~·

=
-,
77
!f - Control Engioeeoog
'-· - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Strp 2: MO\c the summing point (3) before the block G,
WORKED EXAMPLES

Jx:rnple :1 .
Reduce the block diagram shown is figure 3.6 to its simplest possible form and find tls
closed loop transfer function. Dcc.09/Jan.10 (!OM)

C(s) Seperate
the path

Step 3: Inter change the summing point 2 and 3.

Com b'met I1e parall e l blocks -G4 and G combine the cascade blocks - I and H. Also G and G
G2 3 c. c I l

Separate the path along the dotted line

Fig. 3.6 Minor feedback loop

I ------------,

Solution: I .----~ I
I
C(s)
I
Step I: Move the take off point (4) after the block G 2 I
I
I
I
I I
-------------------'

----~
Parallel blocks of I and H~

Step 4: Eliminate minor feedback and= __C~,C~_ 2

l+C 1G 2 H 1

Combine the parallel blocks of I and Hi = 1+ Hi = C, + Hi

c, c, c,
#
./°?· '·'·
!; \:7~.: 0
-----····---··----· i ))
~ ~3;;/
 rtt,"'{
. X,( \~
Bl oc k D1agrams and Signal F1 ~~'
78 - Control Eng1neeri'n.g ~Gra► .,, cff'_ . (\~ ~c~
c.\\~\
Solution :
: ,--- .----------------------~---: Step 1: Combine the two summing po ints (2) and (3)
,~·Y
1
R(s): : ---'----=----- G2 G3 +G4 : C(s)
L-------' G2
II _________________________ :! :I
I
I
I
I
I R(s) C(s)
I Minor fee d
i-----+
---------------------------- ---------- back loop
Step 5 : Combine lhe cascade blocks

GiG2(G2G3+G4) G1(G2G3 +G4 )

i.e..
(l+G1G2 H1)G 2 (l+G1G2 H1)
Eliminating the minor feedack loop Step 2: Combine the parall el b locks G3 and G 1 = G 1+ G
3
Minor feedback loop
G1(G2 G3 +G4 ) )
( l+G1G2 H G1(G 2 G3 +G4 )
1
i.e .. t - - -.........,- - C(s)
l + G,(G2G3 + G 4 ) x (G1 + H 2) =. (1 +G1G2H 1)+(G2 G3 + G4)(G1 + H 2 )
I
(l+G 1G2 H 1) G1 I
I
I I
L ________________ I
Thus.
H2 ..__ _ _ _ __ _ _ __1

R(s) C(s)
Step 3 : Eliminate the mino r feedback loop= ____!ii__
l - G2 H 1
Closed loop T.F
C(s)
R(s)
R(s)
I
~ample:J.u
Obtain the o, er all transfer function of the block diag ram shown in fi gure 3.7 by reduction
technique. Jan/Feb 2005 (lOM)
Step 4 : Combine Lhe cascade blocks = (G, + G3)G2
(l - G2 H1)

R(s) C(s)
1---- - --+-- C(s)
4

Fig.3.7
- Control Engine3ring Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs - 81

S : Eliminate the minor feedback loop Step 2: Separate 1he paths along the dolled line

(G 1 +G 3)G 2
(l-G 2 H,) (G 1 +G 3)G 2
C<s)
(l-G2H ,)+(G, +G3)G2H2

Step 3: t\10\·e the summing point(4 ) before blockG2

and interchange summing poml.!. (3J and (4J

C(s)
R(s)
/
. .
, ·ample : 3
shown in figure 3.8 to ils canonical form and dctcrm mc its
Reduce the block diagram

Step 4: Move the take off point (I) after the block G1
and

Combine the minor feedb ack loop

r---- ----- - '
I
I
I
I
Fig. 3.8 ,--------' I
Solution: C(s)
(3)
Step 1: Move the take off point (4) before summing point

~--- ---- ---- --1

 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow e,,
82 - Control Engineering

c, ~--- ---- ~

Steps : Combine the cascade blocks= G,Gz : GiC2 +G3 : C(s)

1 (I+G1Hi)(l+G2H1) 1--,.----.------...
Split the summing point (2) I
I
I

: L------1 - ////2 I

----,
Minor feedback loop
---
I
I '----~
L--------------------------J
I

Slcp 8 : Eliminate the minor feedback loop

C, G1G2 +G1
,tcp 6 : Combine the parallel block= I+ ci<:; 2
=~ C(s)

c,
Elim mate the minor feedback loop= 1+ c, Hz

--------- -------------~
- -- ~ I Slep 9: Eliminate minor feedback loop
_c_,_ G,G2 + G3 ~ 1---'-I~ - -
C_(s~)
1 l+G 1H2 ~ l+G2 H 1 :
: ---------------- --------------~ i.e.,
I+ (G,G2 +G3)
(l+G 1H 2 )(l+G2Hi)-(G1G2 +G3)H1H 2 x H3

Step 7 : Combin~ the cascade blocks

ie _G_1_x(GP2+G3)x __
G_2 __ (G 1G2 +G3)
..• i-G1H2 G1G2 (l+G2H1) - (l+G1H2Xl+G2 H1) R(s)
C(s)

L_
 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs 85

r Control Engineering

I racio •~ giYCn by
C(s)
Cascade
-----1

R(sl ___s__ ,-,:_____..:..::~

l + G3H3 I
C\.1) I
__________ I

R(s)

:ramplc: 4
Rt'duce the ginu block diagram sho"n in fi gure 3.9 a nd then ol>t:iin the transfer function H,
of the system if G = G~ = l. G 3 = G 4 = 2 and H , = H 2 = 1, 11 3 = 2 Jul y 2007 (1 0/\1)
1
Step 3: Combine the blocks in para ll el and cascade

G4 +G - G4 +G1G2 _G2G,
i.e .. 1 - G,_ and l +G H
02 1 3

Minor feedback loop·

I ------1
I I
I I C(s)
R(s) I

I
Fig. 3.9 I
I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ JI

Sofution:
Step l: Split the summing point (3) and separate the path's GzGJ
1
Minor feedback loop Step 4: Eliminate the minor feedback loop = + G3H3
!+~.s__xH
C(s) ll+G2GJ) 2

I ---------- ---------- ---------- ----

: r-- - - - - ~ r--- - - ---~ :
I G4 +G,G2 G2G, : C()
: Gz (l +G,H,)+(~1H 2) , ___
1--....;.. s~

