
 Botanical Survey of India (BSI)

NATURAL RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
 Natural resources can be defined as ‘variety of goods and services provided by
nature which are necessary for our day-to-day lives’.
 Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part), Air, water, soil, minerals,
climate and solar energy (non- living or abiotic part).
 They are essential for the fulfillment of physiological, social, economical and cultural
needs at the individual and community levels.
TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
They are of two types of resources namely Renewable and Non-Renewable
Resources.
1. Renewable resources: The resources that can be replenished through rapid
natural cycles are known as renewable resource. These resources are able to
increase their abundance through reproduction and utilization of simple
substances.
Ex: Plants, (crops and forests) and animals.
 Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but
can be recycled.
Ex: Wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers
(e.g. Cotton, jute, animal wool, silk and synthetic fibers) and leather.
 In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable
resources.
 Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a
renewable resource in as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human
scale.
2. Non renewable resources: The resources that cannot be replenished through
natural processes are known as non-renewable resources. These are available in
limited amounts, which cannot be increased. These resources include fossil fuels
(petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc etc.), minerals
and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates etc.).Once a non-renewable
resource is consumed, it is gone forever.

 Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz.
A) Recyclable and
B) Non-recyclable
A) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected

after they are used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy
mineral resources, which occur in the earth’s crust (Ex: Ores of aluminum,
copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g. Phosphate sock
and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica
etc.)
B) Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be
recycled in any way.
Ex: Fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy
requirements
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:
 The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption.
 A major part of natural resources are consumed in the ‘developed’ world. The
‘developing nations’ also over use many resources because of their greater human
population. However, the consumption of resources per capita (per individual) of
the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most developing
countries.
 Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse
gases.
 Energy from fossil fuels consumed in relatively much greater quantities in
developed countries. Their per capita consumption of food too is much greater as
well as their waste.
FOREST RESOURCES
A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other
woody vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means
‘outside’. India’s Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists
estimate that India should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have

about 12% thus we need not only to protect our existing forests but also to increase our
forest cover.
FUNCTIONS OF FOREST
1. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.
2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.
3. They recycle rain water.
4. They remove pollutant from air.
5. They control water quality.
6. They moderate temperature and weather.
7. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.
USES OF FOREST
1. Commercial uses
2. Ecological uses
1. Commercial uses:
i. Wood – used as a fuel
ii. Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furniture
timber etc.
iii. Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins
iv. Many plants – Medicines
v. Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.
vi. Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.
2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.
i. Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen
which is essential for life.
ii. Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main green house
gas. It is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of
global warming caused by CO2 is reduced.
iii. Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil
erosion. They also act as wind breaks.
iv. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant
sponges and slowly release the water for recharge of spring.

v. Pollution moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises and
help in preventing air and noise pollution.
vi. Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.
12.4.3 REASON FOR DEFICIENCY OF FOREST:

In India the minimum area of forest required to maintain good ecological balance is about
33% of total area. But at present it is only about 12%. So over exploitation of forest
material occurs.
OVER EXPLOITATION OF FOREST: Due to over population, there is an

increased demand for medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. Hence exploitation of forest
materials is going on increasing.
Cause of over exploitation:
1. Increasing agricultural production.
2. Increasing agricultural activities.
3. Increase in demand of wood resources.
DEFORESTATION: It is process of removal of forest resources due to natural

or manmade activities (i.e.) destruction of forests.
Causes of deforestation:
1. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation through
two ways.
 Through submergence of forest area.
 Destruction of forest area.
Ex: big dams, hydro electric projects, road construction etc.
2. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. Ex: Mica, coal, Manganese and
lime stone.
3. Raw materials for industries: Wood is an important raw material for various
purposes.
Ex: Making boxes, furniture and paper etc.
4. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population.

5. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono
specific tree plantation. Ex: Teak
6. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of acres of forest.
7. Over grazing: Over grazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land
Consequences of deforestation (or) impacts of deforestation:
1. Economic loss
2. Loss of biodiversity
3. Destructs the habitats of various species
4. Reduction in stream flow
5. Increases the rate of global warming
6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate
7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion.
8. Induces and accelerates mass movement / land slides.
9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude / severity.
10.Breaks the water cycle
11.Breaks the nutrient cycle
PREVENTIVE MEASURES (OR) AVOID OF DEFORESTATION (OR)

METHODS OF CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
1. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the
trees cut down for timber
2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.
3. Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes
4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.
5. Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.
6. Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of
people into the islands from mainland.
7. Education and awareness programmes must be conducted.
8. Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.
Case study:

Deforestation in the Himalayan region, involves clearing of natural forests and
plantation of monoculture like Eucalyptus. Nutrient in the soil is poor; therefore soil losing
their fertility, hence, Himalayan area facing the serious problem of desertification.
MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS

TIMBER EXTRACTION
Wood used for engineering purposes like building houses, making furniture is called
timber. The products derived from timber have been important to many civilizations, and
thus it has acquired value within these civilizations. Timber extraction results in
deforestation and in the fragmentation of the last remaining forests. It harms valuable
species of trees, birds and wild animals. In spite of this, it is sometimes necessary to
extract timber, so as to meet the needs of a developing country. During the extraction of
timber, cutting, felling and handling should be done selectively, carefully and in a planned
manner, in order to save the remaining forests and biodiversity.
Effects of Timber Extraction
The major effects of timber extraction on forest and tribal people include:
1. Poor logging results in a degraded forest.
2. Floods may be intensified by cutting of trees or upstream watersheds.
3. Loss of biodiversity.
4. Climatic changes such as less rains.
5. New logging roads permit shifting cultivators to gain access to logged areas
and cut the remaining trees.
6. It results in forest fragmentation which promotes loss of biodiversity because
some species of plants and animals require large continuous areas of similar
habitat to survive.
7. Exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.
8. Soil erosion especially on slopes occurs extensively.
9. Sedimentation of irrigation systems, floods may be intensified by cutting of
trees on upstream.
Case Study-Chipko Movement
The world famous Chipko Movement, pioneered by Dasohli Gram Swarajya
Mandal in Gopeshwar brought about a general awareness about conservation of forests.

The first Chipko Movement dates back to 1731, when a village woman named Amrita Bai
led the Bishnoi women against the Maharajas men to prevent them from cutting trees. In
this attempt to save the trees, she sacrificed her life along with the lives of her husband,
three daughters and 363 people. The movement was given this name because the village
women embraced or hugged the trees to stop them from being cut. In 1972, in Uttar
Pradesh, the Chipko Movement was led by Bachnoi Devi of Advani who protected the hill
forests from the contractors axe men.
DAMS
Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important
role in communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic
development. Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies
on dams. Hydropower, another important the use of stored water, currently supplies 19%
of the world’s total electric power supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s
two most populous countries – China and India –have built around 57% of the world’s
large dams.
Dams problems
Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the rivers to store water for much
beneficial purpose.
Dams are considered a “Temples of modern India”. Dams destruct vast area of
forest area. India has more than 1600 large dams.
Effects of dams on forest:
1. Thousands of hectares of forest will be cleared.
2. Killing of wild animals and destruction of aquatic life.
3. Spreading of water borne diseases.
4. Water logging increases the salinity of the soil.
Ex: Narmadha Sagar project it has submerged 3.5 lakhs hectares of forest.
Effects of dam on tribal people
1. Construction of big dams lead to the displacement of tribal people.
2. Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people both mentally and physically.
3. They do not accommodate the modern food habits and life style.
4. Tribal people are ill treated by the modern society.

5. Many of the displaced people were not recognised and resettled or compensated.
6. Body condition of tribal people will not suit with new areas and hence they will
be affected by many diseases.
Case study- Sardar Sarovar Project:

The World Bank’s withdrawal from the Sardar Sarovar Project in India in 1993 was a
result of the demands of local people threatened with the loss of their livelihoods and
homes in the submergence area. This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has displaced
thousands of tribal folk, whose lives and livelihoods were linked to the river, the forests
and their agricultural lands. While they and the fishermen at the estuary, have lost their
homeland, rich farmers downstream will get water for agriculture. The question is why
should the local tribals be made homeless, displaced and relocated to benefit other
people? Why should the less fortunate be made to bear the costs of development for
better off farmers? It is a question of social and economic equity as well as the enormous
environmental losses, including loss of the biological diversity of the inundated forests in
the Narmada valley.
MINING
The process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels like coal from
the earth is called as mining.
Types of mining
1. Surface mining: Mining of minerals from shallow deposits
2. Underground mining: Mining of minerals from deep deposits
Steps involved in mining
1. Exploration
2. Development
3. Exploitation
4. Ore processing
5. Extraction and purification of minerals
The extent of damage by underground mining is more than that of surface mining,
which needs enormous amount of land area for its operation and management.

Effects of mining
1. Pollute soil, water and air.
2. Destruction of natural habitat.
3. Continuous removal of minerals leads to the formation of trench where water is
logged which contaminates the ground water.
4. Vibrations cause earth quakes.
5. Produces noise pollution
6. Reduces shape and size of the forest.
7. Increased risk of landslides.
8. Spoils the aesthetic beauty.
WATER RESOURCES
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country
is for irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and
domestic consumption.
USES
 Is essential for all forms of life.
 Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities. Virtually, all of these human uses, require fresh water.
 No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by
1% we feel thirst, if it drops by 10% we face death.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:
Water from various water bodies
Evaporated by solar energy
Enters in to the atmosphere as clouds
Falls again on earth as rain or snow

Ultimately returns to the ocean.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES
Fresh water resources
Surface water Underground water
Standing water bodies flowing water bodies
UNDERGROUND WATER
Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layer
of sand and gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.
Effects of over utilization of water
1. Decrease of ground water:
i. Increased usage decreases the ground water.
ii. Insufficient rain fall
iii. Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.
2. Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than it’s recharge rate,
then the sediments in the aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface
takes place.
Problems: a. Structural damages to the buildings
b. Fracture in pipes.
c. Reversing the flow of canals.
3. Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi arid
regions for agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.
Problem: a. Lowering of water table
b. Decrease the number of aquifers
c. Change the speed and direction of water.
4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to
the intrusion of salt water from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and
agriculture.

5. Over utilization of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.
6. Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases much
faster than can be regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.
7. Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases therefore
water containing nitrogen enters into the ground and pollute the ground water.
Problem: Water which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.
REASONS FOR DECLINE OF GROUND WATER

Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many
more areas are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.
1. Population explosion: World population is > 6 billion and will continue to increase
significantly during the next few decades - Enormous demands on the world’s limited
freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater withdrawals today are estimated at
3800 cubic kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago (World Commission on
Dams, 2000).
2. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: Occurs at various levels. Use of more
water than really needed by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than
necessary to grow crops. Industries in order to maximize short-term economic gains,
does not bother its liquid waste and releases it into streams, rivers and the sea.
3. Deforestation: Once hill slopes are removed of forest cover, the rainwater rushes
down the rivers and is lost. Forest cover permits water to be held in the area
permitting it to seep into the ground. This charges the underground stores of water in
natural aquifers. This can be used in drought years if the stores have been filled during
a good monsoon. This soil and water management and afforestation are long-term
measures that reduce the impact of droughts. The destruction of forests influences the
regulation of natural water cycle. The removal of dense and uniform cover over the
hilly zones leads to occurrence of floods in drainage basins. Nations situated in tropical
climates including India experience disastrous floods caused by the indiscriminate
deforestation of the slopes above the valleys.
4. Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power which
otherwise used for human needs.
5. Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation

6. Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in
subsurface reservoirs. The building construction activities are sealing the permeable
zone, reducing the area for percolation of rainwater into subsurface and increase in
surface runoff.
7. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating
electricity, and for consumption in urban and industrial centers, has been met by
creating large dams. Dams support 30 to 40% of this area.
FLOOD
It is an over flow of water. It happens when the magnitude of flow of water exceeds the
carrying capacity of the channel within its bank.
CAUSES OF FLOOD
1. Heavy rainfall, melting of snow and sudden release of water from dams. (Flash floods)
2. Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.
3. Deforestation, mining and over grazing increase the runoff from rains and the level of
flood raises.
EFFECT OF FLOOD
1. Water spreads in the surrounding area and submerges them.
2. Cultivated land gets affected.
3. Extinction of civilization.
FLOOD MANAGEMENT
1. Floods can be controlled by dams.
2. Channel management control flood.
3. Flood hazards reduced by forecasting or flood warning.
4. Flood may also be reduced by reduction of run off by increasing infiltration through
appropriate afforestation in the catchment area.
DROUGHT
Drought is nothing but scarcity of water, which occurs due to
1. Inadequate rain fall
2. Late arrival of rain fall
3. Excessive withdrawal of ground water.

