5th SEM B.

Sc BOTANY
CALICUT UNIVERSITY

ANGIOSPERM MORPHOLOGY & SYSTEMATICS

2018 ADMISSION
Prepared by
Priyanka.T

Assistant professor

Department Of Botany

CPA College of Global Studies, Puthanathani

Syllabus
BOT5B06T ANGIOSPERM MORPHOLOGY& SYSTEMATICS

[Total 99 hours: Theory 63, Practical 36]

ANGIOSPEM MORPHOLOGY Theory 18 - Hrs. [1hr. per week]

I. Morphological description of a flowering plant; Plant habit 1 hr.

a. Root: Types - Tap root, fibrous root; Modifications - Definition with examples -Storage, aerial,
pneumatophores, buttress.
b. Stem: Habit - Acaulescent, Caulescent, Cespitose Prostrate, Repent, Decumbent, Arborescent,
Suffrutescent (Definition with examples only); Modification - Underground, Aerial, Subaerial with
examples.
c. Leaves: Lamina, petiole, leaf tip, leaf base, stipule, pulvinus; Phyllotaxy; types - simple and compound;
shapes of lamina; leaf tip; leaf base; leaf margin; leaf surface features: hairiness - tomentose, glabrous,
scabrous, strigose, hispid.
II. Inflorescence: racemose, cymose and specialised (cyathium, hypanthodium, coenanthium verticillaster,
thyrsus).
III. Flower: Flower as a modified shoot - detailed structure of flowers – floral parts -their arrangement,
relative position, cohesion and adhesion - symmetry of flowers - floral diagram and floral formulae.
IV. Fruits – simple, aggregate and multiple with examples; Seed structure -dicot and monocot -
albuminous and exalbuminous, aril, caruncle; Dispersal of fruits and seeds - types and adaptations.

References
1. Gangulee, H.C., J.S. Das & C. Dutta. 1982. College Botany (5th Ed.) New Central Book Agency,
Calcutta.

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2. George, H.M. Lawrence. 1951. Introduction to Plant Taxonomy. Mac Millan comp. Ltd., New York.
3. Simpson, M. G. 2006. Plant Systematics. Elsevier Academic Press, London
4. Ananta Rao T. Morphology of Angiosperms.

SYSTEMATICS Theory: [2 ½ hrs. per week]

Module-I
1. Components of systematics: identification, description nomenclature and classification; objectives and
importance of systematics.
2. Development of Plant systematics: Folk taxonomy, Herbalists, Early taxonomists: Caesalpino, Bauhin,
Linnaeus; Natural systems; Phylogenetic systems;Phenetics; Cladistics (Brief account of various phases).

3. Systems of classification: Artificial – Linnaeus; Natural – Benthem and Hooker (detailed study);
Phylogenetic – Hutchinson; Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system – (introduction only).
Module - II
1. Detailed study (systematic position, distribution, common members, diagnostic features, description
from habit to fruit, economic importance.of the following families.
Annonaceae, Malvaceae, Rutaceae, Fabaceae with sub families, Myrtaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Rubiaceae, Asteraceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Solanaceae, Acanthaceae, Lamiaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Liliaceae and Poaceae.

