AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - I

100 SEATED PASSENGER

AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by,
BALASASTHA P (721419101015)
BALAGANESAN M (721419101012)
ADNAN KHAN M (721419101003)
MANIVASAGAM R (721419101042)
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY,THIRUMALAYAMPALAYAM

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

MARCH 2022

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “100 SEATED PASSENGER

AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of BALASASTHA P (721419101015),

BALAGANESAN M (721419101012) and ADNAN KHAN M

(721419101003) and MANIVASAGAM (721419101042) who carried out

the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.B.R. SENTHIL KUMAR, Mr. J. KARTHIKEYAN,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMAENT

Professor Assitant Professor (SG)

Aeronautical Engineering Aeronautical Engineering

Nehru Institute of Engineering & Nehru Institute of Engineering &

Technology, Technology,

Coimbatore – 641 105 Coimbatore – 641 105

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. B.R. SENTHIL KUMAR, Head of the

Department, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, for being a source of

constant encouragement and a pillar of support in all that we do, be it academic

or extracurricular.

We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Mr. J. KARTHIKEYAN for his

constant help, erudite guidance and immense passion which enthused us to do the

project better.

A warm token of appreciation to the management at NEHRU INSTITUTE OF

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 ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, Thirumalayampalyam for

providing us with the amenities and a congenial atmosphere to work in.

ABSTRACT

The aim of this report is to design and conceptualize a STOL commuter aircraft which

can cater the need of Indian civil aircraft market. This aircraft design is madeto run on STOL

based technology describing a passenger aircraft, for transporting agroup of passengers or

wealthy individuals. The report involves the design of a STOL commuter aircraft which

runs on a turboprop engine, with an accommodationof 100-seater providing the amenities

and the desired comfort level that a commuter aircraft is expected to provide while

incorporating the design specifications and performance parameters of a long-range

commercial airliner. The aircraft allows for average range transport aircraft with better

efficiency and reduced fuel consumption. To reduce runway distance, a calculation of

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takeoff and landing ground roll has beentaken out. Thrust reversers are also a part taker in

boosting the STOL of the aircraft.All the parameters considered are taken in account in

calculating the desire aerodynamic values.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

S.No TITLE PAGE NO SIGNATURE

1. Abstract 4

2. List of symbols & Abbreviations 6

3. Introduction to design 10

4. Introduction to 100 seated aircraft 22

5. Common comparative study 27

6. Comparative Graphs 30

7. Weight estimation 36

8. Thrust loading 41

9. Airfoil & wing section 42

10. Takeoff, Landing and Range calculation 47

11. Fuselage & Empennage selection 50

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12. Performance characteristics 52

13. Centre of gravity estimation 55

14. Engine selection 60

15. Landing gear design 62

16. v – n diagram 65

17. Improvement in STOL 68

18. 3 – view diagram 71

19. Finalized design parameters 72

20. Conclusion 73

21. References 74

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List of Symbols and Abbreviations

 - Angle of attack

 - Climb angle

 - Density factor

 - Density of air

 - Dihedral angle

 - Glide angle

 - Turn angle

 - Turn rate

 - Wing thickness ratio correction factor

 - Yaw angle

1/4 - Quarter chord sweep angle

Cm/e - Elevator control power

Cn/r - Rudder control power

fuel - Density of fuel

(L/D) cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise

(L/D) loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter

ac - Aerodynamic Centre

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at - Lift curve slope of tail

av - Lift curve slope of vertical tail

aw - Lift curve slope of wing

b - Wing span

c - Chord length

ĉ - Mean chord

c.g. - Centre of gravity

CAEP - Committee of Aviation Environmental Protection

CD - Drag coefficient

CD0 - Zero lift drag co-efficient

Cfe - Skin friction coefficient

Cl - Rolling moment coefficient

Clf - Function of airfoil chord over which the flow in laminar

CLmax - Maximum Lift coefficient

Cm - Pitching moment coefficient

Cn - Yawing moment coefficient

cR - Root chord

cT - Tip chord

D - Drag force

d - Tire diameter

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E – Endurance

e - Oswald efficiency factor

g - Acceleration due to gravity

Ktf - Factor allowed for trapped fuel

L - Lift force

LE - Leading edge of wing

lf - Length of fuselage

Lt - Load on tyre

lv - Aerodynamic center of vertical tail to the airplane’s center of gravity

M - Mach number

MTOW - Maximum Takeoff Weight

N0 - Neutral point

Ne - Number of engines located on top surface of wing

q - Dynamic pressure

R - Turn radius

R/C - Rate of climb

Rr - Rolling radius of tyre

S - Wing area

SFC - Specific Fuel Consumption

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Sref - Wing reference area

STD - Landing run distance

Swet - Wing wetted area

T - Thrust force

t/c - Wing thickness ratio

T/W - Thrust loading

Tf - A factor which is unity for streamlined shape

V - Velocity of air/aircraft

Vcruise - Velocity at cruise

Vf - Volume of fuel

Vstall - Velocity at stall

w - Tyre width

W/S - Wing loading

W0 - Gross weight of aircraft

Wcrew - Crew weight

We - Empty weight of aircraft

Wf - Weight of fuel

Wpayload – Aircraft payload weight

xlew - Distance of location of wing from nose of the aircraft

λ - Taper ratio of wing

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 1.INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance, lightweight

durable structures and advanced systems engineering. Air passengers demand more

comfort and more environmentally friendly aircraft. Hence many technical challenges

need to be balanced for an aircraft to economically achieve its design specification.

Aircraft design is a complex and laborious undertaking with a number of factors and

details that are required to be checked to obtain optimum the final envisioned product.

The design process begins from scratch and involves a number of calculations, logistic

planning, design and real-world considerations, and a level head to meet any hurdle head

on.

Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally built in a factory.

These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the time when it is actually flown

make up the design process. Along the way, engineers think about four main areas of

aeronautics: Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structures and Materials, and Stability and

Control.