Lack of water for the needs of agriculture, livestock, industry or human population may be
termed as a drought. Drought causes serious damages to plants, animals and human life.
CAUSES OF DROUGHT
1. When annual rain fall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.
2. High population.
3. Intensive cropping pattern
Ex: Maharashtra - There has been no recovery from drought for the last 30
years due to over exploitation of water by sugarcane crop.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water an also changes
the quality of water.
2. Drought causes widespread crop failure leading to acute shortage of food and
adversely affects human and live stock population.
3. Worst situation of drought causes desertification.
4. Raw materials of agro based industries are critically affected during drought time,
hence industrial and commercial growth decreases.
5. Drought increases the degradation of natural resources.
6. Drought causes large migration of people and urbanization.
DROUGHT MANAGEMENT
1. Indigenous knowledge is essential.
2. Rain water harvesting system.
3. Construction of reservoirs to improve ground water level.
4. Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) very useful to conserve water.
5. Afforestration activities also improve the potential of water in the drought area.
6. Crop mixing and dry forming are the suitable methods which minimize the risk of crop
failures in dry area.
DAMS
Dams made significant contributions to human development and the benefits
derived from them have been considerable. Large dams are designed to control floods and
to help the drought prone areas, with supply of water. But large dams have proved to

cause severe environmental damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct small
dams. Multiple small dams have less impact on the environment.
Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide extra
water for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.
Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as
wetlands and flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild
plant and animal species, particularly is the case with mega dams.
Some of the problems are mentioned below.
 Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest and
land submergence
 Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces
agricultural productivity
 Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and
ecosystems, deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture
 Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement of
tribal people.
 Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers
 Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property and
livelihood
 Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal
people
 Dislodging animal populations
 Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities
 Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation
 Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological
hazards due to large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone
diseases, such as malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasis.
SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

 Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects
 Developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands

 Soil management, micro-catchment development and afforestation permits recharging
of underground aquifer, thus reducing the need for large dams
 Treating and recycling municipal waste water for agricultural use.
 Preventing leakages form dams and canals and loss in municipal pipes
 Effective rainwater harvesting in urban environments
 Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irrigation, control of
growing water intensive cash crops ; control of water logging.
 Pricing water at its real value makes people use it more responsibility and efficiently
and reduces wastage
 In deforested areas where land has been degraded, appropriate soil management
practices, making bunds along the hill-slopes and making nalla plugs can help retain
moisture and make it possible to revegetate degraded areas
 Use waste water for activities that does not need fresh water – Recycling
 Adopt mini water harvesting models for domestic usage.
 Protect existing tanks
 Develop systematic water management and adopt strict water auditing
 “Save water Campaigns” for public awareness on water scarcity
 Through rainwater harvesting, community based participatory initiatives and holistic
watershed management.
 Responsible water usage can only be achieved by empowering local communities and
creating local accountability.
 The government should develop policies that protect water resources, promote
sustainable watershed management and invest in technologies that will increase
efficiency in irrigation, industrial usage and improve water harvesting techniques.
WATER CONFLICTS
1. Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water led to interstate and international
disputes.
National conflicts:
a. Sharing of cauvery water between Karnataka and TamilNadu.
b. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andrapradesh
c. Siruvani – TamilNadu and Kerala

International conflicts:
Indus – India and Pakistan & Colorado river – Mexico and USA
MINERAL RESOURCES
Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition are
called as minerals.
USES AND EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. - Fe, Al & Cu
2. Construction work – Fe, Al &Ni
3. Generation of energy - coal, lignite, uranium
4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and ornaments
5. Agricultural purposes – fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn
6. Jewellery –Au, Ag & Pt
7. Making alloys for various purposes
8. Communication purposes – telephone, wires, cables and electronic devices
9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY MINING ACTIVITIES

1. Devegetation:
 Topsoil and vegetation get removed
 Deforestation leads to several ecological losses
 Land scape gets badly affected
2. Ground water contamination: Mining pollutes ground water; sulphur is converted
into sulphuric acid which enters into the soil.
3. Surface water pollution: Radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect the
surface water, which kills many aquatic animals.
4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metal which emits
air pollutants and damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: Mainly underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting
of buildings and bending of rail tracks.

EFFECTS OF OVER EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits
2. Wastage
3. Environmental pollution
4. Needs heavy energy requirements.
MANAGEMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES

1. The efficient use and protection of mineral resources.
2. Modernization of mining industries
3. Search for new deposit
4. Reuse and recycling of the metals.
5. Environmental impacts can be minimized by adopting eco friendly mining
technology.
CASE STUDIES-MINING AND QUARRYING IN UDAIPUR

200 open cast mining and quarrying in Udaipur. But 100 mines are illegal. 150 tons of
explosives are used per month. It pollutes air, soil and water. It affects irrigation and wild
life.
FOOD RESOURCES
Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.
TYPES OF FOOD SUPPLY

1. Crop plants: Grains mostly constitute about 76% of the world’s food.
Ex: Rice, Wheat and Maize
2. Range lands: Produces 17% of world’s food from trees and grazing animals.
Ex: Fruits, milk and meat
3. Ocean: Fisheries – 7% of world’s food

WORLD FOOD PROBLEM
1. In the earth’s surface, 79% is water out of total area. 21% land (forest, desert,
mountain and barren land) . Less % cultivated land, at the same time population
explosion is high therefore world food problem arises.
2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity
affects agricultural land.
3. Urbanization affects agricultural land. Hence production of rice, wheat, corn and
other vegetable is difficult.
TYPES OF NUTRITION
1. Nutritious nutrition: To maintain good health and disease resistance, we need large
amount of carbohydrate, proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as
vitamins and minerals such as Fe, Ca and iodine. Food and agricultural organization (FAO)
of United Nations estimated that on an average, the minimum calorie intake on a global
state is 2500 calories/day.
2. Under nutrition: People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy
needs suffer from under nutrition. They receive less than 90% of this minimum dietary
calorie.
Effect of under nutrition: Suffer from mental retardation and infectious diseases.
3. Mal nutrition: Besides minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals,
vitamins, iron and iodine. Deficiency leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases.
Effect of mal nutrition:
.No ciency of nutrients Effects
1 in th
2 ia
3 e r
4 in – A ess
India 3rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished.
World food summit 1996: The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce the
number of under nourished and mal nourished people to just half by 2015.

OVER GRAZING
It is a process of eating the forest vegetation without giving a chance to regenerate.
1.2.7.4.1 EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING

1. Land degradation
 Over grazing removing the cover of vegetation
 Exposed soil gets compacted
 Soil moisture reduces.
 Desertification - OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil.
 Land cannot be used for further cultivation.
2. Soil erosion: When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets eroded
by the action of wind and rain fall.
3. Loss of useful species: OG affects the plant population and their regenerating
capacity. OG replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for
human use. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding and
raising livestock, dairying and forestry.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
1. Traditional agriculture
2. Modern (or) industrialised agriculture
1. Traditional agriculture
Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops constitute
traditional agriculture. They produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for
their income.
2. Modern agriculture
Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipments, lot of fertilisers, pesticides and
water to produce large amount of single crops.
EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE
1. Problems in using fertilizers

a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and
Haryana deficiency of nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the
soil.
b. Blue baby syndrome (nitrate pollution): Nitrate present in the fertilizer
causes blue baby syndrome, when the amount exceeds the limit leads to
death.
c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by
runoff water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the
lakes called eutrophication. Hence algal species increases rapidly. Life time of
the species is less and they decompose easily and pollute the water which
affects the aquatic life.
2. Problems in using pesticides
1. Death of non target organism.
2. Producing new pest – super pest
3. Bio magnification – Most of the pesticides are non bio degradable, keep on
concentrating in the food chain and it is harmful to human beings.
4. Risk of cancer:
a. It directly acts as carcinogen
b. It indirectly supports immune system.
3. Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.
Causes of water logging:
1. Excessive water supply
2. Heavy rain
3. Poor drainage
Remedy:
1. Preventing excessive irrigation
2. Subsurface drainage technology
3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus
CASE STUDY- PESTICIDES IN INDIA
In Delhi the accumulation of pesticide in the body of mother causes premature
delivery and low birth weight infant.

Pesticides in Pepsi and Coca Cola India has reported that Pepsi and coca cola
companies are selling soft drinks with pesticide content 30-40 times higher than EU limits.
This damages the nervous system,.
ENERGY RESOURCES
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
 Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s population
but consume 25% of the world’s available energy.
 Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal to
energy consumed by a single person in a poor country for one year.
 Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poor
country GNP and energy consumption are less.
TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES:
1. Renewable energy resource (or)Non conventional energy resources
2. Non renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: Energy which can be regenerated.
Merits of renewable energy resources
1. Unlimited supply
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
5. Decentralized energy production.
Types of renewable energy resources
1. Solar energy: Nuclear fusion reaction of sun produces enormous amount of energy.
Several techniques are available for collecting, storing and using solar energy.
a. Solar cell (or) Photovoltaic cell (or) PV cell:
 Solar cell consists of p- type semi conductor (Si doped with B) and n-type
semi conductor (Si doped with P). P-type forms top layer and n-type forms
bottom layer.
 Solar rays fall on the top layer, the electrons from valence band promoted to
the conduction band which crosses the p-n junction into n-type semi

conductor. Potential difference between the two layers is created which
causes flow of electrons.
Uses: It is used in calculators, electronic watches, street light, water pumps etc.
b. Solar battery: Large number of solar cells connected in series is called solar
battery. It is used in remote areas where continuous power supply is a
problem.
c. Solar water heater: It consists of insulated box painted with black paint
with glass lid. Inside the box black painted copper coil is present. Cold water
is allowed to flow, it is heated up and flows out into a storage tank from
which water is supplied through pipes.
2. Wind energy: Moving air is called wind. The energy recovered from the force of the
wind is called wind energy It’s speed is high.
a. Wind mills: When a blowing wind strikes the blade of the wind mill, it
rotates continuously. And rotational motion of the blade drives number of
machines like water pump, flour mills and electric generators.
b. Wind farms: When a large number of mills are installed and joined together
in a definite pattern – it forms wind farm. It produces large amount of
electricity.
Condition: Minimum speed for wind generator is 15 Km/hr
Advantages:
1. It does not cause air pollution
2. Very cheap

3. Ocean energy:
Tidal energy (or) Tidal power: Ocean tides are due to gravitational force of sun and
moon which produce enormous amount of energy. High tides – rise of water in the ocean.
Low tides – fall of water in the ocean. Tidal energy can be used by constructing a tidal
barrage. During high tides sea water enters into the reservoirs and rotates the turbine,
produce electricity. During low tides water from reservoir enters into the sea rotate the
turbine produce electricity.
Ocean thermal energy:
Temperature difference between surface water and deeper level water in ocean generates
electricity. The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called
ocean thermal energy.
Condition: Temperature difference should be 200C.
Process: Ammonia is converted into vapours on the surface of warm water, it increases
the vapour pressure which rotate the turbine and generates electricity. Deeper level cold
water is pumped to cool and condense the vapour in to liquid.
3. Geo thermal energy: Temperature of the earth increases at a of 20 –750C per/km
when we move down the earth. The energy utilised from the high temperature present
inside the earth is called geothermal energy.
Natural geysers: Hot water or steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally
is called natural geysers.
Artificial geysers: Artificially a drill hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe into
it. The hot water or steam is used to rotate the turbine and generate electricity.
4. Bio mass energy:
Bio mass: Organic matter produced by plants or animals used as source of energy
Bio gas: Mixture of methane, carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Methane is the major
constituent. It is obtained by anerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant wastes in
the presence of water.

Bio fuels: Fuels obtained by the fermentation of biomass.
Ex: Ethanol, methanol
Ethanol: Produced from sugar cane. Calorific value is less.
Methanol: Obtained from ethanol Calorific value too less.
Gasohol: Mixture of ethanol and gasoline India trial is going on to use gasohol in cars and
buses.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen produced by pyrolysis, photolysis and electrolysis of water. It
has high calorific value. Non polluting one because the combustion product is water.
Disadvantages:
1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive.
2. Safe handling is required.
3. Difficult to store and transport.
NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:
Energy which cannot be regenerated is called as non-renewable.
1. Coal: It is a solid fossil fuel.
Disadvantages:
1. When coal is burnt large amount of CO2 is released which causes global
warming.
2. S, N produces toxic gases during burning.
2. Petroleum: Crude oil is a liquid consists of more than hundreds of hydrocarbons and
small amount of impurities. The petroleum can be refined by fractional distillation. In
the world level 25% of oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. At present rate of usage, the
world crude oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40 years.

3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Petroleum gases obtained during FD and cracking
can be easily converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG. It is colorless and
odorless gas, but during cylindering mercaptans are added to detect leakage.
4. Natural gas: These are found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of methane and
other hydrocarbons. Calorific value is high. There are two types. Dry gas and wet gas.
5. Nuclear energy: Dr.H.Bhabha is a father of nuclear power development in India. 10
nuclear reactors are present in India. It produces 2% of India’s electricity. Nuclear
energy can be produced by two types of reactions. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fission; It is a nuclear change in which heavier nucleus split into lighter
nuclei on bombardment of fast moving neutrons. Large amount of energy is released
through chain reaction.
Ex: Uranium with fast moving neutron gives barium and krypton in addition to three
neutrons; in the second stage it gives nine neutrons and so on. This process of
propagation of the reaction by multiplication is called chain reaction.
Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear change in which lighter nucleus is combined together
at extremely high temperature (1 billion 0C) to form heavier nucleus and a large
amount of energy is released.
Ex: Isotopes of hydrogen combine to form helium molecule.
1.2.8.9 CASE STUDY

Wind energy in India: India generating 1200 MW electricity using the wind energy.
Largest wind farm situated near Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu. It produces 380 MW
electricity.
Hydrogen fuel car: General motor company of china discovered a experimental car ( fuel
H2) can produce no emission only water droplets and vapors come out of the exhaust
pipe. This car will be commercially available by 2010.

CHAPTER-2
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
Concepts of an Ecosystem – Structure and Function of an Ecosystem – Producers,
Consumers and Decomposers – Energy Flow in the Ecosystem – Ecological
Succession – Food Chains, Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids – Introduction,
Types, Characteristic Features, Structure and Function of the (A) Forest Ecosystem
(B) Grassland Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem (D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds,
Streams, Lakes, Rivers, Oceans, Estuaries)
BIODIVERSITY Introduction to Biodiversity – Definition: Genetic, Species and
Ecosystem Diversity – Biogeographical Classification of India – Value of
Biodiversity: Consumptive Use, Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and Option
Values – Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels – India as a Mega-
Diversity Nation – Hot-Spots of Biodiversity – Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss,
Poaching of Wildlife, Man-Wildlife Conflicts – endangered and Endemic Species of
India – Conservation of Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation of
Biodiversity. Field Study of Common Plants, Insects and Birds.
ECOSYSTEMS
2.1.1INTRODUCTION:
ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) –
means “house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of.
Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of
relations between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with
their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”.