Module- III
1. Taxonomic structure – Hierarchy; Concepts of taxa: Species – Biological, Phenetic and Phylogenetic;
Genus; Family.
2. Taxonomic character – concept, primitive and advanced characters, sources, comparative morphology,
vegetative, reproductive, Macro and micromorphology, modern trends in taxonomy, cytotaxonomy,
chemotaxonomy, numerical taxonomy, molecular taxonomy and phylogenetics.
3. Contributions of eminent Taxonomists viz Hendrich van Rheed, WilliamRoxburg, Robert White and G.
S. Gamble.
Module - IV
1. Plant nomenclature – Limitations of common name, ICBN, Principles(introduction only); Typification
(holotype, isotype, syntype paratype and lectotype); Priority – merits and demerits; Effective and valid
publication; Author citation.
2. Plant identification – Keys; indented and bracketed, construction and applications.
3. Taxonomic information resources – Herbarium preparation and maintenance, Herbarium types:
International- Kew (K); National-Central national herbarium (CAL), MH Coimbatore. Botanic Gardens:
RBG, Kew, IGB, Kolkotta; TBGRI and Malabar botanicl Garden, Olavanna , Kozhikode.
4. Taxonomic literature- Floras, Monographs, Revisions, Journals and online resources & Databases.
References
1. Sivarajan, V.V. 1991. Introduction to Principles of Plant Taxonomy. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.
2. Sporne, K.R. 1974. Morphology of Angiosperms. Hutchinson University Press London.
3. Radford, A.E. 1986. Fundamentals of plant systematics. Harper & Row Publishers, New York.
4. NaiK, V.N. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. TATA McGraw Hill, New Delhi
5. Burkill, I.H. 1965. Chapters on the History of Botany in India, Delhi.
6. Gurucharan Singh, 2001. Plant systematics - Theory and Practice. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.
7. Davis, P.H. & V.H. Heywood, 1963. Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy. Oliver & Boyd
Ltd.,London.
8. Henry, A.N. & Chandrabose An aid to International Code of Botanic Nomenclature.
9. Jeffrey, C. 1968. An introduction to Plant Taxonomy, London.
10. Simpson, M.G. 2006. Plant Systematics. Elsevier Academic Press, London
11. Stuessy, T.F. 1990. Plant Taxonomy – The systematic evaluation of Comparative data. Columbia
University Press, New York.

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 12. Sharma, B.D. et al. (Eds.) Flora of India vol. I. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
13. Sambamurthy A..S.S. 2005;Taxonomy of Angiosperms, i.K. International Pvt. Ltd, New Delh.
14. Pandey, S.N. & S.P. Misra. 2008. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Ane Books India, New Delhi.
15. Sharma, O.P. 1996. Plant Taxonomy. TATA McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
16. Bharati Bhattacharyya 2009; Systematic Botany, Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

MORPHOLOGY

1:Morphological description of a flowering plants

 Angiosperms are the flowering plants which bear seeds within closed cases, called fruits
( Anggeion=case or vessel; Sperma= seed)
 Angiosperm morphology is the study of the external characteristics of flowering plants,
significant for identification classification and description of flowering plants.
 Plant differentiated to roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits & seeds.
 Typical plant has two main portions-
Shoot system- stem, leaves, flowers, fruits & seeds
Root system- roots, root hairs and root cap.

 Root system
 Underground portion of plants
 Non-green, non-photosynthetic, positively geotropic, negatively phototropic and positively
hygroscopic.
 Leaves, buds, nodes, internodes are absent
 It develop from the radicle of germinating embryo, during seed germination radicle grows
vertically downward deep into the soil and forms primary roots.
 Primary roots give rise to lateral roots and into tertiary also.
 Roots develops from other than radicle known to be adventitious roots.
 In submerged water plants like Hydrilla and Utricularia root system poorly developed or absent
 In free floating hydrophytes , root system function as a balancing organ.
 Region of primary roots
1. Root apex& root tip
2. Zone of elongation
3. Zone of maturation or root hair region
4. Permanent region
 Types of root system
1. Taproot system
Main root / primary root secondary roots/ lateral roots tertiary roots
2. Fibrous root system
Characteristics of monocots, thin, fibre like profusely branched roots with almost
similar length, arising from the base of stem.
Not grow deep in the soil.

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 3. Adventitious root system
Rots develops any parts of plants other than radicle
Underground stem- Potato
Aerial stem – Banyan tree
Stem cuttings- Tapioca
Leaves- Bryophyllum
Weak stemmed Betel wine, Pepper – roots from internode to climb upon support