Aerodynamics is the study of how air flows around an airplane. In order for an airplane

to fly at all, air must flow over and under its wings. The more aerodynamic, or streamlined

the airplane is, the less resistance it has against the air. If air can move around the airplane

easier, the airplane's engines have less

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work to do. This means the engines do not have to be as big or eat up as much fuel which

makes the airplane more lightweight and easier to fly. Engineers have to think about what

type of airplane they are designing because certain airplanes need to be aerodynamic in

certain ways. For example, fighter jets maneuver and turn quickly and fly faster than

sound (supersonic flight) over short distances. Most passenger airplanes, on the other

hand, fly below the speed of sound (subsonic flight) for long periods of time.

Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane needs. An airplane

needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has. A passenger jet carries

many passengers and a lot of heavy cargo over long distances so its engines need to use

fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also trying to make airplane engines quieter so they

do not bother the passengers onboard or the neighborhoods they are flying over. Another

important concern is making the exhaust cleaner and more environmentally friendly. Just

like automobiles, airplane exhaust contains chemicals that can damage the earth's

environment.

Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what materials

will be used to build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as lightweight as

possible. The less weight an airplane has, the less work the engines have to do and the

farther it can fly. It is tough designing an airplane that is lightweight and strong at the

same time. In the past, airplanes were

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usually made out of lightweight metals like aluminum, but today a lot of engineers are

thinking about using composites in their designs. Composites look and feel like plastic,

but are stronger than most metals. Engineers also need to make sure that airplanes not

only fly well, but are also easy to build and maintain.

Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts to pilot input

and feed. Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to read from the airplane's computers or

displays. Some of this information could include the airplane's speed, altitude, direction,

and fuel levels as well as upcoming weather conditions and other instructions from ground

control. The pilot needs to be able to process the correct data quickly, to think about what

kind of action needs to be taken, and to react in an appropriate way. Meanwhile, the

airplane should display information to the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-to-understand

way. The controls in the cockpit should be within easy reach and just where the pilot

expects them to be. It is also important that the airplane responds quickly and accurately

to the pilot's instructions and maneuvers.

“It is possible to fly without motors, but not without knowledge and skill.”

- Wright Brothers.

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When you look at aircraft, it is easy to observe that they have a number of common

features: wings, a tail with vertical and horizontal wing sections, engines to propel them

through the air, and a fuselage to carry passengers or cargo. If, however, you take a more

critical look beyond the gross features, you also can see subtle, and sometimes not so

subtle, differences. This is where design comes into play. Each and every aircraft is built

for a specific task, and the design is worked around the requirement and need of the

aircraft. The design is modeled about the aircraft role and type and not the other way

around. Thus, this is why airplanes differ from each other and are conceptualized

differently. Aircrafts that fall in the same category may have similar specifications and

performance parameters, albeit with a few design changes.

Design is a pivotal part of any operation. Without a fixed idea or knowledge of required

aircraft, it is not possible to conceive the end product. Airplane design is both an art and

a science. In that respect it is difficult to learn by reading a book; rather, it must be

experienced and practiced. However, we can offer the following definition and then

attempt to explain it. Airplane design is the intellectual engineering process of creating

on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to (1) meet certain specifications and

requirements established by potential users (or as perceived by the manufacturer) and/or

(2) pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology. An example of the former is the design

of most commercial transports, starting at least with the Douglas DC-1 in 1932,

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which was designed to meet or exceed various specifications by an airplane company.

(The airline was TWA, named Transcontinental and Western Air at that time.) An

example of the latter is the design of the rocket-powered Bell X- 1, the first airplane to

exceed the speed of sound in level or climbing flight (October 14, 1947). The design

process is indeed an intellectual activity, but a rather special one that is tempered by good

intuition developed via experience, by attention paid to successful airplane designs that

have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedures and

databases (handbooks, etc) that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

1.1 Defining a new design

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace engineering.

These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures and control. Each of

these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape, weight and performance of

an aircraft. Although we generally try to seek optimum in all these aspects, with an

aircraft, this is practically impossible to achieve. The reason is that in many cases,

optimizing one characteristic degrades another.

There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission

requirements. These include:

• The aircraft purpose or mission profile

• The type(s) and amount of payload

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 • The cruise and maximum speeds

• The normal cruise altitude

• The range or radius with normal payload

• The endurance

• The take-off distance at the maximum weight

• The purchase cost

1.1.1Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With this, it is

often possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories include combat

aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft. These may also be

further refined into subcategories based on particular design objectives such as range

(short or long), take-off or landing distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of

categorizing is useful in identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making

comparisons to a proposed design. With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new

aircraft generally comes from a military program office. For example, the mission

specifications for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals

from the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they, Were seeking a

research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing

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concept and validate studies that indicated such a design could provide better control and

lift qualities in extreme maneuvers. With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a

new design usually comes as the response to internal studies that aim to project future

market needs. For example, the specifications for the Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777)

were based on the interest of commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a

payload and range in between those of the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft. Since it is

not usually possible to optimize all of the performance aspects in an aircraft, defining the

purpose leads the way in setting which of these aspects will be the “design drivers.” For

example, with the B-777, two of the prominent design drivers were range and payload.

1.2 Design Motivation

Fundamentally, an aircraft is a structure. Aircraft designers design structures. The

structures are shaped to give them desired aerodynamic characteristics, and the materials

and structures of their engines are chosen and shaped so they can provide needed thrust.

Even seats, control sticks, and windows are structures, all of which must be designed for

optimum performance. Designing aircraft structures is particularly challenging, because

their weight must be kept to a minimum. There is always a tradeoff between structural

strength and weight. A good aircraft structure is one which provides all the strength and

rigidity to

allow the aircraft to meet all its design requirements, but which weighs no more than

necessary. Any excess structural weight often makes the aircraft cost more to build and
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almost always makes it cost more to operate. As with small excesses of aircraft drag, a

small percentage of total aircraft weight used for structure instead of payload can make

the difference between a profitable airliner or successful tactical fighter and a failure.