 The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological
sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is
called as “ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.
FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY

STRUCTURE:
 Living /Biotic
 Non-Living /Abiotitic
PROCESS:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter
CHANGE:
 Dynamic (Not static)
 Succession etc.
FUNCTION:
 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM
 Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
 It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

 The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of
energy.
 The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
 Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.
CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:
 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types
based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well,
etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>
2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.
STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an
ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the
biotic (living) components.
 Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.
Biotic
Components
Eco System
Abiotic
Components
Fig: Components Of Ecosystem
1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic

component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers)

Animals (Consumers) and
Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
 The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how
they get their food.
A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.
A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

 Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence
they are also called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend
directly (or) indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)
i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant
eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

 They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to
devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.
iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic
nutrients are released.
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple
products are called decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:
 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in
metabolic activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic
component of the ecosystems divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current,
rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.
Chemical Factors
Organic Substances Inorganic Substances

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of
energy.
Types of functions:
 Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves
through photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This
is called secondary function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and
producers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the
decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following
terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:
 Anything which we eat to live is called food.
 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
 The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of
organisms is called as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus,
a food chain is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from
autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an environment, as
shown in the following figure.

SUN Producers Herbivores Decomposer
Carnivores Omnivores
Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

 Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for
plants.
 The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of
the sunlight, chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals
and humans, cannot make their own food. They are always depending
upon the producers for their energy.
 Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals
and plants and release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are
re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
 Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to
decomposer food chain (or) detritus food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.
 It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain.
Example: Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain
Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain

Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion
b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial
food chain. It is seen in aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is
called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals
Figure:
Food chain
Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain
Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain
Marine food chain Fresh water food chain
Standing water food chain Running water food chain

2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter
(plants and animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food
chains, independent of solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic
matter.
Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Large
fish
3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this
food chain either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to
smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’
links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi
B. Food Web:
 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
 So, food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of
organisms are connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of
options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter
connecting of various food chains are called food webs and as shown in following
figure.
Bird(Eagle)
Snake Fish
Insect
Frog Grass
Grasshopper

Figure: FoodSpWarerbow
Hawk
Snake Insect
Mouse
Cat Lizard
Grain Grass
This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food
chains are inter connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a
food web. The grazing food chains are as follows:
 Grains Mouse Cat
 Grains Mouse Hawk
 Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
 Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
 Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
 Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.
C. Ecological Pyramids:
 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles
Elton in 1927.
 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which
the tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
 An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

Apex
Tertiary Consumers (Omnivores)

Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or)
Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores)
Primary Consumers
(Herbivores)
Producers
Basof an Ecological Pyramid

Figure: Formation
 In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in
the ecological pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in
the ecological pyramid.
 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.
1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

 The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic
level to higher tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright
pyramid of numbers.
 The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and
st
large in numbers. So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1 tropic level).
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic
level. Since the numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses,
the size of which is lower.
 The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III
tropic level. Since the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the
rats, the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic
level. The number and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in
figure>.
 Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and
carnivores are decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level.
Thus, these pyramids are upright.
 Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from
lower tropic level to higher tropic level as shown in figure.

Distance in
Apex
Large Fish Tertiary Consumers
Tertiary Consumers
Secondary Consumers
Small Fish Secondary Consumers
Primary Consumers
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa
Producers
Phytoplankton (Algae)

Base
Large Fish
Small Fish
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa

Primary Consumers
Phytoplankton (Algae)
Producers
Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem

2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:
 A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
 In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number.
So, these producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II
tropic level. Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher
when compared to the trees, the size of which is broader.
 The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy
the third tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when
compared to the birds, insects the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV
tropic level. Since the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the
fox and snakes the size of which is very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is
narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is called
partially upright of number as shown in figure.
Tertiary Consumers
Lion, Tiger
Snakes, Foxes Secondary Consumers
Insects, Birds
Primary Consumers
Trees Producers

Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers
Snakes, Foxes
Secondary
Insects, Birds Primary Consumers
Trees
Producers
Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem
3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.
Hyper parasites-Fleas, Microbes

Tertiary Consumers
Parasites, Lice & Bugs Secondary Consumers
Birds
Primary Consumers
Trees
Producers
2. Pyramid of Biomass:
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological
material (or) organism) present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.

 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of
biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
 The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first
tropic level to consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of
biomass”
 A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
 In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer
levels (as shown in figure)
Apex
Base
Lion- 10kgs Tertiary Consumers
Snakes, fox- 100kgs

Secondary Consumers
Distance in
Insects, Birds- 1000kgs Primary Consumers
Trees-10000kgs Producers

Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers
Snakes, Foxes
Secondary
Insects, Birds Primary Consumers
Trees Producers
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer
level are called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
 Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
 In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer
levels as shown in the following figure.
Big fish
Tertiary Consumers
Sma ll fish Secondary Consumers
Insect
Primary Consumers
Algae
Producers

Big fish Tertiary Consumers
Small fish
Secondary Consumers
Insects Primary Consumers
Algae
Producers
Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:
 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
 In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level.
At each successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in
the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of
the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and
every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of
energy is always upright as shown in figure.
Tertiary Consumers
5 Kcals
50 K cals Secondary Consumers

Decrease in
500 K Cals Primary Consumers
5000 K cals Producers

5 K Cals Tertiary Consumers
50 K cals
Secondary
500 k cals Primary Consumers
5000 K cals Producers
MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild
animals
Types:
1. Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
2. Littoral and swamps
3. Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc
Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals
Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh
water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic
ecosystems.

Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature –
organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often
exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing,
swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification,
especially during summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached
to sediments eg. Snails
Types of lakes : Many types
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer
contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic
eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.
C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role.
Oxygen and nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face
extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen
deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of
running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow

range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of
industrial pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of
dissolved oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more
oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of
plants and fishes that require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought –
deposited in plains and delta – very rich in biodiversity.
E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface –

2,50,000 species – huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg,
oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate
biochemical cycles.
 Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary
productivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.
F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal
actions – very rich in nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are
highly tolerant – many species are endemic – high food productivity – however
to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate
a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg.
Savannas in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry
seasons – termite mounds produce methane – leads to fire – high in
photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO 2 – global
warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter
and very hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to
grow – soil is quite fertile – cleaned for agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox,
etc. – A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the
year – known as permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

BIODIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
 Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for ―biological diversity (bio -life or living
organisms, diversity-variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our
planet, the total number of races, varieties and species. The sum of total of
various types of microbes, plants and animals (producers, consumers and
decomposers) in a system.
 Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic,
topographic and soil conditions and roughly comparable biological communities
(Eg. Grassland, forest). The biomes shelter an astounding variety of living
organisms (from driest desert to dripping rain forest, from highest mountain to
deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of size, shape,
colour and inter relationship). The variety of living organisms, the biodiversity,
makes the world beautiful.
 There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by
research expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between
3-50 million different species may be alive today. Insects make up more than
one half of all known species and may comprise more than 90% of all species on
earth.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
 The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are
1. Ecosystem diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Genetic diversity
1. Community or Ecosystem diversity
 A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and
abiotic components (soil, air, water, etc) interacting with each other is
known as an ecosystem.
 Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a
biological community, including tropic levels, ecological processes (which
capture energy), food webs and material recycling.

 The diversity at an ecological level or habitat level is known as ecosystem
diversity.
Ex: River ecosystem- Rivers include fish, aquatic insects, mussels and a
variety of plants that have adapted.
 Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in a
region.
 It explains the interaction between living organisms and physical
environment in an ecosystem.
2. Species diversity –
 A discrete groups of organisms of the same kind is known as species.
 Species diversity is the diversity between different species.
 The sum of varieties of all living organisms at the species level is known
as species diversity.
 Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within
individual communities or ecosystems.
 The biotic component is composed of a large number of species of plants,
animals and microorganisms which interact with each other and with the
abiotic component of the environment.
Ex: The total number of species living on earth is approximately more
than 2 million. However, only around 1.5 million are found and assigned
scientific names.
Plant species: Apple, Mango, Wheat, Grapes, Rice etc
Animal species: Lion, Tiger, Elephant,Deer etc
3. Genetic diversity –
 A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species
or "genera".
 Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene
within individual species.
 Within individual species, there are varieties, that are slightly different
from one other. These differences are due to differences in the
combination of genes.

 Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one
generation to the other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species
"oryzasativa". However there are thousands of rice varieties that show
variation at the genetic level in the form of different size, shape, colour
and nutrient content.
(ii) Teak wood varieties: The various teak wood varieties available
are - Indian teak, Burma teak, Malaysian teak etc.
FUNCTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY: Two main functions of biodiversity are
1. It is the source on which the entire human species depends on for food, fibre, shelter,
fuel and medicine.
2. It depends on biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air and
overall health of biosphere.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Definition and estimation of the value of biodiversity is not easy. The value of biodiversity
is classified into:
1. Direct Value and
2. Indirect Value
1. Direct value of biodiversity: It is of two types
a. Consumptive use value and
b. Productive use value
a. Consumptive use value:
 The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's products that are
consumed directly, without passing through a market. Some of them are
firewood, food, and game meat.
 When direct consumption requires recreation, as in sport fishing and game
viewing, the consumptive value is the whole recreational experience.
Consumptive value seldom appears in national income accounts, but could be
easily included in measures such as GDP. It is valued from the cost if resource
was sold at market value, rather than being consumed.
 High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:

 Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries
 Loss of traditional controls on hunting and
 Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
 Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if
harvested sustainably and managed efficiently.
b. Productive use value:
 Productive use value refers to products that are commercially harvested (sold in
a market).
 Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail end by adding an
inflated cost to the finished product.
 Productive use value is often the only value of biological resource reflected in
national income accounts and may have a major impact on the national
economy.
 Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal
plants and game meat sold in a market have productive use value.
2. Indirect value of biodiversity

 Indirect values provide economic benefits without being harvested and do not
appear in GDP. However, they are crucial to other natural products which
influence the GDP.
 These values involve functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any
use. Ex: Ecological Processes etc.
 Direct values are often derived from indirect values because plants and animals
are supported by the services provided by their environments.
 Many classes of plant and animal species are consumed by tribal and non-tribal
communities.
Ex:
1. Ecological functions
2. Flood and storm protection
3. Waste assimilation
4. Microclimatic functions
5. Nutrient cycles

6. Photosynthesis
7. Carbon stores
8. Soil protection, etc.
Indirect value of biodiversity is of the following types:
1. Non-consumptive use value
2. Optional value
3. Existence or ethical value and
4. Information value
1. Non-consumptive use value:
 This indirect value deals with nature's functions and services.
 It includes photosynthesis of plants which provides support system for
other species by maintaining water cycle, regulating climate, production
and protection of the soil, absorption and breakdown of pollutants,
recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, spiritual and
historic values of natural environments.
 Recreational value is important with regard to tourism and helps the
national GDP.
2. Optional value:
 This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and
needs to be explored.
 This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species that
may prove to be important in future and their usefulness needs to be
studied with reference to a specific problem currently plaguing the
society.
Ex:
1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for a the cure for diseases
like cancer and AIDS.
2. Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economic
growth of our country.
3. Existence value:
 This is the value gained from continuous knowledge of existence. Also,
this is the value that people are willing to pay to keep a species /

community /ecosystem from going extinct. Examples of this are high
amounts being spent for animals like pandas, whales, lions etc.
 Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants, animals, rivers and
mountains. Examples being the Ganga river, trees like Banyan and Peepal
and plants like the Vambu, Tulsi and Vengai are worshipped.
4. Information value: This relates to the educational, scientific and aesthetic and
tourism values of biodiversity in an ecosystem
5. Aesthetic Values: Beautiful plants and animals inspire us to protect
biodiversity. The most important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.
Ex:
1. People from distant places spend time and money to visit areas where they
can enjoy aesthetic value of biodiversity. This is called eco -tourism.
2. The pleasant music of wild birds, beautifully coloured butterflies, colour of
peacocks and colour of flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
 Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its biodiversity.
 Waste generated due to increase in human population and industrialization spoils
the environment and leads to decreased diversity in biological species.
 Any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the normal
ecological cycle.
 Causes for loss of biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wildlife and
3. Man-wildlife conflicts
1. Habitat loss: The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat
loss. Factors influencing habitat loss are:
a. Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities.
Forests and grasslands are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or
settlement areas or developmental projects. Forests and grasslands are
natural home to thousands of species which disintegrate due to loss of their
natural habitat.

b. Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are
destroyed due to farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity
c. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small and
scattered patches the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leads
to the disappearance of most wildlife
d. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw
materials leading to extinction of many wild plant species.
e. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for the
production of drugs leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
f. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitat
loss
g. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupled
with the discharge of industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.
2. Poaching of wildlife: Poaching refers to killing animals or commercial hunting. It
contributes to loss of biodiversity. Poaching can be of two types listed below:
1. Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.
2. Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their
products.
Factors influencing poaching:
1. Human population: Increased human population in India has led to
pressure on forest resources, leading to degradation of wildlife habitats
2. Commercial activities: Although a ban has been imposed internationally on
the trade of products of endangered species, there is a continued smuggling
of wildlife products. Since trading of such products is highly profitable,
poachers continue to hunt endangered animals and smuggle their fur, skin
and tusks to other countries. Wildlife products include furs, horns, tusks, live
specimens and herbal products. Richest source of biodiversity lies in
developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Advanced
countries like Europe, North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong are
the major importers of wildlife products.
3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts: Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing
immense damage and danger to man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the

forest department officials to convince the affected villagers to gain the villagers support
for wildlife conservation.
Ex:
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation,
the villagers killed and injured several elephants.
2. In Mysore, elephants were killed by farmers in retaliation to the damage
done by elephants to their cotton and sugarcane fields.
3. Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals which
explode when the elephants enter the fields
4. Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Mumbai
Factors influencing man-animal conflicts
1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest
2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man
4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food
5. Villagers set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals
(Elephants) who suffer pain and get violent.
6. Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.
7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals.
BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

 India has different climate and topography in different parts and hence is termed as
a mega diversity country.
 India occupies 10th place among plant rich countries of the world.
 It is essential to acquire knowledge about the distribution and environmental
interaction of flora and fauna of India.
 Bio-geographers have classified India into ten bio-geographic zones with each zone
having characteristic climate, soil and biodiversity.
 These zones are described below:
1. Trans-Himalayas: The trans-himalayas is an extension to the Tibetean
plateau. This region harbors the high-altitude cold desert in ladakh (Jammu

and Kashmir) and Lahaul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). It accounts for 5.7% of
the country's landmass.
2. Himalayas: The Himalayas are the northern boundaries of India. The entire
mountain chain is running from Kashmir in the North-west to Assam in the
north-east. The Himalayas comprise of a diverse range of biotic provinces
and biomes. The himalayas cover 7.2% of the country's landmass
3. Desert: The extremely dry area west of the Aravalli hill range, is comprising
both the salty desert of Gujarat and the sandy desert of Rajasthan. Deserts
occupy around 6.9% of the country's land mass.
The kinds of deserts found in India are:
a. The desert of western Rajasthan
b. The desert ofGujarat
c. The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh. The Indian deserts have more diversified fauna.
4. Semi-arid: This zone lies between the desert and the Deccan plateau. It
includes the Aravalli hill range. It overs approximately 15.6% of the country's
landmass.
5. Western Ghats: The western ghats are a mountain range that runs along
the western cost of India. They are a range extending north-south from
southern tip of Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.The
mountains cover an area of about 160,000 sq. km. This ghat section covers
an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. It covers about
5.8% of the country's landmass.
6. Deccan plateau: It is a large triangular plateau south of the Narmada
valley. Three sides of the plateau are covered by mountains slopes towards
east. Satpura mountains cover the north while western ghats cover the west
side and eastern ghats cover the eastern side of the plateau. It is the one of
largest zones covering the southern and south-central plateau with mostly
deciduous trees. It covers 4.3% of the country's land mass.
7. Gangetic plain: This plain covers the area between the south himalayas to
the tropic of cancer. These plains were formed by the Ganges river system
and are relatively homogeneous. This region experience 600 mm rainfall

annually. Sunderbans forests are located in this region and it covers 11% of
the country's land mass.
8. North-east India These are pains and non-himalayan ranges of
northeastern India and have a wide variety of vegetation. It covers around
5.2% of the country's land mass.
9. Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal has almost
300 big and small islands. Among these, only five islands are inhabited. Only
tribes are found in the island of Nicobar. These islands have a highly diverse
set of biomes and occupy 0.03% of the country's biomass.
10.Coasts India has a large coastline distributed both to the east and west with
distinct differences between the two. The Lakshwadeep islands are included
in this but the area of these islands is negligible.
INDIA AS MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
 India's rich biological diversity - its immense range of ecosystems, species and
genetic forms is by virtue of its tropical location, climate and physical features.
 India's biogeographical composition is unique as it combines living forms from three
major biogeographical realms, namely - Eurasian, Agro-Tropical and Indo-Malayan.
 India's fabulous biodiversity is estimated to be over 45,000 plant species
representing about seven percent of the world's flora; and its bewildering variety of
animal life represents 6.5 per cent of world's fauna. 15,000 species of flowering
plants, 53,430 species of insects; 5050 species of molluscs, 6,500 species of other
invertebrates; 2,546 species of fishes; 1228 species of birds, 446 species of
reptiles, 372 species of mammals and 204 species of amphibians have been
identified.
 In India about 1, 15,000 species of plants and animals have been identified and
described.
 India stands tenth in 25 most plant-rich countries of the world. Plant richness
means greater uniqueness of species present.
 India has been described as one of 12 mega-diversity countries possessing a rich
means of all living organisms when biodiversity is viewed as a whole. The greater
the multidiversity of species, greater is the contribution to biodiversity. There are
25 clearly defined areas in the world called 'hot spots' which support about 50,000

endemic plant species, comprising 20 per cent of the world's total flora. India's
defined location of 'hot spots' is the Western Ghats and the Northeastern regions.
 Forests, which embrace a sizeable portion of biodiversity, now comprise about 64
m. hectares or about 19 per cent of the land area of the country, according to
satellite imaging. Roughly 33 cent of this forest cover represents primary forest.
Indian flora comprises about 15,000 flowering plants and bulk of our rich flora is to
be found in the Northeast, Western Ghats, the Northwest and Eastern Himalayas,
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Likewise, Assam and the Western Ghats are
home to several species of mammal fauna, birds, and reptilian and amphibian
fauna.
 As one of the oldest and largest agriculture societies, India has also a striking
variety of at least 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of
cultivated crops. There is a vital, but often-neglected factor when we focus on
biodiversity. It may be a matter of she surprise for many to understand that the
tribals who officially constitute 7.5 per cent of India's population have preserved 90
per cent of the country's biocultural diversity. To a large extent, the survival of our
biodiversity depends on how best the tribals are looked after.
 To preserve our rich biodiversity, nine biosphere reserves are set up in specific
biogeographic'' zones: the biggest one is in the Deccan Peninsula in the Nilgiris
covering Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Others are the Nanda Devi in
Uttar khand in the Western Himalayas, the Nokrek in Meghalaya, Manas and Dibru
Saikhowa in Assam, the Sunderban's in the Gangetic plain in West Bengal, Similar
in Orissa, the Great Nicobar and the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA: A plant, animal or microorganism that

is in immediate risk of biological extinction is called endangered species or threatened
species. In India, 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100
mammals and 150 birds are estimated to be endangered. India's biodiversity is
threatened primarily due to:
1. Habitat destruction
2. Degradation and

3. Over exploitation of resources
 The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals.
It contains a list of species of that are endangered but might become extinct in
the near future if not protected.
 Some of the rarest animals found in India are:
1. Asiatic cheetah
2. Asiatic Lion
3. Asiatic Wild Ass
4. Bengal Fox
5. Gaur
6. Indian Elephant
7. Indian Rhinocerous
8. Marbled Cat
9. Markhor
Extinct species is no longer found in the world.
Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a critical
number. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable species is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to habitat
destruction or over exploitation. However, it is still abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive
area. Such species are not endangered or vulnerable. A few endangered pecies in the
world are listed below:
1. West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)
2. Giant Panda (China)
3. Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)
4. Siberian Tiger (Siberia)
5. Mountain Gorilla (Africa)
6. Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)
7. Arabian Oryx (Middle East)
8. African Elephant (Africa)
Other important endangered species are:
1. Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)

2. Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
3. Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey
(Primates)
4. Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc
Factors affecting endangered species
1. Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the
air, land and water. These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in
living creatures resulting in death.
2. Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also
leads to their extinction.
3. Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the
atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they
cannot adjust to the changing environmental conditions leading to their
death and extinction.
 An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed
by 160 countries.
1. CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens
or wildlife products as they are in danger of extinction.
2. CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.
Drawbacks of cites
1. This treaty is limited as enforcement is difficult and convicted violators get
away by paying only a small fine.
2. Member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.
ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost
60% the endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:
1. North-East India
2. North-West Himalayas
3. Western Ghats and
4. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Examples of endemic Flora species are
1. Sapria Himalayana
2. Ovaria Lurida
3. Nepenthis khasiana etc
Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:
1. Lion tailed macaque
2. Nilgiri langur
3. Brown palm civet and
4. Nilgiri tahr
Factors affecting endemic species:
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2. Pollution also plays an important role.
Ex: Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants
especially pesticides.
3. Over-hunting and
4. Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators
and competitors. Disease producing organisms also play an important
adversary in reducing populations of endemic species.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Due to
1. Habitat loss Deforestation activities (cutting trees for timber, removal of
medicinal plants)
2. Production of hybrid seeds requires wild plants as raw material, farmers
prefer hybrid reeds, many plant species become extinct.
3. Increase in the production of pharmaceutical companies made several
number of medicinal plants and species on the verge of extinction.
4. Removal of forest-cover for road laying and also due to soil erosion.
5. Illegal trade of wild life.
6. Population explosion, construction of dam, discharge of industrial effluents
use of pesticides.

Poaching of wild life
 Due to poaching, illegal trade and smuggling activities most of our valuable fauna
are under threat organised crime has moved into illegal wild life smuggling because
of huge profit Eg. Tiger, Deer for hides, Rhinoceros – for horns, Elephant – for ivory
tusk, Sea Horse, Star turtle – sold to foreign market.
 (Extinction, the elimination of species, is a normal process of the natural world.
Species die put and are replaced by others as part of evolutionary change.
 Human caused reduction: The climate change caused by our release of green house
gases in the atm. could have catastrophic effects. Human disturbance of natural
habitat is the largest single cause pf loss of biological diversity. Woodlands and
grasslands are converted now use about 10% of the world’s land surface for crop
production and about twice the amount for pasture and grasslands.)
 Hunting: Over harvesting is responsible for depletion or extinction of many species.
 Eg. The American passenger pigeon was the world’s most abundant bird. In spite of
this vast population, market hunting and habitat destruction caused the entire
population to crash with in 20 years.
Fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation reduces the biodiversity because many animals like bears and large
cats require large territories to subsist. Some forest birds reproduce only in deep forest or
habitat far from human settlement. A large island for example, can support more
individuals of given species and therefore less likely to suffer extinction due to genetic
problems and natural catastrophes.
Commercial products:
Smuggling of fuels, hides, horns and folk medicines also affect the biodiversity in an
abrupt manner.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity
1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped
immediately
2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made of
animal skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.

4. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started
5. Solar powered fencing must be provided with electric current proof trenches
to prevent animals from entering fields.
6. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders
7. Adequate food and water should be made available for wild animals within
forest zones.
8. Development and construction work in and around forest region must be
stopped.
 Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The
commercial, medical, genetic, aesthetic, and ecological importance of biodiversity
emphasizes the need for its conservation.
Factors affecting biodiversity:
1. Biodiversity is disturbed by human activity
2. Poaching of animals, over-exploitation of natural sources and degradation of
habitats affect biodiversity.
3. Marine ecosystems are disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents
4. Climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain also affect
biodiversity
Need for biodiversity
1. It provides recreation and tourism
2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials are derived from
plants and animals
3. It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals
4. It ensures sustainable utilization of life supporting systems on earth.
5. It needs to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting
systems
6. Loss of biodiversity leads to ecological and environmental deterioration
Types of conservation
There are two types of biodiversity conservation:
1. In-situ conservation and
2. Ex-situ conservation

1. IN-SITU CONSERVATION
In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. The
natural habitats or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas".
a. Biosphere reserves
b. National parks
c. Wildlife sanctuaries
d. Gene sanctuaries
a. Biosphere reserves: They cover large areas (>5000 sq.km.) They are normally used
to protect species for a long time. The roles of biosphere reserves are listed below:
i. Long-term survival of evolving ecosystem
ii. Protect endangered species
iii. Protect maximum number of species and communities
iv. Serve as site of recreation and tourism
v. May also be used for educational and research purposes
vi. Biosphere reserves function as an open system and changes in land use are
not allowed. No tourism and explosive activities are allowed in biosphere
reserves.
b. A national park: It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with
its environment. It covers an area ranging from 100 to 500 sq.km. One or more
national parks may exist within a biosphere reserve. A national park is used for
enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the environment. It is used to protect,
propagate and develop wildlife. Grazing domestic animals inside national parks is
prohibited All private rights and forestry activities are prohibited inside a national park
c. Wildlife sanctuary is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only.
i. It protects animals only
ii. It allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest
products, private ownership rights and forestry operations, provided it does
not affect animals adversely
d. Gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved.
Other projects for the conservation of animals are Project Tiger, Gir Lion Project,
Crocodile breeding project, project elephant etc

Advantages of in-situ conservation
i. It is cheap and convenient
ii. Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation
i. A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity
ii. Maintenance is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution
2. EX-SITU CONSERVATION
Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild
relatives of crops.
1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant
and animal species under controlled conditions
2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction
3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the
endangered species.
Important centers of ex-situ conservation:
1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Methods of ex-situ conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and
uses the Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops.
Cryopreservation technique involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice,
turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco have been successfully preserved for
years using this technique.
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal,
Haryana and preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility,
conservation of varieties of crop plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility
has been created within the NPBGR.
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and
security thereby have a longer life span
3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chance
of survival in the wild
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost
3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment

3. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
UNIT III ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Definition – Causes, Effects and Control Measures of:- (A) Air Pollution (B) Water Pollution
(C) Soil Pollution (D) Marine Pollution (E) Noise Pollution (F) Thermal Pollution (G) Nuclear
Hazards – Solid Waste Management:- Causes, Effects and Control Measures of Urban and
Industrial Wastes – Role of an Individual in Prevention of Pollution – Pollution Case
Studies – disaster Management:- Floods, Earthquake, Cyclone and Landslides.
INTRODUCTION
 Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life
and other animals, living conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets.
Pollution can be natural or manmade.
 The agents that pollute are called pollutants.
POLLUTANTS
Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. The important pollutants are summarized
below:
• Deposited matter—Soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.
• Gases—CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine
and iodine).
• Metals—Lead, zinc, iron and chromium.
• Industrial pollutants—Benzene, ether, acetic acid etc., and cyanide
compounds.
• Agriculture pollutants—Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
• Photochemical pollutants—Ozone, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes,
ethylene, photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate.
• Radiation pollutants—Radioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs of
the nuclear test.
Classification of Pollutants
Nature of disposal: On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of two
types:

1. Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which degrade at a very
slow pace by the natural biological processes. These are inorganic compounds
such as salts (chlorides), metallic oxides waste producing materials and
materials like, aluminum cans, mercuric salts and even DDT. These continue to
accumulate in the environment.
2. Biodegradable pollutants: These include domestic sewage that easily
decomposes under natural processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/
artificial methods. These cause serious problems when accumulated in large
amounts as the pace of deposition exceeds the pace of decomposition of
disposal.
Nature of form: On the basis of the form in which they persist after their release
into the environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitted
directly from some identifiable sources. This include-
a. Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation of
fuel.
b. Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
c. Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.
d. Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
e. Particles of different size and substances: These are found
suspended in air. The fine particles below the diameter of 100u are
more abundant and include particles of metals, carbon, tar, pollen,
fungi, bacteria, silicates and others.
(ii) Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced by the
combination of primary emitted pollutants in the atmosphere.
Ex: In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between
nitrogen oxides; oxygen and waste hydrocarbons from gasoline that
forms peroxy-acetyle nitrate (PAN) and ozone (O3), both of them are
toxic components of smog and cause smarting eyes and lung damage.