 Tap root modification

1. Storage roots
Root specialized for food storage / storage roots
 Conical tubers
Cone shaped tubers, broad at the top and progressively tapering towards the tip
Eg: Carrot( Daucus carota)
 Fusiform tubers
Spindle shaped tubers , with tapering end and broad and swollen at middle part.
Eg. Raddish ( Raphus sativus)
 Napiform tubers
Swollen and globular base and suddenly and sharply tapering and tail –like apex
Eg: Beetroot (Beta vulgaris)
 Tuberous roots
Thick and fleshy roots, with rich storage of food and without specific shape
Mirabilis jalapa ( 4’o clock plant)
2. Pnumatophores
Negatively geotropic and porous respiratory roots specialized for gas exchange.
They contain air spaces inside and bear numerous small openings on the surface,
called pneumatothodes, gas exchange takes place.
Eg. Mangroves – Rhizophora , Avicennia
3. Buttress roots
Roots growing from the base of the tap root to provide extra support to the tree.
They may ridge like out growth c
In buttresses roots, a part of trunk is also included , so they are partly a root
modification and partially a stem modification.
Eg. Bombax Terminalia
 Adventitious root modification
1. Modification for food storage
 Tuberous root
Swollen, irregularly shaped storage roots, which occur singly
They are developed from the basal aerial stem eg . Sweet potato (Ipomoea
batatus)
 Fasciculated roots
Clusters of swollen storage roots, arising from the nodes of stem base. Often they
form a thick bundles or fasciculi, hence named fasciculated roots.
Dahlia, Asparagus, tapioca

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  Moniliform roots
Beaded storage roots, with swellings at frequent intervals eg.
Portulaca, Momordica
 Nodulose roots
Storage roots become suddenly swollen, after a short distance.
Arises from the stem eg. Curcuma amanda (mango ginger)
 Annulated roots
Ringed roots, with a series of ring-like swellings (annulations) throughout the
length. Look like a pile of discs, placed one above the other
Eg. Psychortia.

 Modification for mechanical support

Aerial adventitious roots develops to give additional support
Four types
1. Prop roots / piller roots
Piller like and woody aerial roots, growing vertically downward to the soil from
horizontal branches
Penetrate into soil and serve as columns or pillars (props) for supporting
horizontal branches. Eg. Ficus bengalensis(banyan tree). It called prop roots
2. Stilt roots
Clusters of aerial adventitious roots , growing obliquely downwardto the soil
from basal nodes of the main stem to support the plant.
Usually found in plants growing near the banks of rivers, ponds, paddy field etc.
Eg. Pandanus , rhizhophora,- roots arises from all around the stem at different
heights. These roots support the trunk which may be in a withering state dueto
action of water.
Other eg. Zea mays, Saccharum

3. Climbing roots
Branched adventitious roots for support
Found in weak stemmed climbers like betel wine (piper betal), piper nigrum,
pothos- roots arises from nodes for climbing on the supporting object.
.
4. Clinging roots
Roots for fixing the plant on the bark of the host tree. Common in epiphytes
Eg. Vanda
 Modification for nutritional purpose
For nutritional requirements
1. Haustoria
These are parasitic roots or sucking roots of parasitic plants.
Specialized aerial adventitious roots, penetrate to the host plant, establish connection
with its vascular system and absorb water and food materials eg. Striga, loranthus,
cuscuta

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 Striga- root parasite, nutrients absorb from roots of host.
Loranthus-green leaved partial stem parasite on variety of trees. Its photosynthetic as
well as parasitic. Sucking or absorbtive haustoria pierce to the cortex of the host plant
, reach vascular region , establish connection with xylem bundles and absorb water
and mineral nutrients.
Cuscuta- obligatory stem parasite. Twisted around the stem of host plant. absorbtive
haustoria penetrate to vascular region , establish connection with xylem and phloem
and absorb water and prepared organic nutrients
2. Assimilatory roots
Chlorophyll bearing and photosynthetic (assimilatory ) aerial roots
Eg. 1. Trapa-aquatic plant with submerged photosynthetic roots
2.Tinospora- aerial roots long, slender, freelybhanging, chlorenchymatous cortex
at roots.
3. Velaman roots or epiphytic roots
Moisture absorbing,chlorophyll containing photosynthetic aerialroots of orchids,
aroids, epiphytes- which grow on other plant
Velaman roots freely hang in air, absorb atmospheric moisture and CO2 and carry
out photosynthetic. Velaman roots have two kind of tissues outer velaman tissue for
absorbing water, waterfilled tissue. Without living protoplast. Light can pass through
this for photosynthesis.