I '--- - - - - ~ ~--------~ I
L _ _ __________ __________ __________ __ :

H,

G3
Step 2: Eliminate the minor feedback loo p = 1+ G3 H 3 •
02
Move the summing point(3) before block G 2 and interchange the summing point (2) and (3)
Step 5: Combi ne the cascade blocks = +(GG,4 H+ G,+ G.,_G)G3H
I 1 1 2
 ~ ee' '
«_,<:-($;<:'
~cr-
B6 - Control Engineenng Block Diagrams and Signal Flow G.ra\.c,o~

Solution :
R(s) Step 1: Move the take o ff po int (5) to before block G 3 and interchange point (4) and (S)

Step 6 : Eliminate the minor feed back loop

i.e'

St ep 2: Combi nes the cascade bl ocks = l/3 G3

Transfer function of the system is, G2
Elim inate the m inor feedback loop
C(s)
R(s)
lfG 1 = G2 = 1: G, = G, =2: and H 1 =H2 = I, H3 =2
Then R(s)
I C(s)
C(s) 6 I
I
Ans.
R(s) 13y I
I
I I
\fiample: 5
L____________ ____ ____ :
Reduce the given block di agram a nd write the over a ll tra nsfer function of the system
sho\1n in figure 3.10 July-August 2005 (8 M)

Step 3: Eliminate the minor feedback loop

Fig. 3.IO

L
 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs 89
Control Engineering

; Cascad e -- -,
I
I
I
G2 : C, --+C( .1) C(s)
\+G2 G3 /-/~4 G2 // 2 :
5 6
~----------' I

l---- ----- ----- ----- ----- ~

- I
I
I
I
I
I --------------1
L------------------- ---

Solution:
Step 1: Move the take off point (4) after block
G, and intercha nge point (4) and 5

Elinunate the minor feed back loop ----- ---- ----- ----- -.., I
I
2
R(s)
:4
l---l.-"'- --=---6-.... C(.s)
I+ G-:_G3H3 + G2 H2 G,G2 I
i.e.. I

I+ G,G2 xH l+G2G 3H3+G 2H2+G ,G2H, I

I

l+G2G 3H3+G 2H2 I I

I
I
I
L _____ _____ _____ ____

Step 2 : Combin e the cascade blocks = Gp 3

Step 5 : Combi ne the cascade blocks
Eliminate the minor feed back loop
C(s) ----- ----- -1
r---- ----- ----- -----Cascad
1
e
-, :
i ~------------------
G2G3 : I C(s)
I
: I
l+GP,H 2 I
Transfe r function of the system I I
----- ----- ----- ----- •
' I
I
C(s) I

R(s) t------------' I
I
I
1 _____ Minor feedback loop _____ _____ _ :
~amp le: 6

block diagram simplification.

Obtain ~::~ of the system in figure 3.11 by G1G2 G3
Step 3 : Combine the cascade blocks = l+G2 G3 H 2
July 2006 (10 M)
Eliminate the minor feed back loop
 ~
~

'
tJJ

90 - Control Engineering - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ l~ jE Block Diagrams and Signal I'\<..

Solution : d G - G +G
Ste 1: Combine the parallel blocks G2 an l - l 3
p ~------------- -------------1
G1G2G3 X H1 R(s) : .---G-2_+_G_)_-, t---,-\-,~C_(s_),.
l+G2 G 3 H 2 G3
I I
------------- I

I
I
C(s) I

'------------- ----~

Step 2 : Combine the cascade blocks = G 1(G2 + G3)G,.

Step 4: Eliminating unity feedback loop
Separate the paths along the dotted lines
G1G2 G3
R(s)-"9"'--~ C(s)

Step 3 : Split the summing point

C(s)

R(s)
C(.r)
I
I
C(s) I
I
R(s)
I -H,Hl :
L ______________ __ ___ J
,/4xample : 7
Minor feed back loop
.
Reduce tile block diagram, shown in figure 3.12 and find the overall transfer funclton C Step 4 : Combine the parallel block= 1- G/f
.R. 2
Eliminate the minor feedback loop
Dec. 07/Jan.08 (10 M)
i.e., -:---G--,
1G_4...:..(G--'2:.._+-:-:G.c..:
3 )'---~
l+G,G4 (G 2 +G 3 )(-H 1H 2 ) l-G1G4 H 1H2 (G2 +G3 )
R(s)
R(s) G1G,(G2 +G3) C(s)
l-G1G,H 1 H 2 {G 2 +G3)
Step S : Combine the cascade block

(l-G5H2XG,G,XG2 +G3)
Fig. 3.12 1-G1G4 H 1H 2 (G2 + G_,)

a 6:t m
J:
I

Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs - 93

nt,ol Engineering

~\crall 1ransfcr function i,.

/// ,,,,,
,,,-
I - -------:~-~------~-,,_~.1..I...--- C(s)
C(sl (1-C~il2)G1G4(C:- +r, 1 ) R(s)
R(s) I-G 1G4 H1J/ 2 (C 2 t C,) I
I
I
I
~mple: 8 I
I
Reduce the block diagram shown in figure J.lJ lo ca nonical form and dclcnnin c 11 ansfcr I
L ______________________ I

funclion C{s). II G 1 = H . = I, G 2 = fl 2 = 2, G 1
= H, = J. June/July OH
R(s ) ' · ·

Step 3 : Eliminate the minor feedback loop

i.e.,

r------------------ --------- -----,

1 -Ca~~ade - - ....- --_-_-_ -_ - _-_-_-_ - _-_-_-_-__,-- -: :
I I I

R(s) I Gz G3 ,_~'----''------ C(s)

Fig. 3.13 l+G2C 3 H 3 +G2 H 2
SoluJion:
Step l : Mo\ e the 1a1,.\: 0ff poinL (4) after block G3 and interchange points (4) and (5)
L-------------1 H, • - - - - - - - - - ~ I

-------- ·- ------------,I ____ ____________ Minor feedback loo_p_________ :

I
I ,_____ I
I

I
Step 4 : Combine the cascade block
: 4 _C(s)
h--..._r-,-__, _,...
3 1 I 5 I 6
I Eliminating the minor feedback loop
I ______ L .__ -----------~---!