TYPES OF POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
Introduction: Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of
the air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to
the air in the atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases,
dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult for plants, animals and
humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such
concentration which are harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients
find their way in the air and these are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide
areas.
Causes of Air pollution:
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil
fuels like coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one of the major causes
of air pollution. Pollutants emitting from vehicles cause immense amount of
pollution. Carbon Monoxide produced by improper or incomplete combustion
emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides that is
produced from both natural and manmade processes.
2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture
related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities emit harmful
chemicals into the air and cause water pollution.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release
large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and
chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of air. Petroleum refineries also
release hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and also
cause land pollution.
4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are
extracted using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are
released in the air causing massive air pollution.
5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.

6. Suspended Particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter popular by its
acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution.
Types of Air Pollutants

 Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources.
The pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called primary
pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide
emitted from factories
 Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and
reactions of primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several
primary pollutants is known to be as secondary pollutant.
Common air pollutants

1. Carbon Dioxide: CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last
century. CO2 causes nausea and headache. Its increase in the air may
cause green house effect, rise in the atmospheric temperature. This may
melt the polar ice resulting in rise in level of oceans and flooding of
coastal regions.
2. Carbon Monoxide: It is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete
combustion of fuel. If inhaled. It combines with hemoglobin and reduces
its oxygen-carrying capacity. This leads to laziness, reduced vision and
death.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: These include NO and NO2, which are released by
automobiles and chemical industries as waste gases and also by burning
of materials. These are harmful and lower the oxygen carrying capacity of
blood.
4. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and
petroleum and are harmful to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High
concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis,
damage to mucous membrane and metabolic inhibition. SO2 and SO3 react
with water to form Sulphuric and sulphurous acids. These may precipitate
as rain or snow producing acid rain or acid precipitation.

5. Photochemical Oxidants: Formed by the photochemical reactions between
primary pollutants, viz. oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. Nitrogen
oxides in the presence of sunlight react with un-burnt hydrocarbons to
form peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone, aldehydes and some other complex
organic compounds in the air.
6. Hydrocarbons: These are un-burnt discharges from incomplete combustion
of fuel in automobiles. These forms PAN with nitrogen oxides, which is
highly toxic.
7. Particulate Matter: Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid
particles into the air. Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust
containing lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc and mercury from
metallurgical processes; cotton dust from textile mills; and pesticides
sprayed on crops are examples of particulate pollutants in the air. These
are injurious to respiratory tract.
8. Aerosols: Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapor form. These
include fluorocarbon (carbon compound having fluorine) present in
emissions from the Jet aero planes. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer.
Thinning of ozone layer results in more harmful ultraviolet rays reaching
the earth, which are harmful to skin, and can lead to skin cancer also.
9. Radioactive Substances: These are released by nuclear explosions and
explosives. These are extremely harmful for health.
10. Fluorides: Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an
extremely toxic gas called hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is highly
injurious to livestock and cattle.
Control measures
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion,
gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the
atmosphere. However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and
effective method through preventive or control technologies.
1. Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are
1. Using unleaded petrol

2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as
opposed to private vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located
on busy streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide
and absorb noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city
preferably on the downwind of the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons
2. Control measures in industrial centers:
1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and
every industry
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout
must be made mandatory
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried
out to know the emission levels.
Equipment used to control air pollution

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate
temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the
smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-
static precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove
particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are
shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed safely.
Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt
with chemical treatment.

WATER POLLUTION
Introduction: Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on
humans and aquatic life.”
Sources of water pollution

1. Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations
through pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and
oil tankers.
2. Non point sources: These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of
discharge. They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff,
subsurface flow or deposition from the atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands,
livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking
lots.
Types, effects and sources of water pollution

Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
S.No Pollutants Human sources Health Effects
1 Infectious agents Human and animal Variety of diseases
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, wastes
Protozoa, and parasitic
worms.
2 Oxygen demanding wastes Sewage, Animal Degrade water quality by
(Dissolved oxygen) feedlots, paper mills depleting water of dissolved
Ex: Organic wastes such as and food processing oxygen. This causes fish and
animal manure and plant facilities other forms of oxygen-
debris consuming aquatic life to die.
3 Inorganic chemicals Surface runoff,  Make freshwater unusable
Ex: Water soluble inorganic industrial effluents for drinking and irrigation

chemicals: and household  Cause skin cancer and
Acids, Compounds of toxic cleansers neck damage, Damage to
metals such as lead (Pb), nervous system, liver and
arsenic (As) and selenium kidneys
(Se) and Salts such as NaCl  Harm fish and other
in oceans and fluoride (F-) aquatic life
found in some soils.  Lower crop yields
 Accelerate corrosion of
metals exposed to such
water
4 Organic chemicals Industrial effluents,  Can threaten human
Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, household cleansers health by causing nervous
Pesticides, Cleaning and surface runoff system damage and some
solvents and Detergents. from farms. cancers.
 Harm fish and wildlife.
5 Plant nutrients Sewage, manure and  Can cause excessive
Ex: Water runoff of agricultural growth of algae and other
soluble and urban fertilizers aquatic plants, which die,
compounds containing decay, deplete dissolved
nitrate, Phosphate and oxygen in water thereby
Ammonium ions. killing fish
 Drinking water with
excessive levels of
nitrates lower the oxygen
carrying capacity of the
blood and can kill urban
children and infants.
6 Sediment Land erosion  Causes cloudy water
Ex: Soil, silt, etc. thereby reducing
photosynthetic activity
 Disruption of aquatic food
chain

 Carries pesticides,
bacteria and other
harmful substances
 Settles and destroys
feeding and spawning
grounds of fish
 Clogs and fills lakes,
artificial reservoirs,
stream channels and
harbors
7 Radioactive materials: Nuclear power Genetic mutations, birth defects
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of: plants, mining and and certain cancers.
Iodine, Radon, Uranium, processing of
Cesium and Thorium. uranium and other
ores, nuclear
weapon production
and natural sources.
8 Heat (Thermal pollution) Water cooling of  Low dissolved oxygen
Ex: Excessive heat electric power plants levels thereby making
and some types of aquatic organisms more
industrial plants. vulnerable to disease,
parasites and toxic
chemicals.
 When a power plant starts
or shuts down for repair,
fish and other organisms
adapted to a particular
temperature range, can
be killed by an abrupt
temperature change
known as thermal shock.

Control measures of water pollution
1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central
government
2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment
areas of rivers, ponds or streams
3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent
disposal of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence
more trees should be planted.
6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into
any natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply
schemes and domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.
7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective
control of water pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution
using the media.
9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and
these laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements
and technological advancements.
10. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Introduction
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also cause no
significant departures from or activities of aquatic communities.
Sources of Thermal Pollution

The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.
1. Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including drainage from

hospitals, research institutions, nuclear experiments and explosions,

discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized along with traces of toxic radio
nuclides into nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and
processing installations are also responsible for increasing the temperatures
of water bodies. The operations of power reactors and nuclear fuel processing
units constitute the major contributor of heat in the aquatic environment.
Heated effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher than the
receiving waters that affect the aquatic flora and fauna.
2. Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major source
of thermal pollution. The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with water
from nearby lakes or rivers. The resulting heated water is discharged into
streams thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated effluent
decreases the dissolved content of water resulting in death of fish and other
aquatic organisms. The sudden fluctuation of temperature also leads to
"thermal shock" killing aquatic life that has become acclimatized to living in a
steady temperature.
3. Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar
manufacturing release huge amounts of cooling water along with effluents
into nearby natural water bodies. The waters polluted by sudden and heavy
organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to
death of several aquatic organisms.
4. Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes,
canals or streams with minimal treatment or without any treatment. These
wastes have a higher organic temperature and organic load. This leads to
decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters resulting in the
set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul and offensive gases in
water. Eventually, this leads to development of anoxic conditions resulting in
rapid death of aquatic organisms.
5. Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads
to negative thermal loading in water systems. Apart from electric power
industries, various factories with cooling requirement contribute to thermal
loading.

Thermal pollution in streams by human activities
 Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the warm
water into a stream
 Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are cut.
 Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution
 Removal of stream side vegetation
 Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal pollution
Effects of Thermal pollution

1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
decreases with increase in temperature.
2. Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the toxicity of the poison
present in water. A 10C increase in temperature of water doubles the toxicity effect
of potassium cyanide, while 80C rise in temperature triples the toxic effects of o-
xylene causing massive mortality to fish.
3. Interference in biological activity: Temperature is considered to be of vital
significance to physiology, metabolism and biochemical processes that control
respiratory rates, digestion, excretion, and overall development of aquatic
organisms. Temperature changes cause total disruption to the entire ecosystem.
4. Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building,
spawning, hatching, migration and reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
5. Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly responsible for mortality of aquatic
organisms. Increase in temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganisms
thereby shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain temperature, fish die due
to failure of respiratory system and nervous system failure.
6. Food storage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature alter the seasonal variation
in the type and abundance of lower organisms leading to shortage of right food for
fish at the right time.
Control measures for thermal pollution

The following methods can be adapted to control high temperature caused by thermal
discharges:

1. Cooling towers: Use of water from water systems for cooling systems for
cooling purposes, with subsequent return to the water way after passage
through a condenser, is called cooling process. Cooling towers transfer heat
from hot water to the atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers are of two
types:
(i) Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the condenser (reactor)
is allowed to spray over baffles. Cool air, with high velocity, is passed from
sides, which takes away the heat and cools the water.
(ii) Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in long spiral
pipes. Cool air with the help of a fan is passed over these hot pipes, which
cools down hot water. This cool water can be recycled.
2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges.
Heated effluents on the surface of the water in cooling ponds maximize
dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and minimize the water area and
volume. The warm water wedge acts like a cooling pond.
3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass into
the ponds through sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine
droplets. Heat from the fine droplets gets dissipated to the atmosphere.
4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-
through cooling. The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one
end and water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end.
The heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation
SOIL POLLUTION
Introduction
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which
may cause harmful effect on living organisms”.

Types, effects and sources of soil pollution
S.No Pollutants Sources Health Effects

1 Industrial wastes Industrial pollutants are These pollutants affect
mainly discharged from and alter the chemical
various origins such as pulp and biological properties
and paper mills, chemical of soil. As a result,
fertilizers, oil refineries, hazardous chemicals can
sugar factories, tanneries, enter into human food
textiles, steel, distilleries, chain from the soil or
fertilizers, pesticides, coal water, disturb the
and mineral mining biochemical process and
industries, drugs, glass, finally lead to serious
cement, petroleum and effects on living
engineering industries etc. organisms.
2 Urban wastes Plastics, glasses, metallic Alter the constitution of
cans, fibers, paper, rubbers, soil
street sweepings, fuel Cause Water logging
residues, leaves, containers, Cause biomagnifications
abandoned vehicles and of toxic materials
other discarded through food chain
manufactured products.
3 Agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, Water logging,
practices weedicides, farm wastes, Salinisation,
manure debris, soil erosion micronutrient imbalance,
loss of fertile soil
4 Radioactive Atomic reactor, nuclear Mutations, changes
pollutants radioactive devices, functions of living beings,
Explosion of hydrogen Biomagnifications,
weapons and cosmic cancers, Infant mortality
radiations

5 Biological agents The human and animal Variety of diseases
wastes, garbage, waste Cause nutrient imbalance
water
6 Pesticides chlorinated hydrocarbon Reduces the activity of
insecticide sex hormones of male
Organic phosphorous and female.
pesticides Causes diseases to
human beings.
7 Fertilizers Different fertilizers The nitrate causes
discharge N, Na, K, S, cancer, blue baby
Nitrates etc syndrome in infants.
8 Polymer, Plastics Waste from different Biomagnifications, water
& other water sources logging, create cancers
in animals and human
beings.
Control measures of soil pollution
1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.