Designing aircraft structures involves determining the loads on the structure, planning the

general shape and layout, choosing materials, and then shaping, sizing and optimizing its

many components to give every part just enough strength without excess weight. Since

aircraft structures have relatively low densities, much of their interiors are typically empty

space which in the complete aircraft is filled with equipment, payload, and fuel. Careful

layout of the aircraft structure ensures structural components are placed within the interior

of the structure so they carry the required loads efficiently and do not interfere with

placement of other components and payload within the space. Choice of materials for the

structure can profoundly influence weight, cost, and manufacturing difficulty. The

extreme complexity of modern aircraft structures makes optimal sizing of individual

components particularly challenging. An understanding of basic structural concepts and

techniques for designing efficient structures is essential to every aircraft designer.

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1.3 Design Process

The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test article consists

of a sequence of steps, as illustrated in the figure. It starts by identifying a need or

capability for a new aircraft that is brought about by (1) a perceived market potential and

(2) technological advances made through research and development. The former will

include a market-share forecast, which attempts to examine factors that might impact

future sales of a new design. These factors include the need for a new design of a specific

size and performance, the number of competing designs, and the commonality of features

with existing aircraft. As a rule, a new design with competitive performance and cost will

have an equal share of new sales with existing competitors. The needs and capabilities of

a new aircraft that are determined in a market survey go to define the mission

requirements for a conceptual aircraft. These are compiled in the form of a design

proposal that includes (1) the motivation for initiating a new design and (2) the

“technology readiness” of new technology for incorporation into a new design. It is

essential that the mission requirements be defined before the design can be started. Based

on these, the most important performance aspects or “design drivers” can be identified

and optimized above all others. Following the design proposal, the next step is to produce

a conceptual design. The conceptual design develops the first general size and

configuration for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of the weigh and the choice of

aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the mission requirements stated in

the design proposal.

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 Research, Development and Market Analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

No

Requirements Satisfied

Yes
Preliminary Design

Stop

Final Evaluation

Go
Detailed Design

Test Article Fabrication

Flight Test

Design Process flow chart

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The conceptual design is driven by the mission requirements, which are set in the design

proposal. In some cases, these may not be attainable so that the requirement may need to be

relaxed in one or more areas. This is shown in the iterative loop in the flow chart. When the

mission requirements are satisfied, the design moves to the next phase, which is the

preliminary design.

1.2 Conceptual Design

This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an aircraft. It is broken

down in to several elements, which are followed in order. These consist of:

1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3 View diagrams
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1.3 Design Process Breakdown

• Conceptual Design:

- Competing concepts evaluated What drives the design?

- Performance goals established Will it work/meet requirement?

- Preferred concept selected What does it look like?

• Preliminary Design:

- Refined sizing of preferred concept Do serious wind tunnel tests

tests

- Design examined data/establish parameters Make actual cost estimate

- Some changes allowed

• Detail Design:

- Final detail design Certification process

- Drawings released Component/systems tests

- Detailed performance Manufacturing

- Only “tweaking” of design allowed Flight control system design

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 2. INTRODUCTION TO 100 SEATED PASSENGER
AIRCRAFT

The design, having an aircraft mainly depended on its wing configuration, estimation and

selection. All the aircraft components must be considered in airfoil shape including from wing

to rudder, elevators. But in the case of STOL, we should prefer NACA 6 series for getting

sufficient thickness to chord ratio and the most prominent thing is the payload that is about

how many passengers the aircraft can carry along with other stuffs. So, it is required to have

a 100-seater commuter aircraft which can accommodated payload for an STOL aircraft. It is

also important to keep in mind that the range is to be sufficient as normally a passenger

aircraft do have. So, the range should come around 3000-3500 km for good providence given

to the passengers. Coming to the engine selection, the most preferred is turboprop, it is

because for short distance takeoff turboprops are more fuel efficient than jets. Here the

propeller can be feathered to minimize drag in the event of engine failure, which is not

possible for jet or turbofan engines. Here we had placed engine above the wing and a T-tail

is selected for reducing the interference disturbance of airflow to the elevators.

The mastering of design has to deal with weight estimation, wing and empennage

selection, fuselage design, engine selection and range calculation. For STOL characteristic,

the need of high lift devices is more. It is because for STOL aircraft, we need high lift at short

runway. And also, a major role played is by wing design describing in what design the aircraft

should achieve STOL. The thrust reversal mechanisms in STOL aircraft plays a key role, it

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reduces wear on the brakes. Apart from turboprops, other engines can also implement STOL

technology according to its requirements and feasibility.

There are many performance aspects that can be as specified by the missionrequirements.

These include:

• The aircraft purpose or mission profile

• The type(s) and amount of payload

• The cruise and maximum speeds

• The normal cruise altitude

• L/D ratio

• The takeoff distance at max weight

• The range with normal payload

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2.1 Classification of passenger aircrafts

It is classified into four types

1.Jumbo Passenger Jets

These aircraft are fast, comfortable, and can accommodate a medium-sized

group.

Number of Passengers: Above 500 passengers

Sample Aircraft:

Boeing 747

2. Mid-size passenger jet

Combining flight distance, speed and comfort, these mid-sized jets are ideal for

intimate trips.

Number of passengers: Above 350 passengers

Sample Aircraft:

Airbus 350-1000

\
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 3.Light passenger jets

The smaller size of light passenger jets makes them the ideal choice for economy

airlines. The seating is evenly divided into two sections on each side of a center

aisle.

Number of Passengers: 60-100 passengers

Sample Aircraft:

Embraer 175

100 Seated Passenger Aircraft:

These airplanes needed a seating capacity of 100 seats and with other services for

passengers

No of Passengers: 100

Sample Aircraft:
Sud-Aviation Caravelle, Fokker F-28

2.2 Need for 100 seated passenger airplanes

Expectations are running high among 100-seat aircraft manufacturers. Embraer is

expected to officially launch its second-generation E-Jet during the Paris air show and

Bombardier is poised to conduct the first flight of its CSeries shortly thereafter.

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The airframers are betting big on the segment. They have wagered their scarce

development funds on these two products and the future of the market, which launched

the iconic Boeing 737 and Douglas DC-9 lines but also sports numerous failed attempts.