l+G2 H 2 +G2 C 3 H 3 G1G1 G3

l+ G,G2G3 xH, l+G2H2+G2G1H1+Gp2G3H1
l+G2 H 2 +G2 G3 H 3

Step 2 : Combine the cascade blocks = G 2G1

GG
Eliminate the minor feed back loop= l + G:G:H R(s) C(s)
3
 -s'
t§c:,,

_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ·g.:_
B_lo_ck_D_ia..::g::_ra::_m:_s~an..:.:d:_S.:.1:.:". ~..:
n.:.al..:.:F..:..lo:..:v:.:.. G::.::r"'..j/
94 - Control Engineering
Step 2: Elim inate the minor feedback loop
Transfer function is,
C(s)
R(s) 14-c{H: +CTiG H; +c/;/;3H1
3 (s+ 1)(s+2) (s - 1) 2

Jx2x3 6 i.e., l+ l x (4s+2) = (s+ l)(s+2)(s2 - 1) + (4 s+2)

Ans.
1+2x2+2x3x3+ l x2x3x l 29'/( (s+ t)(s+2) (s2 - 1)

\faample: 9 \ r ------- _____ Cascade ___________ __ 1

\

For the system shown in figure 3.14 Determine ,--- - - - - - -- --~ I I

i) Closed loop b:ansfer function

I
: 2
(s - l) ..----~ \I \I
ii) Characteristic equation
R(s ) 1 (s+ l)(s+2)(s 1) +(4s + 2)
2 - s 2 - l ~\--.---+ C(s)
I

iii) System t yp e
I
I - _-_-_~__\
---_-_-_-_-_-_- _-_-_-_--__-_-_-_- _-_-_--'_- _-_-_
~ - _'_
Dcc.08/J a n.09 (10 l\f) I
iv) System d ifferential equation I I
1 '---------~ s2+ 2s ------------' I
+ I
1--~~- C(s)
l ___ Minorfeedback loop ___________ ___________ __ )
R(s)

Step 3 : Combine the cascade blocks 2

(s+ l)(s+2)(s -1)+4s+2

Eliminate the minor feedback loop

Solution : F ig. 3.14

(s+ l)(s+ 2)( s 2 1)+4(s+ 2)
1
1+ x ( s2 + 2s)
Step 1 : Combine the cascade block = (s +l )~ s +2) (s + IX s+ 2)(s
2
- 1)+ 4s + 2

2
Eliminate the unicy feed back loop= ~ -5 - - = _l_ 2
(s + 3s+ 2)(s
2
- 1)+4s+ 2+ s 2
+ 2s
1-J_xl s2- l ·
s2
Si::lit the summing point 1 4 3 2 2 2
s +3s +2 s -s - 3s-2+4s+2 + s + 2s

4 3 2
s + 3s + 2s + 3s
I
I
I
I
· 4s+2 I 4 3 2
s + 3s + 2s + 3s
I
?-=i :I '·
C losed Transfer function is,
L----------- --~-- - --~
C(s)
s1 + 2s
R(s) s 4 + 3s3 + 2s 2 + 3s
 \
;.,

'
,;.) Bloc!< Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs - 97
ntrol Engineering

Eliminate minor feed back loop

.
le : IO
t'· erall transfer [unction of lhe block diagram shmu1 in figure
Step 3 :

I r mmc uc o, • Dec'2011 (10 l\1)

Step 4: Eliminate minor feed back loop i.e., overall - Transfer function
C
ANS.
R
Thus
Solulio11:
Step l: (a) Combine blocks G2 and G3 = Gp 3
(b) After combining move U1e take off point 1 a head of Gp3 = H/Gp3 R
----i►I i----- C
(c) Rearrange the system

R
~mple: 11
Reduce given block diagrnm into canonical form and determine closed loop transfer
function. Also represent in open loop form. Dec' 1013/201-4 (10~1)

~-----------------
1
GG
Step 2: (a) Eliminate minor feed back loop= 1+ c:d
GG G
(b) After eliminating combine with G 1 = ~ :., ~
1+ 2V3 2

s
GP2G3 L-----------------
1 +G2 G3 /i2 C

Fig
98 - Control Eng1neenng

2
10(2s +8s +3)
s ---
Step 1 : (a) Eliminating umt) feedback p:ith = 11--_!_ - s + I 4 2 3
s +6s +49s +162s+66
s :. open loop form is

l 1 2s2 +8s+3 2
(b) Combinmg3blocks inparn.l lcl = 2 + s+3+ s - s(s+3) 0, (s)----► I0(2s +8s+3)
4 3
s +6s + 49s 2 + 162s +66

2s 2 +8s+3
Thus, Transfer function is
s(s+ 3)

4
2
20s + 80s + J.e
3 2
s +6s +49s +162s+66 /

3.5 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

Fig
A signal now graph is an another way of representing a linear control systems, when any control
Step 2 : (a) Combining the blocks in Cascade (Series) system is described by a set of linear algebraic ~quations having the fonn

10(2s2 +8s+3)
xi == I.aux, Where i == I , 2, ...... n
s( s+ 1)( s + 2)( s+3) i=I

•The signal flow graph (SFG) was developed by S.J. Mason for the control system described by an
algebraic equations lo represent tJ1e cause and effect relationship among the various variables of
2
10(2s +8s+3) the system, Thus signal flow graph can be defined as :
s(s + 1)( s + 2)( s +3) The diagramatic or graphical representation of the variable.i of a set of lirzear algebraic
equations representing the linear control system is called signal flow grup/z (SFG).
3.5.1 B ASIC ELEMENTS OF A SFG
2
In SFG, variable plays a vital role, these are represented first. Thus variables of the set of equations
Step 3 : (a) Eliminating feedback path representing the control system are considered as the first basic element and are
represented by the small circles called nodes in SFG. The control system consists of number of
2 variables, which are both dependent and independent in nature. Each {dependent and
10(2s +8s+3) independent ) va riables a re present ed by separated node. The nodes are connected by directed
s(s + l)(s + 2)(s+ 3) line segments called brancl1es, according to the cause and effect equations. The br.mcb is associated
2 wiLh Lhe transfer function and an arro~. The transfer function represents {branch gain) mathematical
10(2s +8s +3)
l+-~-----x2 operation o n l.o ne variable to produce the other variable. The direction of the arrow indicates the
flow of signa
s(s+ l)(s + 2)(s+ 3)
For instance, consider that a linear system is represented by the simple algebraic equation.
2
10(2s +8s+3)
s(s+l7(s+2)(s+3 )+20(2s 2 +8s+3)
X
I x~
 \o<rnl Eo•oo'"og Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs 1o1

/,.2
_,\• is the input. \ 2 is the output and a 12 i~ the gain between the 1wo variables.