Shoot system

 Consist aerial parts include stem, leaves, fruit, flowers and seeds
1)STEM
 Aerial, ascending and axial portion of plant
 Develops from plumule of embryo
 Positively phototropic and negatively geotropic
 Differentiated into nodes and internodes
 Leaves, axillary branches, adventitious roots also arise.
 The upper angle between the leaf base and the stem is called axil.
 Buds are undeveloped and condensed shoots with a terminal meristem.
 In some case these bud enclosed by undifferentiated leaves, called budscales.
 Based on position buds can be recognized to
1. Terminal or apical buds- at tip of stem
2. Axillary buds- at leaf axils
3. Accessory buds- located at nodes, little away from leaf axil.- give rise to lateral branches.
4. Radical buds- from roots eg. Ipomoea
5. Foliar or epiphyllous buds- from leaves eg. Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe.
6. Cauline buds- Adventitious buds develops on stem
 Strength of stem
1. Strong stem

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 Strong enough to support the top weight of the plant and also to maintain an erect posture
2. Weak stem
Aerial stem, very weak and hence cannot stand erect, without a support. So they trail or
creep over the ground (trailers and creepers) or climb or wind around a solid support
(climbers and twinners)
 Plant habit
Based on nature of stems, plants classified in to
1. Herbs
Small, short living plants with short living, with soft and non-woody stem and scale
less and naked buds.
2. Shrubs
Long-living, short and bushy plants with woody stem. They profusely branched from
the base. Eg. Ixora, Citrus, Hibiscus
3. Trees
Large and long- living woody plants, with tall and extensively branching stem. Their
branches arises from some distance above the soil. Eg. Mango tree, ficus
Forms of trees- based on stem
a) Caudex
Main axis or trunk is straight, unbranched and columnar with crowns of leaves.
Eg. Tree ferns and palms
b) Excurrent
Main stem or trunk goes on growing giving out branches in acropetal succession .
tree appears conical. Eg. Polyalthia
c) Deliquescent
The main stem has spreading canopy with irregular branches due to the
suppression of apical buds and the vigorous development of lateral buds eg.
Mangifera, ficus

Culms- the stem of grasses and sedges, with solid nodes and hollow internodes
eg. Bambooo

 Based on life span, plants classified into

 Ephemerals
Short –living herbaceous plants. Live only for few weeks and repeat their life cycle several times
in one year or one season. Produce flowers only once in their life. Eg. Peperomia
 Annuals
Herbaceous plants , complete their life cycle in one year or one season. They produce flowers in
only once in their life. The time taken to complete the life cycle may ranges from a few months to
an year. Eg. Paddy, Tobacco, Coriander
 Biennials
Live for two years or two seasons. During first season, they complete the vegetative growth and
produce plenty of food. This food stored in certain organs of the plant. During the second season ,
stored food used for producing flowers, fruits and seeds. First season – vegetative growth, second
season – sexual reproduction. Eg. Raddish, Carrot

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 Perennials
Plants lives for several years, and mature plant produce flowers and fruits every year. Mostly
fruits and flowers every year. Mostly trees and shrubs.eg. Mangifera, Tamarindus
Perennial herbs- Turmeric, Ginger
 Multiennials
Plants grows for number of years but do not produce flowers every year. Eg. Bamboo,
Strobilanthus
 Monocarpic plants
Perennials or multiennials plant produce flowers and fruits only one in their life time and then
perish.
After several years of vegetative growth, they suddenly produce a large number of flowers by
making use of all stored food. Soon after flowering they will die. Eg. Agave, Bamboosa
Ephemerals, annuals and biennials are considered as monocarpic.
 Plants, flowering many time in life called polycarpic plants.

 Branching of stem
 Monopodial branching
Main stem is formed from a single terminal bud and it bears branches in acropetal succession eg.
Causuarina, Polyalthia, Pinus
 Sympodial branching
The main stem stops growing after a period, and stem elongation continues by the successive
development of lateral branches, just behind the apex.
Here terminal buds stops it growth after a short period and further growth of the stem continues
by the activity of the axillary buds near the tip. Eg. Mangifera, Gulmohar.

AERIAL STEM

 Weak aerial stem- stem is weak and unable to stand erect.