Ex: Planting trees on barren slopes
2. Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting
cultivation
3. Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
4. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes
also helps arrest soil erosion in the long term.
5. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and
animals pose a disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly
practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid waste
disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
6. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of
toxic chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of
synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be

used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and
polluting the soil.
7. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary
habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal
methods.
8. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should
be imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental
education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can
achieve this.
9. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes
such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and
industrial effluents etc should be recycled and reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated
waste treatment methods should be adopted.
10.Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and
pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear
explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.
NOISE POLLUTION
Introduction
Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes
discomfort to all living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) , that is the
tenth part of the longest unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.
Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise
is classified as:
1. Industrial Noise
2. Transport Noise
3. Domestic Noise

Industrial Noise:
It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources
of such noise pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories,
industries and mills. Noise from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable
and a nuisance to the public. The Indian Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai
reported that increasing industrial pollution damages the hearing ability by at least
20%. Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blower, are
exposed to 112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
Transport Noise:
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft.
The number of automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles,
buses, trucks and diesel engine vehicles has increased enormously in the recent
past further aggravating the problem of transport noise. Noise levels in most
residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering around the border line due to
increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to
deafening in the elderly.
Domestic noise:
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and
community. Common sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios,
Transistors, Telephones, and loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial
revolution, noise in the environment has been doubled every ten years.
Effects of Noise pollution

 Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
o contraction of blood vessels
o making skin pale
o Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for
high blood pressure.
o Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
o Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
 Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc

 The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood,
which in-turn increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive
spams and dilation of the pupil of the eye.
 Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause
damage to the heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional
disturbance.
 The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that
diminishes some part of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of
certain frequency pattern leads to chronic damage to the inner ear.
 Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
 Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and
semicircular canals of the internal ear.
 The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes.
People are subjected to psychiatric illness.
 Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
 The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe
noise pollution causes:
 Popularly dilation
 Impairment of night vision and
 Decrease in rate of color perception
Control measures:
1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic
treatment to machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings,
etc
2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the
source inside a sound insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or
provision of sound absorbing materials along the path.
3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering
the work schedule or provision of personal protection devices such as ear
plugs for operating noisy machinery. The measure may include dissipation
and deflection methods.
4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

Preventive measures
1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.
MARINE POLLUTION
Introduction
The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources,
hazards to the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of
sea water.
Sources
1. Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans
by coastal towns, cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount
of sewage garbage agricultural discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of
plastic dumped in to the sea.
2. Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil and
it’s fractions are used in houses automobiles and industries. This causes
devastation of marine environment
3. Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.
4. Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic
wastes affects an organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food
which cause various problems.
5. Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons
Effects of marine pollution

1. Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shells
and tissue damage of egg.

2. Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algae
bird, fish etc.
3. Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds
resulting in hypothermia. During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species of
bald eagles are affected by ingested oil.
4. Oil films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water.
5. Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption of
fish by man may cause cancer.
6. Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders.
7. Oil spills inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic
animals depend either directly of indirectly on planktons the basis of tropic
chain.
Control of marine pollution
 Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles
1. The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollution
control instrument.
2. Urban growth near the coast should be regulated.
 Methods of removal of oil
1. Physical methods.
 skimming the oil off the surface with suction device
 Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy
urethane foam. Chopped straw and saw dust also used to absorbed oil
from the sea water.
2. Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical
additives are used to coagulated the oil
Protective method
1. Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing in to sea
2. Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level
3. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques
4. Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic
standard.

Nuclear Pollution
Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive materials.
Sources of Nuclear Pollution

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.
Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level of
dose, kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation
effects can be somatic or genetic.

1. Somatic effects: Somatic affects the function of cells and organs. It
causes damages to cell membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting
in abnormal cell functions, cell division, growth and death.
2. Genetic effects: Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can
cause mutations, which are changes in genetic makeup of cells. These
effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules. People suffer
from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses around 100 to
1000 roentgens.
Management of Radioactive Waste
 The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors
should be stored and allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or
in very large underground air tight cemented tanks (Delay and Decay).
 The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the
environment after diluting it with some inert materials (Dilute and
Disperse)
 Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into
solids such as concrete and then it is buried underground or sea.
(Concentrate and contain)
Control Measures
 Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and

scientifically.
 Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the
geology of the area, tectonic activity and meeting other established
conditions.
 Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
 Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of
radioactive elements as fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes
must be prevented.

 Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be
ensured in nuclear plants.
 Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-
rays.
 Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area
should be ensured.
 Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the
waste in hundreds of meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the
best safety long term option.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people
generating enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental
degradation. The waste is normally disposed in open dumps creating nuisance and
environmental degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public health and the
environment. Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the adverse
effects posed by their indiscriminate disposal.
Types of solid wastes

Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into
1. Urban or municipal wastes

2. Industrial wastes
3. Hazardous wastes
 Sources of urban wastes: Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials

thrown out from homes.
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste
metals, etc.
 Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets,
hotels, offices, institutions, etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.

 Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials.
Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
 Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN WASTES

urban wastes are classified into:
 Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms
are called bio-degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
 Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded
by micro organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.
SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

 The main source of industrial wastes is chemical industries, metal and
mineral processing industries.
Ex: Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
 Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
 Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic
materials.
 Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish,
organic wastes, acid, alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood,
oils, paints, dyes, etc.
EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and

immediate surroundings, biodegradable materials undergo decomposition
producing foul smell and become a breeding ground for disease vectors.

0
2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes
that affect soil characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped
on the soil
3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the
groundwater.
4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics,
radioactive materials and batteries) produce furans, dioxins and
polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human beings.
5. Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection,
transportation, segregation of wastes and disposal techniques.
STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
of Raw Materials
1. Discarding wastes
 Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste
also gets reduced.
 Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be
reused. Rubber rings can be made from discarded cycle tubes and this
reduces waste generation during manufacture of rubber bands.
2. Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful

products
Ex: Old aluminum cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new
cans and bottles, preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, Preparation
of automobile body and construction material from steel cans
This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's help save money,
energy, raw materials and reduces pollution.
Discarding wastes
The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:

1
1. Landfill
2. Incineration and
3. Composting
1. LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80
cm thick refuse is covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid
waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks, roads and small buildings.
This is the most common and cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly employed
in Indian cities.
Advantages:
1. It is simple and economical
2. Segregation of wastes is not required
3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
4. Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
5. Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages:
1. Large area is required
2. Land availability is away from the town, transportation costs are high
3. Leads to bad odor, if landfill is not properly managed.
4. Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of
insecticides and pesticides at regular intervals.
5. Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.
2. INCINERATION:
 It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more
hazardous material and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective
for detoxification of all combustible pathogens. It is expensive when compared to
composting or land-filling.
 In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator.
Combustible substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-
combustible matter such as glass, porcelain and metals are separated before
feeding to incinerators.

2
 The non-combustible materials can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover
ashes and clinkers may account for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal by
sanitary landfill or some other means.
 The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of
steam power for generation of electricity through turbines.
 Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it
has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheated from where it is
taken to a large incinerating furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about
100 to 150 tons per hour.
 Temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C which
may be increased to 1000 C when electricity is to be generated.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment
2. Requires very little space
3. Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits
4. Safest from hygienic point of view
5. An incinerator plant of 3000 tons per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Its capital and operating cost is high.
2. Operation needs skilled personnel.
3. Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air
pollution.
3. COMPOSTING: It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country.

In this method, bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action.
Separated compostable waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and
finally covered with earth of 20cm and left for decomposition. Sometimes, Actionmycetes
are introduced for active decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days, biological action starts.
Organic matter is destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the
temperature of compost by 75C and the refuse is finally converted into powdery brown

3
colored odorless mass called humus that has a fertilizing value and can be used in
agriculture. Humus contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from
phosphates and other minerals.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
2. This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.
3. Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes
4. Recycling can be done
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Non-consumables have to be disposed separately
2. The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an
assured market.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
FLOODS
Increased rainfall or rapid snow melting causes more flow of water in the streams. This
excess water flow in a stream covering the adjacent land is called a flood. Floodplain is
defined in terms of a flood frequency. Flood frequency is referred as 10 -year flood, 100-
year flood, etc. A 10-year flood at any point in a stream is that discharge of water which
may be expected to occur on average once in 10 years. Floodplains are genera lly fertile,
flat and easily formed.
CAUSES OF FLOOD
 Construction of buildings in a flood plain

 Removing vegetation
 Paving roads and parking areas
 Deforestation
 Heavy rainfall
 Urbanization

4
 Earthquakes
Effects of flood
 Erosion of top soil and vegetation
 Damage and loss to land, house and property
 Spread of endemic waterborne diseases
 Interruption of basic facilities of community such as highways, railways,
telephone, electricity and day-to-day essentials
 Silting of reservoirs and dams
 FLOOD CONTROL
 Construction of flood control dam
 Deepening, widening and straightening of streams
 Lining of streams
 Banning of construction of buildings in floodplains
 Converting flood-plains into wildlife habitat, parks, and recreation areas.
LANDSLIDES
 Landslides occur when mass of earth material move downward. It is also called
mass wasting or mass movement.
 sudden landslide occurs when unconsolidated sediments of a hillside are saturated
by rainfall or water logging.
 Many landslides take place in coincidence with earthquakes. The most common
form of landslides is earthquake induced landslides or more specifically rock falls
and slides of rock fragments that form on steep slopes.
 The size of area affected by earthquake induced landslides depends o n the
magnitude of the earthquake, its focal depth, the topography and geologic
conditions near the causative fault, the amplitude, frequency, composition and
duration of ground shaking.

5
3.3.9.2.1 Control measures for landslides
 Avoid construction activity in landslide occurring areas.
 Reducing slope of hilly side
 Stabilizing the slope portion
 Increasing plantation of deep rooted vegetation on the slope.
EARTHQUAKES
 An earthquake occurs when rocks break and slip along a fault in the earth.
Earthquakes occur due to deformation of crust and upper mantle of the earth.
 Due to heating and cooling of the rock below these plates, movement of adjacently
overlying plates and great stresses, deformation occurs.
 Tremendous energy cans build-up between neighboring plates.
 If accumulated stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, the rocks break suddenly
releasing the stored energy as an earthquake.
 The earthquake releases energy in the form of waves that radiate from the
epicenter in all directions.
 The 'p' wave or primary wave alternately compresses and expands material in the
same direction it is travelling.
 This wave can move through solid rocks and fluids.
 These are the fastest waves. The is wave or secondary wave is slower and shake
the ground up, down, back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which it is
travelling. Surface waves follow both the 'P' and 'S' waves.
 The magnitude of an earthquake is measured in Richter scale. The Richter scale is
logarithmic.
Effects of earthquake
 Ground shaking
 Liquefaction of ground
 Ground displacement
 Landslides
 Flood
 Fire

6
 Tsunami
Control of earthquake
 There is virtually no technique to control the occurrence of earthquake. However,
certain preventive measures can be taken to minimize the damage.
 Minimizing development activity (especially construction, mining, construction of dams
and reservoirs) in areas known to be active seismic zones.
 Continuously monitoring seismic activity using 'seismographs' and alerting people
regarding any recorded disturbance in advance.

7
UNIT IV SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
From Unsustainable To Sustainable Development – Urban Problems
Related To energy – Water conservation, Rain Water Harvesting,
Watershed Management – Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People, Its
Problems and Concerns, Case Studies – Environmental Ethics:- Issues
and Possible Solutions – Climate Change, Global Warming, Acid Rain,
Ozone Layer Depletion, Nuclear Accidents and Holocaust, Case Studies –
Wasteland Reclamation – Consumerism and Waste Products –
Environment Production Act – Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act – Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – Wildlife
Protection Act – Forest Conservation Act – Issues Involved in
enforcement of Environmental Legislation – Public Awareness.
SOCIAL ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT

Introduction:
From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development
Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of nature. He depends on his
environment for basic things. More developmental activities are adopted in order to
increase the quality of life. For that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limited
supply of resources and renewable resources. These are to be managed in a scientific
manner for availing the generations to come. Hence developmental activities are to be
taken with more care about the environment and its protection. It brings benefits to all
not only to the present generation but also for future generations.
Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generation to meet their own needs.

8
Important components of Sustainable development:
1. Economic development
2. Community development
3. Environmental protection
True sustainable development aims at optimum use of natural resources with high
degree of reusability, minimum wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and
maximum productivity. Aspects of sustainable development:
Inter generational equity-It states stat we should hand over a safe, healthy and
resourceful environment to future generation.
Intra generational equity:

A technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of
poor countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

9
Approaches for sustainable development:
1. Devloping appropriate technology-technology which is locally adoptable, ecofriendly,
resource efficient and culturally suitable should be adopted. It uses local labour, less
resources and produces minimum waste.
2. Reduce ,Reuse and Recycle (3Rapproach) –Optimum use of natural resources using it
again and again instead of throwing it on wasteland or water and recycling the material
in to further products. It reduces waste generation and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness-Thinking and attitude of people
towards earth and environment should be changed by providing environmental
awareness and education.
4. Consumption of renewable resources- It is very important to consume the natural
resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regeneration
capacity.
5. Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. By population control we can make sustainable development.
Urban problems related to energy:

Urbanization –Movement of human population from rural; areas to urban areas for
want of better education, communication, health, employment etc.
Causes:
Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade transportation, medical
facilities and employment.
Urban sprawl:
The phenomenon of spreading of the cities in to sub-urban or rural areas is called urban
sprawl. Urban growth is so fast and is difficult to accommodate all commercial industrial
residential and educational facilities within the limited area.
Energy demanding activities:

Urban people consume lot of energy and materials in comparison with rural people.
This is because urban people have high standard of life and their life style demand
more energy.