TERMS USED IN SFG

Example : Consider a forward path x 1 - x2 - x, - x - x - x its path gain is
I x ai, x a,s x as6 x I
5 6 1

x) Fe~dl,ack loop : A palh which starts from a particular node and ends al the same node
1
1n :iddiuon 10 the nodes and branches defined earlier, the following tenns are usdul for the ana lysis travelling through al least one olher node, and along which no node is traversed more than once i~
ofSFG. known as feedback loop or closed loop.
Consider a signal !lo\\ graph shown in the figure 3.15 E~ample : x 3 - x, - x5 - x3 • •

xi) Self loop : A path which starts from a particular node and ends at the same node.
Example : x3 - x 3
Hint : A self loop shou ld not be considered while defining th e forward path.
xii) N?n - touching loop : If Lhere is no node common between the Lwo or more loops, such loops
X1
are said to be non - touching loops.
xiii) Loop Gain : The product of al I the gains of the branches forming loop is known as loop gam.

Fig. 3.15 3.5.3 , PROPERTIES OF SFG

i) Node : Nodes are the variables of the system represented by small circles. i) The SFG can be applied only to linea r systems.

ii) Input Node : The node that has only outgoing branches 1s known, as Input or source node. ii) The equations for which SFG is drawn must be a linear algebraic equations in the form of cau.,e
and effect.
Example : x 1 is Input node.
iii) Nodes are used to represent variables and line connecting between nodes in represented bv
iii) Output Node: The node that has only incoming branches is known as output or sink node
branches. •
Exan.1ple : x, in output node. iv) The signals along the branches represented by arrow.
ii) Mixed Node : The node that ha\·ing both incoming and outgoing branches is known as mix ed
v) The signal traveling along branch is multiplied by the gain of the branch.
or chain node.
vi) The branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal on another.
Example : x,. x,. x,, x 5 and x6 •
vii) At each node all the signals of in coming branches added and transmitted to the out 2 oill!!
\) Ilranch : Directed line segment joining two nodes is known as branch. branches. - -
\ i) [>atl1 : le 1s a traversal from one node to another node in the direction of the branch arrow, such Hint : The value of variable al each node is an algebraic sum of aU the signals of incomin!:
I.hat no node traverse more than once. branches. -
\ ii) Brauch gain : The gain between nodes is known as branch gain or transmittance. such ga ins viii) A mixed node may be treated as an output node by adding an outgoing branch with urnt branch
arc expressed in terms of transfer functions. gain.
\ iii) Forward path : The path that starts from an input node and ends at an output node and along
w-htch no node i~ traversed more than once is knD\\11 as forward path. 3.5.4 PROCEDURE TO DRAW SFG

Example: Case I : From block diagram

x1 - Xi - .l3 - X4 - X 5 - X6 - X., I. Replace all the summing points by nodes.
.r 1 - Xi - x4 - x6 - x1 2. Replace all the take off points by nodes .
x - x2 - x, - x5 - x6 - x1 3. Replace all the blocks by branches, indicating block.
1
.t - Xz - .1 - x4 - x6 - X1 4. If the branch connecting a summing point and take off point ha,_s unity gain. !hen summing and
1 3
take off point can be combined and represented b)'. a single node.
ix) Patl1 Gain: The product of the branch gains encountered while going through the a forward
path is known as path gain or forward path gain.
102 - Control Engineering
Block Diagrams and Signal ~

r--------- ----~ Mason'.s ga in formula is given by

I I
I I

OverallT.F,= T = ± LPkl\ k

Where k = Numbe r of forward path

-' Pk = Path gain of lc-h forward palh
6 = D eterminant of the graph

5. If there are more take off points fro m the same signal then all take off points can be combined 1 - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (s um of gain products of all
and represented b) a single node. combin ations of two non touching loops) - (sum of gain products ot
all Co mbinations of three non touching loops)+ ..... .
£\k = Value o f 6. by eliminating all loop gains and associated products whicl
are to uching to the klb forward palh

~mple: 12

For the system shown in figure 3.16 determine C(s) using l\1ason's gain formula.
R(s)
j
G Dec. 09/Jan.10 (10 l\
3
6. If the gain of the link connecting two summing points is one, then two summ ing points can be
combined and can be replaced by a single node.
~(s)
~ 2 C(s

Case II: From the linear algebraic equ ations

~ +l

Solutioll:
-1-/
2

Fig. 3.16
-J

Step 1 : Identify the number of forward path and their gain

1. Replace all the Yariables by a separate node.
:. Forward path gains are
2. Co efficients of the variables are represented as the branch gains.
pl= l X 1 X GI X G2 X a .xi = GIG2G4 )
3. To complete'the SFG. show separate input and output nodes.
P2 = I x l x G x G x G xi = G G G There are two forward paths k=2
I 3 4 I J 4

3.6 MASON'S GAIN FORMULA Step 2: Identify the individual loops and their loop gain
:. Loop gains are
Mason's gain formula is used for the determination of overall transfer function (Input - output
relationship) of a system. It is a convenient and easy way of find ing the relation between the input LI= GIG?(-1-/2)= - G G f-/
and output variables of a system. The number of steps involved in the block diagram reduction are L2 = G (~H ) = - G Hi z z
4 I 4 I

more and it is a time consuming procedure and also the task of solving for the input-output relationship L1 = Ix G 1 G2G◄ (- J) =- GGG There are four individual loops
by algebraic manipulation could be quite tedious. An advantage of M ason's gain formula is that the L. = t x c1c1c. c- 1) = - G,G2c•
I 3 4
system transfer fUI1ctions are readily obtained without manipulation o f the graph.
 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs - 105