"The 100- to 149-seat aircraft segment will enjoy the strongest growth in terms of

deliveries," says Bombardier in its market forecast through 2031. "Thanks to 'step

change' engine technology, the arrival of new aircraft specifically designed for this

segment will invigorate market demand to further optimise airline route networks and

profitability."

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 3.COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY

Parameters Airbus A220- Antono AN - De havilland Comac ARJ21- Embraer E-

100 148-100E Canada dash 8- 700 jet E2 family-
Q400 E190

Dimensions:

Length(m) 35 29.13 32.8 33.46 36.25

Height (m) 11.5 8 8.4 8.44 10.96

Wing span (m) 35.1 28.91 28.4 27.28 33.72

Aspect ratio 10.97 9.57 12.6 9.31 11.04

Wing area (m2) 112.3 87.23 64 79.86 103

Specifications:

Empty weight (lb) 31951 22000 17819 24955 33000

MTOW (kg) 58000 43700 30481 40500 56400

Gross weight 63048 43654 30480 43500 56400

Performance:

Max.speed (km/hr) 840 850 667 870 1012

Range (km) 6390 4400 2040 2200 5280

Max. (R/C) (m/s) 10.16 24.9 8.128 8.2 17.6

Max. (W/S) (kg/m2) 561.43 500.45 476.26 544.7 547.57

Service ceiling 12497 12200 8229 11900 12000

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Parameters Sukhoi Superjet Boeing 707 - Fokker 100 Bombardier Sud Aviation
100 - 95LR 120B CRJ700 Caravelle 12

Dimensions:

Length (m) 29.4 44.2 35.3 32.3 36.23

Height (m) 10.28 12.7 10.51 7.6 9.02

Wing span (m) 27.8 39.88 28.08 23.2 34.29

Aspect ratio 9.22 3.57 8.43 7.62 8.01

Wing area (m2) 83.8 226 93.5 70.6 146.7

Specifications:

Empty weight (lb) 25100 30600 24375 20069 29500

MTOW (kg) 49450 50000 43090 34019 27215

Gross weight 49450 116844 45800 34018 58000

Performance:

Max.speed (km/hr) 590 870 1000 845 876

Range (km) 4578 6700 2700 2553 3200

Max. (R/C) (m/s) 84.83 10.16 15.24 17.7 2.38

Max. (W/S) (kg/m2) 590.09 517.01 489.94 481.85 395.36

Service ceiling 12500 11000 11000 12497 12000

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Parameters Bae 146 /Avro RJ - 300/RJ100

Dimensions:

Length (m) 31

Height (m) 8.61

Wing span (m) 26.34

Aspect ratio 8.97

Wing area (m2) 77.3

Specifications:

Empty weight (lb) 25640

MTOW (kg) 38101

Gross weight 44224

Performance:

Max.speed (km/hr) 600

Range (km) 3074

Max. (R/C) (m/s) 10.16

Max. (W/S) (kg/m2) 572.12

Service ceiling 11000

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4.COMPARATIVE GRAPHS

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 5.WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The total weight of an aircraft includes the basic empty weight, plus Pilot, Crew and their

baggage plus payload (passengers and cargo) plus fuel load. The payload is the load which is

carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s mission. During the mission the

weight of aircraft will be varying with time due to the fuel consumption rate. Hence the

weight ratio will have different values. For estimation of weight the mission profile is

required.

5 6

5.1weight calculation:

Gross weight can be given by,

W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty

Wcrew = 800 kg (3 pilots + 7 cabin crew)

Wpayload = 10,000 kg (100 passengers max)

Gross weight,
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 W0 = (Wcrew + Wpayload)/[1 – (Wf/W0) – (We/W0)]

Weight ratio can be given by:

Wn/W0 = W1/W0 * W2/W1 * …. * Wn-1/Wn-2 * Wn/Wn-1

Fuel fraction for warm up, taxing and take-off,

(W1/W0) = 0.98

Fuel fraction for climb,

(W2/W1) = 0.98

5.1 Fuel fraction for cruise (W3/W2)

From Breguet range equation:

W3/W2 = exp {-R * TSFC / (3.6 * V * L/D)}

To calculate L/D

(L/D) max = 1 / √ (4 Cd0 k)

Cd = Cd0 + KCL2

Cd0 = 0.03354 * s-0.1

Cd0 = 0.021

To calculate K,
K = 1.357 / 𝜋 * AR = 1.257 / (3.14 * 9.02)
K = 0.047

(L/D) max = 1 / √ (4Cd0 k)

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 (L/D) max = 1 / √ (4 * 0.021 * 0.047)

(L/D) max = 15.91

(L/D) cruise =86.6 % (L/D) max

(L/D) cruise = 0.866 * 15.91

(L/D) cruise = 13.77

W3/W2 = exp {-R * TSFC / (3.6 * V * L/D)}

= exp {- 4004 * 0.51 / (3.6 * 274 * 19.64)}

W3/W2 = 0.860

Fuel fraction for loiter (W4/W3)

W4/W3 = exp {- E * TSFC / (L/D)}

= exp {- 0.5 * 0.41 / 15.91}

W4/W3 = 0.988

Fuel fraction for descent, landing and taxing is approximately common for all,

(W5/W4) = 0.98

W5/W0 = W1/W0 * W2/W1 * W3/W2 * W4/W3 * W5/W4

= 0.98 * 0.98 * 0.8604 * 0.988 * 0.98

W5/W0 = 0.80

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 Estimation of fuel fraction,

Wf/W0 = Ktf * (1 -Wn/W0)

Wf/W0 = 1.06 * 1 – (0.8)

Wf/W0 = 0.212

5.2 Estimation of empty weight fraction (We/W0)

-0.07
We/W0= 0.93 * Wguessed

Gross Weight, W0 = (Wcrew + Wpayload) / [1 – (Wf/W0) – (We/W0)]

Iteration for actual weight estimation:

1. Wguessed = 30,000 kg We/W0 = 0.451

W0 = 32,047.4 kg

2. Wguessed = 31,000 kg We/W0 = 0.450

W0 = 31,952.6 kg

3. Wguessed = 32,000 kg We/W0 = 0.449

W0 = 31,858.4 kg

4. Wguessed = 33,000 kg We/W0 = 0.448

W0 = 34,764.7 kg

5. Wguessed = 34,000 kg We/W0 =0.447

W0 = 31,671.5 kg

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Taking an average value of,

W0 = 31858.4 kg

Wf = 0.212 * 31858.4

Wf = 6753.98 kg

Maximum fuel capacity:

Vf = Wf / ρfuel

= 6753.98 / 0.809 (ρfuel = 0.809kg/l Jane’s All the World Aircraft)

The volume of fuel should be carried is,

Vf = 8348.55 liters

32
 6.THRUST LOADING

The value of thrust to weight ratio (T/W) is the main factor for determining the rate of climb,

takeoff distance and maximum velocity. For obtaining the design value of thrust loading

(T/W). We have to examine few of the constraints.