0
Examples for energy demands:
1. Residential and commercial lightings.
2. Industries using large proportion of energy.
3. Usage of fans fridge, A.C, washing machines.
Control and prevention of pollution technologies need more

energy.
Solution for urban energy problems:
1. Energy consumption must be minimized in all aspects.

2. Public transportation should be used instead of motor cycles and cars.
3. Using of solar energy and wind energy.
4. Production capacity must be increased.
WATER CONSERVATION
The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. The water available on
the earth may occur in all three stages as gas, liquid or solid. Temperature is the main
factor in deciding the state of water. As a liquid, the water forms hydrosphere. About 75%
of the Earth’s surface is covered by the hydrosphere.
The process of saving water for future utilization is called conservation of water.
Need for water conservation.
1. Better life style requires more fresh water.

2. Agriculture and Industrial activities require more fresh water.
3. As the population increases the requirement of water is also more .

1
Strategies of water conservation
Reducing evaporation losses
Evaporation of water in humid regions can be reduced by placing horizontal

Barriers of asphalt below the soil surface.
Reducing irrigation losses
Sprinkling and irrigation conserves water by 30- 40%. Irrigation in early morning
(or) later evening reduces evaporation losses. Growing hybrid crop varieties also
conserve water.
Reuse of water
Treated waste water can be reused for irrigation. Water from washings, bath rooms etc.
can be used for washing cars, gardening.
Preventing of wastage of water
Closing the taps when not in use and repairing any leakage from pipes.
Decreasing run off losses
Run off , on most of the soils can be reduced by using contour cultivation
(or) Terrace farming.
Avoid discharge of sewage
Disposal into natural water resources should be avoided

2
Methods of water conservation
Rain water Harvesting and Watershed management
It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off in your own village or
town. And taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities
to take place in the catchment.
Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways

Capturing runoff from rooftops
Capturing runoff from local catchments
Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams
Conserving water through watershed management
These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:
Provide drinking water
Provide irrigation water
Increase groundwater recharge
Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants

3
In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The
rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the
groundwater. Rain is the first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle,
hence is a primary source of water for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all
secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary
sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that
feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting
means to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at
the place where it falls.
Rainwater harvesting. It is a technique of collecting and storing rain water for use
in non-monsoon periods. In the present age, concrete houses, well-built roads,
footpaths and well –concreted courtyards have left few open grounds. With the decrease
in natural forest cover, increase in concrete jungles and the decrease in exposed earth;
very little open ground is left for water to soak in and thereby increase the ground water
table. So, artificial recharging of the ground water is extremely essential. It is done
through rain water harvesting. For the purpose, rain water is collected at the roof top or
in an open well and then carried down for immediate use or it is directed into the
aquifer.
Rain water harvesting techniques

There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting:
1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use

2. Recharge of ground water
Recharge of ground water is a recent concept and the structures used for the purpose
are:
Pits
Trenches

4
Dug wells
Hand pumps
Recharge shaft
Lateral shafts with bore wells
Spreading technique
Objectives of rain water harvesting.

1. To raise the water table by recharging the ground water.
2. To minimize water crises and water conflicts
3. To reduce rain water run off and soil erosion.
4. To reduce the ground water contamination from intrusion of saline water
Concept of rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting involves collecting water that falls on roof of house
during Rain and conveying water through PVC or Al pipe to a near by
covered storage tank.
Method of rain water harvesting
1. Roof top method: collecting rain water from roof of the building and storing in the
ground. It is the low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings.
2. The rain water from roofs, road surfaces, play grounds is diverted into the
surface tank or recharge pits. The pit base is filled with stones and sand which
serves as a

5
Advantages:
Rise in ground water level and minimizing the soil erosion and flood Hazards. Scarcity of
water is reduced.
Rainwater harvesting systems channel rainwater that falls on to a roof into storage via a
system of gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be
allowed to run to waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof
gutters should have sufficient incline to avoid standing water. They must be strong
enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage tanks should be covered to
prevent mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal
growth. Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep
the system hygienic.

6
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Water shed (or) drainage basin: It is defined as land area from which water drains
under the influence of gravity into stream, lake, reservoir (or) other body of surface
water. Watershed management of rain fall and resultant run off is called watershed
management.
Factors affecting watershed :
1. Overgrazing . deforestation , mining , construction activities affect and

degrade watershed.
2. Droughty climate also affects the water shed.
Need or objectives of watershed management
1. To raise the ground water level.
2. To protect the soil from erosion by run off.
3. To minimize the risks of floods, drought and landslides.
4. To generate huge employment opportunities in backward rain fed areas

to ensure security for livelihood.
Watershed management techniques
Trenches (pits) were dug at equal intervals to improve ground water

storage. Earthern dam or stone embankment must be constructed to
check run off water.
Farm pond can be built to improve water storage capacity of the catchment’s area.

7
Maintenance of watershed
Water harvesting: Proper storage of water in water shed can be used in

dry season In low rainfall areas.
Afforestation and agro-forestry help to prevent soil erosion and

retention of moisture in watershed areas
Reducing soil erosion: Terracing, contour cropping minimize soil erosion and run off
on the slopes of water sheds
Scientific mining and quarrying minimize the destructive effect of mining in

water shed areas Public participation is essential for water shed management.
People should be motivated for maintaining water harvesting structures
implemented by the government.
RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION

Based on the resettlement schemes proposed by each affected village and present
policies, laws and regulations of different levels of governments and the resettlement
requirements of ADB, the Resettlement Plan of Lauding Expressway Project was prepared
by PPTA consulting team and the staff from NPAEC under GPCD assisted by design
institute and Local County and township governments.

8
Target and Task
The overall objective of resettlement and rehabilitation is to ensure that the affected
production base will be restored, the affected labor force will be re-employed, and
income and livelihood of affected people will be improved or at least restored to their
previous levels before resettlement.
At present, the rural population of project impact area is mainly engaged in agricultural
actives, with most of their income coming from planting, economic trees, and animal
husbandry. According to the actual production and living standard among affected
villages, and the approved economic and social development plans for the relevant
counties, the target of
Resettlement and rehabilitation is set as follows:
(1) The resettle’s grain production level will be self-sufficient after resettlement.
(2) The income per capita shall be recovered to the standard before resettlement.
(3) The affected public infrastructures, school, hospitals, social

welfare level, natural environment and traffic condition etc. shall be
improved after resettlement.

9
Resettlement Task
In 2005, there were 2,829 households with 13,149 persons to be resettled or

rehabilitated, in which 520 households and 2,352 persons will need house relocation.
The basic resettlement policy of Lauding Expressway Project is to respect the wishes of
affected People and maintain their current production and living traditions. Based on
consultation of local affected peoples, the economic rehabilitation will be based on
developing replaced farming Resources within their own townships and villages. Planting
will be the focus of economic Rehabilitation strategy by developing new farmland and
improving the remaining farmland in the affected villages, and supplemented by
developing various other income generation opportunities in the project areas. In other
words, the resettlement and rehabilitation strategy will first to reestablish the physical
production bases for the affected persons, which will provide a long-term development
potential by fully utilizing local land resources.
Resettlement Principle
Under such policy, a number of resettlement and rehabilitation principles have been
developed for the Project.
(1) The resettlement plan will be based on detailed inventory for land
acquisition and houses Demolition, and adopted compensation standards and
subsidies.
(2) The resettlement shall be combined with the local development,

resource utilization and Economic growth as well as environment protection.
Considering the local conditions, a Practical and feasible resettlement plan
should be developed to restore or improve their Economic production and create
basic conditions for long-term development.

0
Overall Scheme of Resettlement
Since the construction of Lauding Expressway Project will only acquire limited land
acquisition and demolition along the road alignment line, it will not have significant
negative impacts on production and livelihood for most affected villages. A series of
consultation meetings were held among affected villages and townships. According to
the resettle’s opinion and suggestion, and combined with the actual condition of affected
area, the basic rehabilitation scheme was determined as follows:
(1) Project affected persons will be resettled within their original villages and village
groups, so
that their way of production, living and social relationship can be maintained, which will
be beneficial for them to restore or improve their production and income level after
resettlement.
(2) In order to reduce the impacts on the production and livelihood among resettle’s,
the demolished houses will be dismantled after the new houses built. The
reconstruction of houses will adopt two approaches. For most relocated households,
they will choose to rebuild their houses by themselves, and all salvage materials will
belong to them. The second approach is for those who live near towns, their
rehabilitation will be carried out by local government in order to promote small town
development and save farmland.
(3)The rural relocated households will be resettled in their original villages. For those who
lose
Some farmland, the land-based rehabilitation will be adopted with a combination of
developing new farmland, redistributing remaining farmland and receiving their share of
resettlement subsidy among affected village groups.

1
Environmental Ethics
It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactions

with their Environment. (OR)
Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is a

principle or value that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad.
Ethics differs from country to country.
Functions of Environment:
1. It moderates climate conditions of the soil.
2 A healthy economy depends on healthy

environment. 3It is the life supporting medium for
all organisms.
3. It provides food , air , water and other important natural resources to the human
beings Environmental problems : Deforestation activities , population growth and
urbanization water Pollution due to effluents and smoke from industries, Scarcity.
Solution to environmental problems:
Reduce the waste matter and energy resources.
Recycle and reuse as many of our waste product And resources as

possible. Avoid over exploitation of natural resources.
Minimse soil degradation and Protect the biodiversity of the earth. Reduce population and
increase the economic growth our country.

2
Ethical guidelines on environmental protection:
1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.
2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.
4. Respect nature, you are a part of it.
5. Think of the global cause and act for local protection
6. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.
7. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future generations.
8. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.
CLIMATE:
It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal

variations of the region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called climate.
Causes of climate changes:

1. Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere Increases the
global temperature.
2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.
Effects of climate change:

1. Small climate changes disturb agriculture which leads To migration of
animals and human.
2. Climate change may upset hydrological cycle which results in floods and
droughts in different parts of the world.
3. Global pattern of winds and oceans currents also gets disturbed by climate change.

3
Green house effect: Green house gases are CO 2 , Methane .Nitrous oxide NO2, CFC
Among these CO2 is the most important green house gas.O 3 and SO 2 act as serious
pollutants causing global warming.Progrssive warming up of a gas surface due to
blanketing effect of man made CO2 atmosphere.
GLOBAL WARMING:
Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb IR radiation.
These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are absorbed by the earth
surface. This sunlight is radiated back as IR which is absorbed by gases. As a result the
earth surface and lower atmosphere becomes warm. This is called global warming.

4
105
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:
1. Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean.
2. High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production
and forest growth.
3. Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common.
Raising temperature will increase domestic water demand.
4. Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the risk
of extinction, more towering verities will thrive.
5. As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There
would be increase in water-borne diseases.

5
MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING:
1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.

2. Plant more trees.
3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.
4. Stabilize population growth.
5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.
6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.
ACID RAIN:
Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co 2 present in the
atmosphere gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO 2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in
the atmosphere. The pH of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water
is called acid rain.
Formation:
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power
plants industries and vehicles release NO 2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the
burning of coal and oil. These gases reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere and from
acids like HNO3,H2SO4.These acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain
water.
SOx +H2O H2SO4

NOy +H2 O HNO3

6
107
EFFECTS:
Effect on human being:
Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid
rain.It cause premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.
On building:
At present Taj mMahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura
refinery.Acid rain corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences.
Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.

7
Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.
Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.
Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoe ,carrot ,spinach. Acid rain rduces
fish population ,black flies,mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of
complications in ponds rivers and lakes.
Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water. The dead
materials are not rapidly decomposed.Hence the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead
matter.
Control of acid rain:
Emmision of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.
Liming of lakes nad soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain. In
thermal points low sulphur content coal should be used.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Ozone gas is present in the atmosphere. It is highly concentrated at the stratosphere

Between10to 50 Km above the sea level and is called as ozone layer.
Importance: O 3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It filters UV- B

radiation. Now days certain parts of O 3 layer is becoming thinner and O 3 holes are
formed. Because of this more UV–B radiation reaches the earth’s surface. UV –B radiation
affects DNA molecules, causes damages to the outer cell of plants and animals.
It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings.

8
Formation of O3 : It is formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction
O 2 + hv ------------) O * + O *
The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular O 2 to

form O 3 O*+O 2 + M ----------) O 3 +M
Where M = third body like nitrogen.
Causes of O 3 layer depletion : Refrigerators , air conditioners , aerosol sprays and

cleaning solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere. CFCs releases chlorine which
breakes O 3 to O2
Cl + O 3 ----------- ) Cl O + O 2 (g) Cl O
+ O *-----------) Cl + O 2
Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O 3 molecules . It is a chain reaction.

1% loss of O3 results in 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth surface .
Ozone depletion chemicals CFC , HCFC , BFC. Some times atmospheric sulfur dioxide
Is converted in to H 2 SO 4 which increases the rate of O 3 layer depletion.

9
109
Effects ozone layer depletion:
Effects on human beings

1. UV rays causes skin cancer.
2. Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.
3. Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.
Effects on aquatic system :

1. UV rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs.
2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO 2 .
3. Decrease in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO 2 in atmosphere. This
contributes to global warming.3. Ozone Depleting chemicals can causes global

warming.
Control measures : Manufacturing and using of O 3 depleting chemicals should be

stopped. Use of methyl bromide .which is a crop fumigant should be controlled.
Replacing CFC s by other maerials which are less damage
0
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST
Energy released—during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy. Nuclear fission and
Nuclear fusion are used to prepare nuclear energy. During nuclear accidents large amount
of energy and radioactive products are released into the atmosphere.