. Solution : r
ombinat1on of two non touching loops Step I : Identify the number of forward path and their gain
L 1L2 = (- G1G2H1) x <- c.H) = c 1cp.H 1H2 : . Forward path gains are
No other combination of two or more non touching loops pl = 1 X GI X G2 X G3 X c. = G,G2G3G4 )
Step 4 : Find the ,·alue of determinant 6. pi= I x G1 x G2 x Gs x c. = G1G2G5G◄ There are two forward paths k=2
.t,. = Determinant of the graph Step 2: Identify the individual loops and their loop gain
= I - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (sum of gain products of all :. Loop gains are
combinations of two non touching loops) - (sum of gain products of LI=- 0 2 111
all Combinations of three non touching loops)+ ..... . c. 11
L2 = - 2 There are four individual loops
!-,. = I - [L, + L2 + L3 + L.J + [Ll2l L3 = G1GPP. (- 1)
1 - [- c 1c 2 H 2 - c.H 1 - c 1c 2c. - c 1c 3c.1 + c 1c 2 c.H 1H2 L. = G1G2GP. (-1)
1 + c 1c 2H2 + c.H 1 + c 1c 2c. + c 1c,c. + c 1c 2 c.H1H 2 Step 3 : Find the Combination of non touching loops
Step 5 : Find the value of 6.t I. Combination of two non touch ing loops
,t.,.l = Value of ,t.,. by eliminating all loop ga ins and associated products L 1L 2 = (- G2H 1) x (- G4 H 2 ) = Gp,!f,H1
which are touching to the lc11 forward path No other combination of two or more non touching loops
Since from the SFG. it is seen tliat all the loops are touching all t.he forward paths, Step 4 : Find the value of determinant 6.
we have 6. 1 = ~ =I ,t.,. = Determinant of the graph
Thus. From Mason's Gain Formula, l - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (sum of gain produclS of all
combinations of two non touching loops)- (sum of gain produces of
Since k= 2 all Combinations of three non touching loops)+ ..... .

i.e., Overall transfer function, ,t.,. = 1 -:- [L, + ½ + L 3 + L4 ] + [L 1L 2]

1 - [- G2HI - G4H2 - GIG2G3G4 - GIG~G5G.J ~ [G~G◄ HIH2]
=
Ans. 1 + cµ 1 + c.H1 + c 1c 2c 1c. + c 1c 2 G 5G. + c:G,H,H2
=
Step 5 : Find the value of 6.. •
/
Jxample: 13 6.l = Value of 6. by eliminating all loop gains and associated products
Using signal Oo,~ graph and l\fason's gain formula, obtain the overall transfer function of which are touching to the /ch forward path
the system depicted in figure 3.17. Dec. 07/Jan.08 (10 M) Since from the SFG, it is seen that all the loops are touching all the forward paths, we have
6., =6.2 = l
G5
Thus. From ,Mason's Gain Fommla,

GI G2 G3 G. l ~ _ Pi~,+ P26.2
R(s)
C(s)
T =- L, P.:6.1
I:!,. k=l - I:!,.

i.e., Overall transfer fu nction,

-HI - H2
C( S) ✓ / / / <L <
-1 = 7 'j{ / /G 1G2 G3 G4 +G1G 2 G5 G_. .., ,,,,
R(s) l+G2 1+G4H2+6 1 G2 G3 G4 +6 1 G~G5 G4 +G2 G◄ H1 H2 Ans.
Fig. 3.17
 - I.:,

~ ~ ::i::;'"'

Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Gra w

o 8 -~'a -:r:."'
~ '0"' ~~
c:/'

l
106 ,1- Control Engineering N g I \
/
"1xample : 14
C(s)
-
C2H ,- C//2 - CSC6 + C,H 1G6 + c,c6H2 + C 2C JH , ~ ~ -
J _ [-

C!,. = I + G/I,+ C//2- CSC6 + G,H,C6 + C,G6H2 + C 2CJHIH2 '

Step 5 : Fi11d the value of!!. * .
. ~- 1
11 II

. Iiigurc 3 · 18 ' Determine the transfer function -

For the signal flow graph shown m R(s)
!!.* = Value of!!. by e liminating all loop gains and associated products
using Mason's gain formula. Dcc'08/Ja n'0 9 (10 1\1) which arc touching lo the !ch forward path
Since from figure it is seen that for all the forward paths all the loops are touching
t!,. 1 = ~=!!. 3 =!!. 4 = J (fork= I , 2, 3, 4)
Thus, From Mason's gain formula
R(s) Y-----+----o C(s)

l ~ Pi!!.,+ P.z!!. 1 + Pi!!.J + ?,..1•

T= ~ ~Pk!!.k = C!,.

/ // /'// ✓- ✓ ./

Fig. 3.18 i.e., C(s) ,, < Ci92+ CJC4 + c,c6c4 + C.,C3C5 C / / Ans
Soluli_on:
R(s) 1 + c 2 H, + <J3H 1 - (fsC6 + c,;jjilr, + G G
1 6
H +
2
c1G3H H
1
·
Step 1 : Identify number of forward path and their gain 1

.· Forward path gains are xample: 15

P, = J X G, X G2 X J = G,G2 C
P1 = I x G3 x G, x I = G3G4 For the signal flow gra ph in figure 3.19 find R using Mason's gain formula.

P, =J X G, X G6 X G, X I = G,G6G4
.·. Four fonvard paths i.e., k =4
G 2 x I = G3 G5G 2 June/July'OS (10 l\I)
P, =I x G3 x G5 x
Step 2: Identify individual loops and their gain loop gain G,
G,
:. Loop gains are
L,= -G1H 1
G, G2
L 2 = - G3H 2 R CJ c. Cs C
L = G5G6 There are five indi\'idual loops C
L, = - G,H 1G6
-Hl
LI = - G/i2G,
Step 3 : Find the combination of non touching loops and their gain
1. Combination of two non touching loops are -H,
L 1L2 = G 2H 1G 3H Solution: Fig. 3.19
2
2. There is no Combination three or more non touching loops
Step 4 : Find the value oft:. Step 1 : Identify the number of forward paths and their gains
:. Forward path gains are
1
I!. = De erminant of the graph
P, = I x c, x c 2 x c J x c x c x G = c c G cc c !
= l - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (su m of gain products of all Pi= i x c, x c x c x c• == csc c ~ , i J • s '
2 7 6 There are 3 forward
combinations of two non touching loops) -(sum of ga in products of
2 7 6 I
PJ::: I X G, X G2 X GJ X c. X c8 = G,G2GJG4Gg paths i.e., k == 3
all Combinations of three non touching loops) + ..... .
= I - (L, + L2 + Ll + L• + Ls] + [L,Ll]

a
·J~ : ~

,-,Cl
::r.:r, ::r,
Cl
C)
\i trii I ~ ·.
Gl r -
i>,1trnl Engineenng Block C,iagrams and Signal 'Flow Graphs - 109