T/W for Takeoff:

(T/W) To = (D/W) + G
G = 0.03489 (glide gradient)
(D/W) = 1/W0 * (q0 * S (Cd0 + C L2 * k))

q0 = (ρ∞ * V2) / 2
q0 = 3044.2 N/m2
D/W = 0.3408
(T/W) To = 0.0.375
T/W for cruise flight:
(T/W) cruise = 1 / (L/D) cruise
= 1 / 13.77
(T/W) cruise = 0.072
T/W for loitering:
(T/W) loiter = 1 / (L/D) loiter ∎ (L/D) max for loitering = 10
(T/W) loiter = 1/10

(T/W) loiter = 0.1

The thrust to weight ratio of the aircraft at takeoff cruise and loitering is beenfound out. The

thrust loading at takeoff time will help finding the maximum takeoffthrust required.
33
 7. AIRFOIL AND WING SELECTION

7.1 Airfoil Selection:

After the estimation of the weight of aircraft, the next step is to select an efficient airfoil for

the better performance of the wings for providing the desire lift in different situations.

The NACA 6-digit airfoil will be more suitable for our aircraft as they have the exact match

of thickness to chord ratio required for our calculation.

• NACA 6 Digit:

– 1st digit: identifies series type.

– 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).

– 3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value

for satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).

– 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.

– 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)

The following NACA airfoils are selected for root, tip and mean positions after thebest

iteration provided by the weight calculation.

NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil)

NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil)

NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil)

34
NACA 63A-514 (Root Airfoil):

Max thickness 12.5% Max camber 2.2%

NACA 63-512 (Midspan Airfoil):

Max thickness 12.5% Max camber 2.2%

NACA 63-310 (Tip Airfoil):

Max thickness 10% Max camber 1.1%

35
7.2 Wing Selection:

After the final airfoil selection, the primary component of aircraft to be designed is

wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities are a function of the thickness of the airfoil

selection that is used in the wing structure. The first step toward designing the wing is

thickness estimation which can be obtained from the selected NACA airfoil.

In designing the wing, the most important part is to reduce the effect of vibration by

delaying the Critical Mach Number of the wing, for that requirement we had selected a swept

back angle to the wing structure. The choice of the standardseries designed specifically for the

use in high speed.

Equivalent Aspect Ratio:

Equivalent AR = a. M c

Equivalent AR = 10.7

Wing Span:

b = 30.66 m

Wing Area:

WKT, AR = b2 / S

9.02 = (30.66)2 / S = (30.66)2 / 10.7 S=104.21 m2

36
Chord Length:

Root chord,

CR = (2 * S) / (b * (1+λ))

CR = 5.43 m

Tip chord,

CT = λ * CR

CT = 1.359 m

Mid chord,

Cmid = (2/3) CR * ((1+ λ+ λ2) / (1+ λ))

Cmid = 3.80 m

37
Design Parameters Values

Wing area (S) 149.53 m2

Aspect ratio (AR) 10.7

Wing span (b) 40 m

Taper ratio (λ) 0.18

Root chord (CR) 8m

Tip chord (CT) 1.5 m

Mean chord (Cm) 5.47 m

Sweepback angle (ᴧ) 300

Dihedral angle (Г) 50

Table: 7.1

38
 8.TAKE-OFF, LANDING AND RANGE CALCULATION

The takeoff, landing and range calculation of the aircraft is required to get the

performance characteristic of it. It is very important to obtain these values fordescribing the

mission requirement of aircraft.

8.1 Takeoff Run:

An estimate of the ground roll can be obtained by,

Takeoff distance = sg + sa

Sg = 1.21*(W/S)/ (ρ∞ * (CL)max * (T/W))

We have,

W/S = 103.63 kg/m2

T/W = 0.375

(CL)max = 2.9

Therefore,

sg = 94.12 m

Flight path radius,

R = 6.96*(Vstall)2 / g

R = 6.96 *53.842 / 9.81

R = 2064.2 m

39
 the included flight path angle is,

ƟoB = Cos- 1 (1 - hoB / R)

Where, hoB is the obstacle height, h08 = 50 ft.

ƟoB = 12.63 o

Sa= R sin ƟoB Sa= 451.3 m

The total takeoff distance is then,

Takeoff distance = sg + sa

Takeoff distance = 545.46 m

8.2 Landing Distance:

The landing distance can be calculated by,

sa = (50-hf) / tan Ɵa

hf = R * (1-cos Ɵa) (Ɵa = 30 from historical data)

hf = 2.81 m

sa = 900.43 m

sg=j * N * √ ((2 * W/S) / (ρ∞ *(CL)max)) + j2 * (W/S) / (g* ρ∞ *(CL)max* μr)

Where,

j = 1.15, N = 3 s, and μr = 0.4

Sg = 47.95+32.5 Sg=80.53

40
 Total landing distance = sg + sa = 980.66 m

8.3 Range:

Range can be calculated by,

R = (npr * (L/D) / SFC) * ln (W2/ W3)

R = 3500.00 km

41
 9.FUSELAGE AND EMPENNAGE SELECTION

9.1Fuselage Selection

After the estimation, calculation, selection ofthe

weight, wing, airfoil respectively, the important part of

the civil aircraft is to accommodate the desirenumber of

the passenger comfortably and safely. A better design of

fuselage must be selected to serve the positional control Fig. 9.1: fuselage cross section

and the stabilization surfaces in specific relationship to

lifting surfaces.