Weak stem may either horizontally on the ground, or may grow up by supporting themselves on
neighboring objects.
They are two major groups
1). Weak stemmed horizontal plants
a). Caulescent stem- leaf bearing stem above the ground and erect.
b).Acaulescent stem- short and highly condensed stem, bearing unbranched
inflorescence and clusters of leaves at the ground level.
c).Caespitose- loose and closely matted stem, or the stem growing densely in
turfs. Eg. Cyperus
d). Prostrate- trailing stem which grows parallel to the ground
e) Repent- prostrate and rooting stem which crawls along the ground.
f) Procumbent-prostrate stem, trailing fully flat on the ground throughout. Eg.
Evolvulus
g). Decumbent- stem lies on the ground, but rises at the apex. So the stem is
prostrate for most of distance, but erect terminally Eg. Tridax procumbens

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 h). Suffrutescent – somewhat shrubby stem in which many branches die after
flowering, leaving a persistent woody base.
2). Weak stemmed climbing plants
-major two classes
a). Twiners
 Plants which coil or wind around a support.
 Stem is slender, with long internodes, tip of stem exhibits a peculiar
rotatory movement in air, known as nutation. The movement causes the
stem to rub against the support. The stem is exceedingly sensitive to
contact, and the side which rubs against the support gets irritated. So as
the growth becomes less on that side, while on the opposite side, growth
is normal.
Twiners make themselves erect and expose their leaves to sunlight eg.
Clitoria.

b). climbers- classified into 5 types based on nature of climbing organ

 Tendril climbers
Tendrils are slender, spirally coiled, spring like structures.
Highly sensitive to contact and when they come across any support, they
behave just like the stem of the twiners and coil round the support.
Tendrils are modified parts of plants
Terminal bud transformed into tendril eg. Cissus
Axillary bud transformed to tendril Eg. Pssiflora
Stipules modified to tendril Eg. Smilax
Terminal leaf let of pinnately compound leaf modified to tendril Eg.
Pisum sativum
Tip of leaf modified to tendril eg. Gloriosa
Petiole modified to tentril Eg. Clematis
 Hook climbers
Hooks are much stronger than thicker.
After catching hold of the support, they thicken considerably and become
woody eg. Artabotrys- hooks are found opposite to leaves.
Hooks are modified flower stalk.
 Thorn stragglers
Number of thorns develop on the stem. And these thorn point downwards,
so thst the stem clings to the support firmly. These thorn may be mere
superficial structures, developed all over the stem. They are clled
emergences or prickles eg. Lantana, Solanum, Rose.

 Root climbers
Plants climb with the help of aerial adventitious roots developed at the
nodes eg. Betal vine, Pepper
 Lianas

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 Large, woody,perennial climbers, with very long stem growing from
ground level to the canopy of trees. They are abundant in tropical forests.
They differ with woody stem than thin and weak stem Eg. Allamanda,
Bougainvilae

MODIFICATION OF STEM

 Primary function holding and conduction

 Secondary function
 Mechanical support
 Food storage
 Perennation
 Vegetative propogation

1. Underground stem modification

2. Sub- aerial stem modification
3. Aerial stem modification

Underground stem modification

 For perennation, storage of food materials and vegetative propogation.

 Non-green and superficially very much resemble roots.
 Distinguished from roots by the presence of nodes, internodes, scale leaves and axillary and
terminal buds.
 Underground stem modifications are
 Rhizome
 Corm
 Stem tuber
 Bulb
1. Rhizome eg. Ginger, Turmeric, Canna
 Horizontal, short,thick,fleshy and irregularly branched underground stem, with nodes,highly
condensed internodes, terminal buds, leaf scars.
 Nodes bears adventitious roots, and small, thin and white scale leaves
 Axils of scale leaves bears axillary buds
 The terminal buds of the rhizome grows out of the soil and give rise to green shoots and flowers
during growing season. At the end of the season, the green aerial portion dies out and further
growth of the rhizome is taken up by the axillary bud nearest to the terminal bud.
2. Corm eg. Amorphophallus, Colocasia, Dioscorea
 It is short, thick, massive and nearly spherical base of an underground stem axis, with nodes,
internodes, scale leaves, apical and axillary buds, and adventitious roots.