,.., ;:-'-' 2: Identify the indi\'idual loops and their loop gain
lAfx:mple : 16
.·. Loops gain are
L, =- G. H2 J arn t 1e overall transfer function R from the signal flow graph shown in figure 3.20.
Ott · 1 • C .
L2 =- G 5 G 6 H3
July/August 2005 (10 M) Dec'2012 (10M)
LJ::: - G, G2G JG4GSG6HI
There are six individual loops
L4 =- G 1 H,
L5 = - G 1 G 2G3 G,G 8H 1
Lb= - GI G~G7G6HI
Step 3 : Find the Combination of non touching loops
l. Combmation of two non touching loops
L L 6 = - c. H2 x - c 1
1
c c 1G H = c c C G G,H H2
2 6 1 1 2 4 6 1

There are no combination of three or more non touching loops Gs

Step 4 : Find the value of determinant A -Hi
t:, = Determinant of the _graph Solution: Fig. 3.20
= 1 - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (sum of gain products of Step l : Identify the number of forward path and forward path gain
all combinations of two non touching loops) -(sum of gain The fo rward path ga ins are
products of all Combinations of three non touching loops)+ ..... . P 1 = G 2G 4 G 6
6 = 1- [L 1+ ½+ L 3+ [,,,+ Ls+ L6 ] + [Ll6] p2 = GJGSG7
Step 5: Find the Yalue of A1 P3 = G2 G 1G7
6 l = Value of .6. by eliminating all loop gains and associated products which P, = G3 G 8 G6 There are six forward path :. k =6
are touching to the k' h forward path PS= - G2G, H2G8G6
To find A 1 : For P 1 forward path, all the loops are touching P6 = - G 3 G 8 H 1G 1G 7
t:.. = 1 Step 2: Find ind ividual loops and their loop gain
To find~: For P 2 forward path only L 1 is non touching

I
:. Loop ga ins are
~ = I - L 1 is non touching
LI ; - G4HI
To find ~: For P, forward path, all loops are touching l 2 = - G 5H 2 There are 3 individual loops
A3 =l LJ = - GIH2GRHI
Tims, rrom Mason's gain formula, Step 3: Find the combination non touching loops and their loop gains
3
T = _!_ L,Pkt:.k =Pit:.,+ P2t:.2 + P3t:.3 Combination two non touching loops are
A k=I !:, ./ LIL2 = G.H,G5H2
.,,,,, . /../ / _/ / / / / ~ / / / ./ //
There is onl y one combination two non touching loop and no combination three and more non
C GiG2 v3 v5G6 + G1G2 G7 G6 (1 + G4 H 2 ) + Gp2 G3G4 G8
i.e., touching loops
R A
Step 4: Find the valu~ of .6.
Where
t. = 1 -fsum of individual loop gain]+ [sum of gain product of
all combination of two non touching loops]- [sum of gain
product of all combination-Of three non touching loops]+ .....

z et'
 1132 4
11 O Control Engineering Block Diagrams and Signal I' ~
~"-•aPhs
~ = I - [L,+Ll+L3) + [L,~]
= l _ [-G,H,- G,H 2+ G// 2G8G,l + [G,H 1G/f 2]
= I+ G,H,+ G,H2- G 1H 2G8G 1 + G/l,G/12
Step 5: Find the value of~.
~t = Value of ll. by eliminating all loop gai ns and associa ted
products which are touching to the k'" fonvard pat h Fig. 3.21
Since/..= 6 Solution:
To find /:;. 1 : Consider P, check which is the loop non touching to it. S tep l : Jdcmify number of forward path and their gain
For P,, ½. is non touching :. Forward path ga ins are
· t;. = 1-L =l+GH G4 P, = lx2x5xl =IO
J G~ •
~
2 S 2

Sllllilarl).
•• I
o---l-o---'· ~
G, 6 p 2 = l X 3 X 6 XI= 18
To find I\,: For P 2• L 1 1s non touching P J = l x 4 x 7 x I = 28
:. ~ I - L, = I + G4H 1 = ~
12
To find~: For P 1• all loops are touching it. l x2xAx6 x 1 = 12A=--
s+ l
:. ~ = l H2 :. Six forward palh i.e., k = 6
14
To find /:;.4: For P4 , all loops are touching it. P 5 = lx2xAxB x7x 1=14A B=--- 2
: . .i, = I (s+ I}
To find,\: For P 5' all loops are touching it. 21
:. t;., = I
P6 =l x3x Bx7xl=2 1B= - (
s+ l)
To find a,: For P 6, all loops are touc\1ing it.
Step 2 : Find individual loops and loop gains
:. /:;.6 =I There are no loops
Tims. From Mason's gain formula Step 3 : Find the va lue of/:;.
Since there are no loo ps

and
C /:;.k l fork= I, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6
✓..,
Thus, Maso n's gai n fonnul a is
., .,. .,, , / / / .,, /II/ I
~.,,.,, / / , .,,

G:G4G (1+G5 HJ+G3 G5G, l+G4 H 1 )+G2 Gp7 (1 +Gp8 G6 (0-,d~ 1H 2 G 8 6

6 G (1)- G G H G G
3 8 1 1 7
I+ G4 H 1 + 5 H 2 - G1H2 G8 + G4 H 1G5 H2 C.
\/4ample : 17

Explain Mason's gain formula, use it to determine the transmitta nce

of the flow graph
i.e., 10+ 18+28 +2+-14
_ +~
l'_ s+l {s+L)
1
(s+l)
1
shown in figure 3.21 given A= B = - -. J a n/Feb 2006 (10 M) u
s+l
2
56(s + 1) + l 2{s+ t)+ 14 + 2l(s + 1)
{s+ 1)2
 -,k~l___-------~
I
Tirns. transmiuan ce ;
)' 56s 2 + l45s+ 103
(s+1)
2
Aus.
Step 5 : Find the value of 6A
Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs -

which touc hing to the k"' forward path

To find DJ : For P,, aJI loops arc touc hing
.