So far reducing the effect of induced drag in the frontal area of the fuselage a

smooth curve lined nose is selected and for the better accommodation of passenger’s

circular middle portion is taken into account. The end portion is made slandered.

9.2 Empennage Selection:

The empennage is the most important part of error increases due to the action

aircraft stability in both longitudinal andlateral axes. of propeller blades.

By the study of early designed aircraft we can find

that the air flow disturbed performance of the

elevator in pitching movement. This causes error in Fig. 9.2: Tail Configuration

controlling the aircraft. In turboprop aircraft this

42
 So, for overcoming this effect we chose aT-

Tail empennage. Because the horizontal stabilizers

will be at some elevation from the wing and action

of propeller blade deflected air. This provides a

Fig. 9.3: Flow Over T-Tail
streamline flow topass to the elevators and hence, the

performance efficiency of the elevator is increased.

43
 10. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

The takeoff, landing and range calculation of the aircraft is required to get the

performance characteristic of it. It is very important to obtain these values for describing the

mission requirement of aircraft.

9.1 Takeoff run

An estimate of the ground roll can be obtained by,

Takeoff distance = Sg + Sa

Sg = 1.21 * (W/S) / (ρ∞ * (CL)max * (T/W))

We have,

W/S =

T/W = 0.072

(CL)max = 104.21

Therefore,

Sg =

Flight path radius,

In study condition T = D

Force became gives, W = L * cos𝜃

Fr = mv2 / R = L * sin𝜃

tan𝜃 = V2 / R * G

So, for a given speed of two radius there is only one wet bank angle for co-ordinates turn.

44
In the turn, n = L / W, sec𝜃 > 1

Turn radius R and turn ratio(w) are good indicator of aircraft maneuverability.

V2 / R * g = tan𝜃 = √sec2𝜃-1 = n2-1

R = V2 / (g * √n2-1)

V = 272 m/s

n = L/W = 2

R = 4354.32 m

the included flight path angle is,ƟoB = Cos- 1 (1 - hoB / R)

Where, hoB is the obstacle height, h0B = 50 feet

ƟoB = 12.63°

Sa = R sin ƟoB = 451.3 m

The total takeoff distance is then,

Takeoff distance = sg + sa

Takeoff distance = 545.46 m

9.2 Climbing

Consider aircraft in a study and accelerated climb with lateral climb speed of Vc,

L = W * cos 𝛾 c

T = D + W * sin 𝛾c

Vc = (T-D) * Vstall / W

(R/C) max = Vc = 8.12 m/s

45
9.3 Gliding angle

∅ = tan-1 (1 / (L/D))

∅ = 3.59 is the glide angle

9.4 Landing distance

Ground Roll Distance SLD = 1.69 W2 / (g * 𝜌 * S * CLmax (D + 𝜇r * (W - L)))

𝜇r is higher for takeoff since brakes are applied the 𝜇r = 0.4 for paved surface.

SLD = 1643.58 m

PERFOMANCE PARAMETER VALUE UNITS

TAKE OFF DISTANCE 1446.2 m

(R/C) MAX 8.12 m/s

TURN RADIUS 4354.32 m

TURN RADIUS 0.062 Rad/s

GLIDE ANGLE 3.59° deg

LANDING DISTANCE 1643.58 m

Table 10.1

46
 11. CENTRE OF GRAVITY ESTIMATION

The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and

dropping off / release of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the amount of fuel

carried by the airplane may vary from flight to flight.

The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and

dropping off / release of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the amount of fuel

carried by the airplane may vary from flight to flight.

The weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and useful

load. The empty weight can be further subdivided into:

• Structures group

• Propulsion group and

• Equipment group.

The structures group consists of the following components:

• Wing

• Horizontal tail /canard

• Vertical tail

• Fuselage

• Landing gear - main and nose/tail wheel

• Nacelle, engine pod and air intake

47
The propulsion group consists of the following components:

• Engine as installed

• Reduction gear

• Propeller for piston and turboprop engines

• Cooling provisions

• Engine controls

• Fuel system and tanks

The equipment group consists of the following items:

• Flight controls

• Auxiliary power unit (APU)

• Instruments

• Hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-icing

• Avionics

The useful load consists of:

(i) Crew

(ii) Fuel - usable and trapped

(iii) Oil

(iv) Payload - passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane; ammunition,

expendable weapons and other items in military airplanes.
48
The weights and c.g. locations of various components are estimated below:

Wing:

S = 104.21 m2

b = 30.66 m

bsemi = 30.66 / 2 = 15.33 m

CR = 5,43 m

CT = 1.359 m

Fuselage width = 3.95 m

mac = 6.5 m

Location of L.E of mac from L.E of wing = 0.45 m

S(exposed)wing = 104.21 – (5.43 * 3.95) = 82.76 m2

the weight of the wing is,

Wwing = 82.76 * 44

Wwing = 3641.44 kg

Wwing / W0 = 0114

c.g of the wing is at 40% of mac

Hence, the location of the c.g of wing from the leading edge of the root chord is,

0.45 + 0.4 * 6.5 = 3.37 m

c.g of wing = 3.37 m

49
Horizontal tail:

btail = 12.6 m

Stail = 15.35 m2

cR,h.tail = 3.85 m

cT,h.tail = 0.86 m

mac,h.tail = 1.7 m

S(exposed)tail = 9.5 m2

Weight of Horizontal tail = 20 * 9.5 = 190 kg

Wht / W0 = 0

c.g of the h.tail is at 40% of mac

Hence, the location of the c.g of h.tail from the leading edge of the root chord of h.tail is,

0.45 + 0.4 x 1.7 = 1.13 m

c.g of horizontal tail = 1.13 m

Engine:

The weight of each engine is 2039 kg

The installed weight of four engines is,

Wengine = 1.3 x (2039) = 2650.7 kg

Wengine / W0 = 8.3 %

For gas turbine engines the location of c.g from the engine inlet is between 30 to 45% of
engine length.
50
In the present case the engine length is 4 m.