1
Types of nuclear accidents :-
Nuclear Test- Nuclear explosions –release radioactive particles and radioactive

rays into the atmosphere.
Nuclear power plant accidents: Nuclear power plants located in seismic vulnerable
area may cause nuclear accidents which releases radiation.
Improper disposal of radioactive wastes: Drums with radioactive wastes, stored

underground rust and leak radioactive wastes into water, land and air.
Accidents during transport . Trucks carrying radioactive wastes (or) fuels in accidents.
The major accident at a nuclear power plant is a core melts down.
Effects of nuclear radiation
1. Radiation affects DNA in cells.

2.Exposure to low dose of radiation (100to 250 rds ) people suffer from fatigue, vomiting
,and loss of hair.
3. Exposer to high radation (400- 500 rds ) affect bone marrow ,blood cells , natural
resistance fail of blood clot.
4. Exposure to very high dose of radiation (10000rds ) kills organisms by damaging
the tissues of heart and brain.
Nuclear Holocaust : -Destruction of Biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear

bombs is called nuclear holocaust.
Effects of nuclear holocaust.
Nuclear winter, Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood , plastics , forests
etc.

2
Large quantity of soot will be carried out into the atmosphere.
Black soot absorbs all UV radiation and will not allow the radiation to reach the earth.
There fore cooling will result. This reduces evaporation of water .In stratosphere there
wont be significant moisture to rain out the black soot. Due to nuclear explosion a process
opposite to global warming will occur. This is called Nuclear winter.
Nuclear holocaust in Japan
In 1945 two nuclear bombs were dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. About
100000 people were
Killed and the cities were badly destroyed. This explosion emitted forceful neutrons and
gamma radiation.
Radioactive Strontium liberated in the explosion replaced calcium in the bones .Large
scale bone deformities occurred in the people of these cities.
WASTE LAND RECLAMATION
Waste land. The land which is not in use is called waste land . Waste land is unproductive,
unfit for cultivation and grazing etc. 20% of the geographical area of India is waste land.
Types of waste land:

1. Uncultivable waste land.
2. Cultivable waste land.
Uncultivable waste land: Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes,
sandy deserts.
Cultivable waste land: These are cultivable but not cultivated for more than 5 years.Ex
Degraded forest land.

3
Causes of waste land formation:
1. over exploitation of natural resources.
2. Industrial and sewage wastes.
3. Due to soil erosion, deforestation, water logging, salinity etc.
4. Mining activities destroy the forest and cultivable land.
Objects of waste land reclamation:
1. To prevent soil erosion, flooding and

land slides.
2. To avoid over exploitation of natural resources.
3. To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil.
4. To conserve the biological resources and natural ecosystem.
Methods waste land reclamation:
Drainage: Excess water is removed by artificial drainage. This is for water logged soil
reclamation.
Leaching: Leaching is a process of removal of salt from the salt affected soil by applying
excess amount of water. Leaching is done by dividing the field into small plots. In
continuous leaching 0.5to 1.0cm
Water is required to remove 90% of soluble salts.
Irrigation practices: High frequency irrigation with controlled amount of water helps to
maintain better availability of water in the land. Application of green manure and bio
fertilizers improves saline soil.
Application of gypsum: Soil sodality can be reduced with gypsum. Ca of gypsum

replaces sodium from the exchangeable sites. This converts clay back into calcium clay.

4
Social Forestry programme: These programs involve strip plantation on road, canal
sides and degraded forest land etc.
COSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS
The consumption of resources by the people is called consumerism. It is related to both

increase In population size as well as increase in our demand due to change in life
style. If needs increases The consumerism of resources also increases.
TRADITIONAL FAVOURABLE RIGHTS OF SELLERS
1. The right to introduce any product.

2. The right to change any price.
3. The right to use incentives to promote their products

5
IMPORTANT INFORMATION TO BE KNOWN TO BUYERS
1. Ingredients of the products.

2.Manufacturing date and expiry date .Whether the product has been
manufactured against an established law of nature or involved in right
variation.
Objectives of consumerism.
1. It improves the right and powers of buyers.
2. It involves making manufacturer liable for the entire life cycle of
a product
3. It force the manufacturer to reuse and recycle the product after
usage.
4. Active consumerism improves human health and happiness and also it saves
resources. Sources of wastes are agriculture, mining, industrial and municipal
wastes.
Example for waste products. It includes paper, glass, plastic, garbage,

food waste, Scrap, construction and factory wastes.
E- waste : Electronic equipments like computer, printers, mobile phones, calculator etc
After usage thrown as waste.
Effects of waste: Waste from industries and explosives are dangerous to human life.
Dumped wastes degrade soil and make it unfit for irrigation.
E-wastes contain more than 1000 chemicals which are toxic and cause environmental
Pollution. In computers lead is present in monitors, cadmium in chips and cathode ray
tube , pvc in cables. All these cause cancer and other respiratory problems if inhaled for
long long periods.
Plastics are non-degradable and their combustion produces many toxic gases.

6
Factors affecting consumerism and generation of wastes:
People over population –Over population cause degradation of sources, poverty and
premature deaths. This situation occurs in less developed countries (LDC’s).In LDC’s the
percaptia consumption f resources and waste generation are less.
Consumption Over population: It occurs when there are less people than the
available Resources . due to luxurious life style per captia consumption of
resources is very high. Consumption is more and waste generation is more.
Environment is also degraded.
ENVVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS
Water (prevention and control of pollution ) Act.1974.

This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of water. It also provide
for preventing and controlling water pollution.
Features of water act.
1. This act aims to protect the water from all kind of pollution and to preserve the quality
of water in all aquifers.

2. The act further provides for the establishment of central board and state boards
For prevention of water pollution.
3. The states are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a
pollutant (or) sewage or) effluent into any water body with out the consent
of the board.
4. The act is not clear about the definition of pollutant, discharge of
pollutant Toxic pollutant.

7
State pollution control board
The consent of this board is needed

1. To establish any industry or any treatment and disposal system or any extension or
addition which likely discharge Or trade effluent into a stream or well or river or on
land.
2. To use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewage.
3. To begin to make any new discharge of sewage.
Act also empowers the state board to order closure or stoppage of
supply of Electricity, water or any other service to the polluting unit.
AIR PREVENTION ACT 1981
This act was enacted in the conference held at Stock Holm. It envisages the
establishments Of central and State control boards to monitor air quality and
pollution control.
Important features:
1. The central board may lay down the standards for quality of air.
2. The central board co-ordinates and settle the disputes between state boards.
3.The central board provides technical assistance and guidance to state boards.
4.The state boards are empowered to lay down the standards for emission of
air pollutants from industries or other resources.
5. The state boards are to examine the manufacturing processes and control
equipment for for the prescribed standards.

6. The direction of central board is mandatory on state boards.
7. With out the consent of the central board operation of an industrial unit is
prohibited in heavily polluted area.

8. Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for three months or fine of
Rs 10000 or both.
This act applies to all pollution industries. This act empowers the state
board to order closure of any industrial unit or stoppage of water supply or
stoppage of electricity.
8
FOREST (COSERVATON) ACT 1980
This act is enacted in 1980. It aims to arrest deforestation. This act covers
all types of Forests including reserved forests, protected forests and any forest
land.
IMPORTANT Features of the act :
1. The reserved forests shall not be diverted or dereserved wit out the
permission Of central govt.

2. The forest land may not be used nonforest purposes.
3.This act stops illegal activities with in forest area.

Features of amendment act of 1988
.1.Forest departments are departments are forbidden to assign any forest land by way
of lease or to any private person or NG body for re- afforestation.
2. For re-afforstation clearance of any forest land is forbidden.
3.The division of forest land for non –forest uses is

punishable.
WILD LIFE ACT 1972.
This act was amended in 1983, 1986, and 1991.This act is aimed to protect and preserve
all animals and plants that are not Domesticated. India has 350 species of mammals,
1200 species of birds and about 20000 Known species of insects. Some of them are listed
as endangered species in wild life protection act. Wild life is declining due to human
action. Wild life products like skins, firs, feathers, Ivory etc. have decimated the
population of many species. Wild life population monitored regularly and management
strategies formulated to protect them.
Important Features
1The act covers the rights and non- rights of forest dwellers.
2It allows restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks.
9
3. I t also prohibits the collection of non timber forest.
4. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by forest policy of 1988 are taken
away by Amended wild life act of 1991.
ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986
This act empowers the central govt. to fix the standards for quality of air, water, soil,
and noise. The central govt. formulates procedures and safe guards for handling of
hazard substances.
Important features: 1. this act empowers the govt. to lay down procedures and safe
guards for the prevention of accidents which cause pollution and remedial measures if
accidents occur.
2 The govt.has the authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry or its
operation if
The violation of provisions of the act occurs.
3. Violation of the act is punishable with imprisonment for 5 years or fine of one lakh or
both.
4. If violation continues an additional fine of Rs5000 per day may be imposed for entire
period of Violation of rules.

5. The act empowers the officer of the central govt.to inspect the sight or the plant or
machinery for preventing pollution and to collect samples of air , water, soil and other
materials from any
Factory or its premises for testing.
PUBLIC AWARENESS
In order to conserve our environment each and every one must be aware about our
environment problems and objectives of various environmental policies at natural and
local level.

0
Objectives of public awareness:
1. To create awareness among rural and city people about ecological Imbalance, local
environment and technological development.
2 To organize meetings, tree plantation programs, group discussion on development,
exhibitions.
3. To focus on current environment problems and situations.
4. To train our planners, decision makers, politicians and administrators.
5. To eliminate poverty by providing employment that over comes the basic
environmental issues.
METHODS TO CREATE ENVIRONMNTAL AWARENESS
1. Environmental education must be imparted to the students in schools and colleges.

2. Media like TV Radio and cable net work can educate the people on environmental
issues through Cartoons, documentaries, street plays.
3. Cinema about environmental education should be prepared and screened in
theatres compulsorily .This films may be released with tax free to attract the
public.
4.All the news papers and magazines must publish the environment related
problems. 5.Special audio visual and slide shows should be arranged in public places.
6. Voluntary organizations like NCC, NSS, and ROTRACT Club should be effectively
utilized for creating environmental awareness.

7. Arranging competitions like story and essay writing painting competition on
environmental issues for student as well as public.Attreactive prizes should be
awarded for the best effort.
8. Public leaders cine actors and popular social reformers can make an appeal to the
public about the urgency of environmental protection.

1
4. access the loss of biodiversity/hot spots etc.
Major Environmental Movements in India

Bishnoi Movement
The Bishnoi movement is one of the first organized movements of ecological conservation,
wildlife protection, green living, and nature. This movement was amongst the first in the
history of environmental movements which embraced the strategy of hugging and
embracing trees to protect them.
The Bishnoi Movement arose due to the royal order to cut down trees considered sacred by
the community.
People hugged these trees one by one to save them from being cut down, even with the
possibility of losing their lives.
Around 363 people lost their lives due to violence from the soldiers.
Chipko Movement
It was a non-violent agitation which originated in Uttar Pradesh’s Chamoli district (now
Uttarakhand) in 1973.

2
The name of the movement ‘chipko’ comes from the word ’embrace’, as the villagers hugged
the trees and encircled them to prevent being hacked.
It is best remembered for the collective mobilisation of women for the cause of preserving
forests, which also brought about a change in attitude regarding their own status in society.
It’s biggest victory was making people aware of their rights to forests, and how grassroots
activism can influence policy-making regarding ecology and shared natural resources.
It led to a ban on commercial felling of trees above 30 degrees slope and above 1,000 msl
(mean sea level) in 1981.
• Silent Valley Movement

• The Silent Valley Movement was a social movement in Kerala, India.
• It opposed the construction of a hydroelectric power project in the Silent Valley, an
evergreen tropical forest.
• The movement was successful in preventing the construction of the project.
• The Silent Valley was declared a national park in 1985.
•

3

Notes Evs

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Notes Evs

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Notes Evs

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER-1

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

UNIT I MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental Science 1 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 2 AITT & H&S

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental Science 3 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 4 AITT & H&S

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

Environmental Science 5 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 6 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 7 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 8 AITT & H&S

A) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected

Environmental Science 9 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 10 AITT & H&S

12.4.3 REASON FOR DEFICIENCY OF FOREST:

OVER EXPLOITATION OF FOREST: Due to over population, there is an

DEFORESTATION: It is process of removal of forest resources due to natural

Environmental Science 11 AITT & H&S

PREVENTIVE MEASURES (OR) AVOID OF DEFORESTATION (OR)

Environmental Science 12 AITT & H&S

MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS

Environmental Science 13 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 14 AITT & H&S

Case study- Sardar Sarovar Project:

Environmental Science 15 AITT & H&S

Evaporated by solar energy

Enters in to the atmosphere as clouds

Falls again on earth as rain or snow

Environmental Science 16 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 17 AITT & H&S

Fresh water resources

Surface water Underground water

Standing water bodies flowing water bodies

Environmental Science 18 AITT & H&S

REASONS FOR DECLINE OF GROUND WATER

Environmental Science 19 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 20 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 21 AITT & H&S

SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

Environmental Science 22 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 23 AITT & H&S

ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY MINING ACTIVITIES

Environmental Science 24 AITT & H&S

MANAGEMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES

CASE STUDIES-MINING AND QUARRYING IN UDAIPUR

TYPES OF FOOD SUPPLY

Environmental Science 25 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 26 AITT & H&S

1.2.7.4.1 EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING

Environmental Science 27 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 28 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 29 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 30 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 31 AITT & H&S

Environmental Science 32 AITT & H&S

1.2.8.9 CASE STUDY