6, = Value of 6 by e liminati ng all loop gains a nd associated products

113

✓Exampi<' : 18 th I10
.
11
.Mnson 's g:ii11 formu la.
•
in (jgurc 3. 22 usmg " Ju ly-2007 ( l O I\[)
6, = J
To find D 2 : For P2 , L 1 is non touc hing loo p
Find the transkr function of c SJ'Slcm s " -

6 2 = J - L 1 = I + G 2 H,
Thus, Masori 's gain formula is given by

Ro-~s.;......)--+_ _ ➔G_,_~
G_ C(s)
0
Gain =

C(s)
_!_ tFi,6* = Pit.,+ P 262
fl. k=I
. / / / / /
6
/_,, / ✓

Cj,P2p 3 (j4 G5 +G6Gs( UG2~)-, , -

Ans.
i.e.,
R(s)
Fig. 3.22
- Ji,
~mple: 19
Solution:
Step I : Identify the number of forward paths and tJ1 eir gains Obtain C(s) of th e sig na l fl ow graph shown in figure 3.23
using !>fa.son's gain formuia.
: . Forward patJi gains are R(s)
:. Two forward paths July 2006 (10 M)
p, = I x G 1 x G 2 : G 3 x G. x Gs x I = G 1G2 G3 G4 Gs}
i.e., k = 2
p~ =Ix G6 x Gs- G 6 Gs
Step 2: Identify tJ,e individual loops and loop gains
C(s)
:. Loop gains are R(s) 0
0

L1 =- G2 H, )
L2 =- G4 H 2 :. Threemdiv 1dual loops
LJ =-
G3 G.GSHJ
Step 3 :Find the combinatio n of touching loops and loop gains
Fig. 3.23
I. Combinatio n of two non touching loops are L 1L 2 = G2G,H,H2 Soluti.011 :
2. There is no combination of three or more non touching loops Step J : Ide ntify the number of forward patJis and their gains
Step 4 : Find the value of 6 :. Forward path gains arc
6 = Determina nt of tJie graph P, = I X I X c, X 1 X G2 X G) X 1 = GIG2G3 .·. Two forward padlS i.e., k =2
= I - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (sum o f gai n products of al I p2 = I X IX GI XIX c. X 1 = G,G4
of
combinatio ns of two non touching loops) - (s um of gai n products Step 2 : Ide nt ify the ind ividual loops and loop gains
all Combinatio ns of tJiree non touching loops)+ ..... . :. Loo p gains are
6 = 1-[L,+f:i +L:i]+[L ,LJ L I = - G4 H2
L2 = - G2 G3 H 2
I-[-G2 H 1 -G4 H 2 -G3 G4 G5 H 3 ] +[G2 G4 Hifi2 ]
LJ = - GI G2 HI :. There are 5 individual loops
1+ cµ, + c.H2 + G3 G,G5H3 + c 2 c.11, H2 = G.(l)G2 G) (-1) = GIG2GJ
L◄
L5 = G,(l)G4 (-l) = G 1G 4
 ~
L; 0
§? ~
h-< ~
114 - Control Engineenng
---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- -.c. ~ c Block Diagrams and S1gna, i:i~ G
{
Step 3 : Find the combination of non touching loops Sol11tio11 : e
separate node and~
There are no combination non !ouching loops Step 1 : Represent all the sum ming points and take off points each by a
Step 4 : Find the value of~ now of signal as shown in figure 3.24(a).
ti = Determinant of the graph _
= I _ (swn o[ m 1 ua I loop gain)+ (sum
. d.I\ ··d ' of ~ga111 products _of
all combinations of two non touching loops)-(sum of gain
product~ of all Combinalions of three non touchi ng loops) ➔ ... ...

t, = 1-[l,+l:z+l:J+L◄ +½]
. _
Step 5 : Find the value oft., Fig. 3.24(a)
t,1 = Value oft, by eliminating all loop gains and associated products
Step 2: Id entify the number of forward path and U1eir gain
which are touching lo the J..•h forward path
:. Forward path gairu, are
Since all the loops arc touching the all the forn-ard patru.
we ha\'e .1 1 = t., = l P, == 1 x 1 x Ix x I x c 2x I x 1 ==
c, c,_c2}
:. There are Two forward path
p l :: I X I CJ X I X I :: CJ
X I X
Thu~. from Mason's Gain fomrnla i.e., k == 2
Step 3: I~entify the indi vidual loops and U1eir gain
l f
flt.,+
T= - L Ptt!.,= ----
P2C.2 L, == - c,
Hl
t.1=, ~ L2 == - G2 H 1
,, / / ,,. /
t.e.,
C(s) 1 G,G2GJ + G,G4 , 3
L == l x I x G, x C 2 x (-/-/) == - G 1C2H3 :. There are 5 individual loops
AilS. L4 == Ix l x G3 x I x(-H3)==-C 1 /-/1
I
R(s) l+d4H; +cAH2 +<1id2H; +6,6;cJ +7c,c4
L5 :: [ X GJ X [ X(-H,) X [ X (-H,):: C)HI Hi
j/amplc: 20 n of non touching loops
Step 4 : Fi~d the combination of non touching loops: There is no combinatio
find its control Step 5 : F111d U1e value oft:,.
Dra11 the ~ignal 0011 graph for the block diagram shown in figure 3.24 and
ratio using Mason's formula. Dec'06/Ja n '7 (10 M)
I::,. == Determinant of the graph
1- (sum of individual loop gain)+ (sum of gain products of
all combinations of two no□ touching loops)-(s um of gain
products of all Combinations of three non touching loops)+ ..... .
t:,. == I - [ L, + ½ + ½ + L4 + ½]

== l- [-C 1H2 -C 2 H 1 -C,C 2 H3 -G3 H3 +GJH 1HJ

_ == 1 + C 1H2 + C2H 1 + 1 2H3 + cc - c H ,H,
.1 -cp
Step 6 : F111d the value oft:,., 3

== Value of I::,. by eliminating all loop gains and associated products

1::,.,
which touching to U1e f...-'h forward paU,
Since all U1e loops are touching all the forward paUis.
1::,.1 == 1::,.2 == 1
Fig. 3.24
 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs - 11 7

I - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (sum of ga in producls of all

combinations of two non touching loops) - (s um of gain products of
al l Combinations of three non touching loops) ➔ •• ••• •
6 = 1- [L 1 +Li]
C(s) Ans.
i.e .. l - [l/ 1 +G 2G3 H2]
R(s)
Step 5 : Find the value of 6 *
¥ample: 21 6 , = Value of6 by eliminating all loop gains and associated products which
are touching to the klh forward path
b . X,
In the SFG sho\\ n in lig. 3.25, o tam x;· wehave 6 1 = l,62 = 1 - l,=l - 1/1,63 = 1 -L,=I-H,.64 =1
Thus. from Mason's Gain formula
Gs
H,

G, i.e.,
3i
x,
X
7 /
yifxamp/a : 22
Obtain the ovc.-all transfer function CIR from the signal !low graph shown in Figure 3.26.