Hence, the location of c.g of engine from L.E of the wing is = -2.5 + (0.4 x 4) = -0.9 m

c.g of engine = -0.9 m

Fuselage:

An approximate estimation of fuselage wetted area is,

= 0.75 * perimeter of fuselage x length of fuselage

= 0.75 * π * 1.5 * 31.20 =110.21 m2

The c.g of fuselage and systems is, 0.45 x length of fuselage = 0.45 x 31.20 = 14.02 m

c.g of fuselage = 14.02 m

ITEM W(Kg) X(m) W*X(Kg.m)

Wing 3641.44 Xlew + 1.63 3541.44 Xlew + 5935.54

Horizontal tail 190 Xlew + 1.1 190 Xlew + 209

Vertical tail 414.4 Xlew + 2.45 414.4 Xlew + 1015.28

Engine 2039 Xlew – 1.15 2039 Xlew – 2344.8

Nose wheel 7469 Xlew – 4.85 7469 Xlew – 362.44

Main wheel 238 Xlew + 0.539 238 Xlew+128.28

Fuselage & System 8904.42 7.425 66115.31 Xlew + 4581.67

Total 6597.53 Xlew + 4581.67

Table 11.1

51
 12. ENGINE SELECTION

From the weight estimation, calculation and all other considerations wecame to

know that the engine compatible to this aircraft is ROLLS ROYCE TYNE.

The specifications are as follows:

General characteristics:

• Type: Twin-spool turboprop

• Length: 108.723 in (2,762 mm)

• Diameter: 55.12 in (1,400 mm)

• Dry weight: 2,391 lb (1,085 kg)

Components:

• Compressor: Axial, six-stage LP, nine-stage HP

• Combustors: 10 cannular flame tubes

• Turbine: Three-stage LP, single-stage HP

• Fuel type: Avtur

• Oil system: Pressure spray/splash with dry sump using DERD 2487 spec. oil

• Performance

52
• Maximum power output: 6,100 hp (4,549 kW) equivalent power

• Overall pressure ratio: 13.5:1

• Air mass flow: 46.5 lb (21 kg)/s

• Turbine inlet temperature: 800 °C (1,470 °F)

• Specific fuel consumption: 0.485 lb/hp•h (0.298 kg/kW•h) for take-off

• Power-to-weight ratio: 2.55 hp/lb (4.194 kW/kg)

53
 13. Landing gear design

The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land and

usually to taxi without damage. Landing gear placement is essential for ground stability and

controllability. A good landing gear position must provide superior handling characteristics and

must not allow over-balancing during takeoff or landing.

LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT:

Landing gears normally come in two types: conventional or "taildragger" landing gear,

where there are two main wheels towards the front of the aircraft and a single, much smaller,

wheel or skid at the rear; or tricycle landing gear, where there are two main wheels (or wheel

assemblies) under the wings and a third smaller wheel in the nose.

To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with

wheels flush against the surface or concealed behind doors; this is called retractable gear.

With a tricycle landing gear, the c.g is ahead of the main wheels, so the aircraft is stable

on the ground. It improves forward visibility on the ground and permits a flat cabin floor for

passengers and cargo loading.

Thus, retractable tricycle landing gear system is selected.

Tyre sizing:

The “wheel” is the circular metal object upon which the rubber “tyre” is mounted. The

“brake” inside the wheel slows the aircraft by increasing the rolling friction. However, the

term “wheel” is frequently used to mean the entire wheel/brake/tyre assembly.

54
 The tyre is sized to carry the weight of the weight of the aircraft. Typically, the main tyre

carries about 90% of the total aircraft weight. Nose tyre carry only about 10% of the static

load but experience higher dynamic loads during landing.

Nose gear,

Load on nose gear = 0.1 * W0

Load on nose gear = 3185.84 kg (or) 7022.9 pounds

Load per tyre, Lt = 1593 kg (or) 3511.45 pounds

Wheel diameter = 2.69Lt0.251…… (from Raymer)

Wheel diameter = 20.87 inch (or) 0.530 m

Wheel width = 1.17Lt0.216…… (from Raymer)

Wheel width = 0.173 m

Tyre size = 30 x 7.7

Tyre diameter = 30 inch (or) 0.763 m

Rolling radius = 12.7 inch (or) 0.322 m

Pavement contact area, Ap = 2.3 * (wd) * (0.5d - Rr)

Pavement contact area, Ap =8.46 inch2

Tyre pressure = Lt / Ap

Tyre pressure = 160 psi

Load on main gear = 0.9 * w0

Load on main gear = 1436.28 kg

55
Load per tyre, Lt = 31611.49 lb

Wheel diameter = 2.69Lt0.251…… (from Raymer)

Wheel diameter = 36.24 inch (or) 0.92 m

Wheel width = 1.17Lt0.216…… (from Raymer)

Wheel width = 10.968 inch (or) 0.27 m

Selecting Goodrich Tyre size = 40 x 14

Rolling radius, Rr = 16.5 inch (or) 0.4190 m

Pavement contact area, Ap = 2.3 * (w/d) * (0.5 - Rr)

Ap = 9.09 inch2

Tyre pressure = 320 psi

56
 14. v-n Diagram

Analysis of the V-n diagram is critical during the design of an aircraft as it affects the

operation of the aircraft. A maneuver or gust of wind may temporarily force an aircraft outside

its safe flight envelope and thereby cause structural damage endangering flight safety.

Each airplane type has its own particular V-n diagram with specific V's and n's. The flight

operating strength of an airplane is presented on a graph whose horizontal scale is airspeed (V)

and vertical scale is load factor (n).

LIMIT LOAD FACTOR:

This is the boundary associated with permanent structural deformation of one or

more parts of the airplane if n is less than a limit load factor the structure may deflect during a

maneuver. But it will be return to its original state when n is equal to 1 if n is greater than the

limit load factor then the airplane structure will experience a permanent deformation. It will be

inner structural damage.

ULTIMATE LOAD FACTOR:

This the boundary associates with outright structural failure. If nis greater than the

ultimate load factor, parts of the airplane will break. Both the aerodynamics and a structural

limitation for a designed aircraft are illustrated in the v-n diagram.