Fig. 3.25
Solutio11:
Step 1 : Identify the nurnbe~of forward paths and their gains
: . Forward path gains are C(s)
P1 = c 1c 2 c 1c.
P2 = G sG 6 ••• Four forward paU1s i.e., k = 4
P3 = G 5G3G4 \
P. = GIG2G6 I/ -H,
Step 2: Identify the individual lo1ps and loop gains \ Fig. 3.26
.·. Loop gains are Solution:

L• = H • I:. There are 2 individual loops

Step 1 : Identify the number of forward path and their gain
:. Forward patl1 gains are
Li= G2G3H2
Step 3 : Find the combination of non touching loops p:
1 G,G,G3
_ G G·
0J
I
There are two forward paths k=2
There are no combination non touching loops P2 - 1 •

Step 4: Find the value of 6

6 = Determinant of the graph
 ,,,~
§
~~ t{1
118 - Control Engineer ing
- ====================================~==-=-~¾ ~
Block Diagram, ana s
Step 2: ldentif) the individual loops and then l0op gain -::::2:==
/
V ,amp/e , 23 • .
~ ( Z, Graph!, ?

.·. Loop gains are

the overa ll tran<,fcr function of lhr: ~)'~
LI=- G2H, Use l\laso n's g ain formu la for determ ining Dec'20U n1 'It\
shown in fi gure 3.27.
I,= - GIG2HI 1
L3 =- G-:,_G,H2 Tiicre arc four indi, idual loops
- H.
L4 = G 1G.G,H2G2 H 1
Ste1, 3: Find the C0mbin auon cif non touching loops
No rnmbmati0n of two or more non touching loops
Step 4: Find tJ1e ,·alue of detem1inant 11
t, = Detem1inan1 of the graph
= I -(sum ofindi,·idual Joor gain)+ (swn of gain products of all c.
gain products of Fig. 3.27
combinations of two non touching loops) - (sum of Solution :
.
all Combinations of three non touching loops)+ ..... Step l: Identify the number of forward path and
their gain
d = }- [LI+ L2 + LJ+ L.] : . Forward path gai ns are
= G 1G2G 3
: I - [- G].HJ - GIG2HI - G2GJH2 + GIG4GJH2G2HI]
P, }

p2 = c. · There are two forward paths :. k =2

Step 5 : Find the value of 6.,
gains
ted products Step 2: Identify the individu al loops and their loop
t., = Value of ti by eliminat ing all loop gains and associa :. loo p gains are
which touching to the f..."h forward path L= - H)
1 , Self loops
we have
Since from the SFG, it is seen that all the loops are touching all the fonvard paths, Li= - Hi
1'11 = I L3 = - G 3 H 4 There are Four individu al loops
l 4 == - G 2G 3 H 3
t.2 = 17 LI= l + G2H,
Tirns, r=rom MU!>on's Gain Fofllrnla, and their gain
Step 3: Find the co mbinatio n of non touchin g loops
\ I . Combination two no n touching loops are
1 f
Gain= - ~ F'i_t. 4 =
Pini +P2n2
L!L2 = HIH2 ; L,L3 = HIGJH,
n (:) n loops
There is other combin ation of two or more non touching
\ tep 4 : Frnd the va lue of n

6. = 1 -[ L1 + ½ + L_i + L4 ] + [ l, ½ + 1.s_½)
Overall transfer function ,
= 1- [-HI - Hi - G3H4 -G2G3H 1] + [ HIH! + H1G3H4
i.e., ]
Step S : Find the value of n,

nl = 1 for k = I
6 2 = I - LI - I.., + L, L2
= I + HI + H2 + HI H!

7:-i
 Blocl-' Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs - 121

I - [L, + L 2 + L,J + [L, L3J

{mm ma 5 on's gam formula 6 = 1 + G2H, + c,c2GJG◄ /{2 + G,G//2 + G_G,G////2]

-I 1P,6.. Slcp 5 : Find lhe value of t,,t

2
T =
/:,, I I 6.1 = Value of 6 by eliminating all loop gains and associated products
whi ch touching to the fcb forward path
paths, we have
/\ n s. Since from lhe SFG, it is seen that all the loops are touching all the forward
t., = I
t.2 = J- LI = 1 + Giff,
. Thus, From Mason's Gain Formula,
'~mplc : 24 •III fi 3 28 b , using Maso n's ga 111
V-'-" igure · ) (lOl\ [)
Find the control ratio for the signal flow graph shown 20]3/Jan.2 014 l ~ Pill,+ P1t.1
Dec'
formula. Gain=~ t-,f>iA= 6

~
G1G2 G3 G4 +G5 G4 (l+G2 H 1 )
► C(s) T = I+G1 H 1 +Gp1 G3G 4 H 1 +G,G5 H 1 +G1 G,.G5 H 1H 1
R(s)o
i.e., Overall transfer fanction,

Ans.
-H2
Fig. 3.28
Solution:
Step 1 : Identify Lhe number of forward path and their gain
.·. Forward path gains,
P, = G,G,G, G 4
P, = G G: ~are two forward paths :. k =2
5
Step 2: Identify the individual loops and their loop gain
Loop gains are
L =-G,H,
L = - G ,G,G ,G 4 H 2 There are three individual loops
L =- G,G/f2
Step 3: Find the combination of non touching loops and their gain
1 Combination two non touching loops are
L,L3 = G 1 G4 G 5 H, H 2
There is other combination of two or more non touching loops
Step_4 : Find d1e value of determinant 6
t. = Determinant cf the graph
= I - (sum of individual loop gain)+ (sum of gai n products of all
combination s of two non tou ching loops) - (sum of gain products of
all Combination s of three non touching loops)+ ... ...