57
 There are four main critical conditions:

• High angle of Attack (+)

• Low angle of Attack (-)

For airplane design, the limit load factor depends on the type of aircraft. Some typical

values for limit load factors are given below:

Aircraft type npositive nnegative

Normal general aviation 2.5 to 3.8 -1 to 1.5

Aerobatic aviation 3 to 4 -1.2 to 2

Civil transport 6 -3

Fighter 6.5 to 9

Table 14.1

A typical v-n diagram

58
n = L/W

= (1/2*𝝆v2sCL)/W

Maximum load factor,

nmax = (1/2 * 𝝆v2cLmax) / (w/s)

Stall velocity,

Vstall = √(2*w/𝝆cLmaxs)

Vstall = 13.11 m/s

Maneuvering velocity,

V* = Vs √n

V* =32.11 m/s

S.No Velocity npositive nnegative

1. 50 +0.72 -0.72

2. 100 +1.56 -1.56

3. 150 +2.28 -2.28

4. 200 +4.19 -4.19

5. 250 +6.51 -6.51

6. 300 +8.35 -8.35

Table 14.1

59
 15. IMPROVEMENT IN STOL

STOL is an acronym for short takeoff and landing aircraft, which is used to provide

short runway requirements for both takeoff and landing. The aircrafts which institute this

technology has also been operated from STOL port airfields which feature short runways.

Featuring short ground rolls is the most prominent thing in the field of airport maintenance

for an ordinary airliner. It is used to reduce the lengthof the runway distance which consumes

low fuel while takeoff and landing.

For takeoff, large power/weight ratio and low drag is used to help the plane to

accelerate for flight and for landing, the distance is reduced by applying strong brakes and

thrust reversers or spoilers. It also outrides obstacles by high rate of climb.

From the calculation of takeoff run and ground roll distance (section 5.1 and 5.2) we

are getting a calculated value. This can be further improved by the use of aerodynamic

devices.

In this report we used few methodologies for improving the STOL,

1. Aerodynamics Devices

2. Thrust reversal

60
11.1 Aerodynamic Devices:

For the improvement of STOL characteristic rather than using high thrust

producing engine we can also improve the performance by introducing different types of

aerodynamic devices. The aerodynamic device will help producinghigh coefficient of lift for

takeoff and drag producing components which can reducethe landing ground roll.

➢ Vortex generator

These vortex-like spoilers are the vortex generators which acts as additional drag

inducing devices, which helps in takeoff and landing operation.

➢ Flaps

The wing is having large flaps to increase the

camberness for gaining better pressure variation on top

and bottom of the airfoil. This will produce high lift during

operation and hence the takeoff run will bedecreased.

➢ Slats

The wing is having slats running to the entire length. It will also increase the

camberness and improving lift coefficient. It can produce more drag when the enginepower

is reduced during the landing.

61
 ➢ Pods

Our designed aircraft is having 6 pods at the lower surface of the wing whichwill

reduce the velocity of air stream passing down to the wing by increased skin friction. It

will produce more pressure difference over the wing, also it will give better stream flow.

➢ Winglets

The winglets placed on the wing tip which will reduce the drag induced due to the

vortex generated at the tip of wing. by reducing this induced drag the performance

parameters for better STOL can be achieved.

11.2 THRUST REVERSERS

They are a variable geometry configuration of the

propeller blades which will change the angle of thepropeller

blades in account to produce an opposite forceon the aircraft.

There are several types in thrust reversers which are only

applicable for large aircrafts.

In propeller driven aircraft, which generate reverse

thrust by changing the angle of controllable-pitch propellers,

so that it can directs the thrust forward.

The propeller pitch can be reversed by the use of power lever handle. By

pulling the power lever to the ideal stop, and then squeezing the lever or lifting it up.

62
16. 3 - VIEW DIAGRAM

Front view

Top view

Side view

63
 17. FINALIZED DESIGN PARAMETERS

Parameters Values
Seating capacity 100
length of aircraft 38m
Height of aircraft 11m
Wing span 40m
Wing area 149 m2
Wing chord length Root – 8m
Mean5.47m
Tip-1.5m
Wing taper ratio 0.18
t/c ratio 0.14
L/D max 22.68
L/D cruise 19.64
Wing sweep angle 25o
Cabin width 5
Fuselage width 5.5
Empty weight 22338.8 kg
Max takeoff weight 51297.83 kg
Max fuel capacity 22446.7 L
Max speed 0.8 M
Cruise speed 0.78 M
Range 3500km
T/W ratio Takeoff -0.375
Cruise - 0.051
Loiter – 0.1

64
 CONCLUSION

In our report the preliminary design of a 100-seater commuter aircraft with

STOL technology is designed successfully and the various design considerations and

performance are calculated. The obtained design values are not necessarily a definite

reflection of the airplane's true and conceptualized design, but the basic outlay of

development obtained with correct considerations.

The full and final design report stays true to the desired considerations of a STOL

commuter aircraft can provide high fuel efficiency and is best in commercialairlines service

for the current knowledge. There is no such ideal design which can give full on total

performance, while it always looking to achieve optimum performance.

The challenges we faced at various phases of the report made clear the fact that

experience plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft or aircraft component. A

lot of efforts have been put into this report and as much as we have worked, we have learnt

in turn.

Finally, it is true to tell that this aircraft is absolutely capable of STOL

preformation.

65
 Reference

1. Anderson, John D. Jr., “Aircraft Performance and Design”, McGraw-Hill, NewYork

2. Anderson, John D. Jr., “Introduction to Flight”, McGraw-Hill , New York

3. Perkins, C. and Hage, R. “Airplane Performance, Stability and Control”,Wiley, New

York

4. Raymer, Daniel P. “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach”, AIAAEducation

series, Washington, DC

5. Roskam, J. “Airplane Design”, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp.,Ottawa,

Kansas

6. Taylor, J. “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft”, Jane’s, London, UK

7. Torenbeek, Egbert “Advanced aircraft design”, Wiley publication

66