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 Adventitious roots hold the corm is erect posture and hence they are also termed contractile roots
or pull roots.
 Store house of reserve food
 Corm is massive, swollen and slightly spherical. On this a prominent terminal bud, surrounded by
numerous scale leaves.
 Each scale leaves have small buds in axil.
 Terminal bud develops to vegetative shoot. Many adventitious lateral buds are also be present.
 They are produced from nodes and are protected by scale leaves. They can grow to daughter
corms or cormlets.

3. Stem tuber eg. Potato, Helianthus, Cyperus.

 Swollen tips of underground stem branches(stolon).
 Rich storage of reserve food
 In potato stem tuber is terminal, swollen. Fleshy and merely spherical, with distinct nodes and
inrternodes
 On nodal region- crescent scar enclosing small depression. Scar represents the leaf scars. And
it bears axillary buds.
 Leaf scar+ axillary buds known to be eye of potato.
 Possession of leaf scar and axillary buds indicates the stem nature of potato.
 Stem tubers are produced in a peculiar manner. Some of the branches of the main stem,
which are near the soil, instead of growing normally, bend down and grow into the soil. The
ends of these branches swell out due to the accumulation of food and become tuber.
 A end of growing season , the motherplant dies, new plants develop from tuber.

4. Bulb Eg.Onion,Garlic, Garden lilly

 Highly condensed and reduced underground stem
 It found in monocot
 Scale leaves are arranged concentrically and these are fleshy, waterstoring and food storing
 Inner scale leaves are fleshy and outer one are dry
 Outer scale leaves called tunica,protective in function
 In the centre there is a terminal bud surrounded by axillary bud
 Terminal bud give rise to flowering shoot
 Axillary buds give rise to bulblets
 Adventitious roots are formed in tufts at the base of the disc.

Sub-aerial stem modification

 weak stemmed branch produce modified branches
 they can grow in ground and below the soil
 which may or may not produce roots. And those one produce roots called creepers.
 No roots produced called trailers.
 Runners eg. Oxalis, Centella
 Horizontal creeping plants with long internodes
 Each node it produce leaf towards the upperside and root towards the lowerside

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  Daughter plants are formed by the death of internode or runner
 Suckers eg.Chrysanthimum
 It is formed from the axillary bud of sub –terranian plant
 It is underground adventitious lateral branches
 It is shorter and stouter than runners
 This suckers horizontaly grown for sometime
 Stolon eg. Mentha, Jasmin
 A slent of lateral branches arisen from the base of main stem. Which grow
upward and bend downward.
 Offset eg. Eichornia, Pistia
 It found in hydrophytes
 Somewhat similar to that of runner
 Internode bears leaves to upperside and root to the lowerside.

Aerial stem modification

 Tendrils
 For climbing and mechanical supportprotection, vegetative propogation, water
storage and photosynthesis.
 Long slender, spirally coiled threadlike structure
 Leaf tendril- gloriosa
 Stem tendrils are modification of apical bud,axillary bud and stipules
 Terminal bud- Vitis
 Axillary bud- Passiflora
 Stipules- Trichosanthus
 Thorns
 Sharply pointed hard woody structure
 From axillary bud eg. Citrus
 It protects from herbaceous animals
 Phylloclade eg. Opuntia
 Green, flat, globus, photosynthetic stem
 Xerophytic adaptation for absorption and water storing also. To reduce water
loss
 Leaf absent or modified as scales or spines to reduce water loss
 Node bears spines and leaves and flowers also
 Cladodes eg. Asparagus
 Green, flat and photosynthetic
 Functions as leaf
 Xerophytic adaptation
 Modification of axillary buds in Asparagus
 Leaf reduced to scales or spines
 Cladodes are sickle shaped.

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 LEAF

 Thin and flat outgrowth of stem

 The upper angle between the leaf base and the stem is called axil.

 Leaves developed from meristematic called leaf primordium.

 Primary functions-photosynthesis, transpiration, respiratory gas exchange.
 Based on posture – leaves are two types
1. Dorsiventral or bifacial leaves- held horizontally, with distinctly different upper and
lower surface. So the anatomy of upper and lower surfaces differs due to unequal light
exposure.
2. Isobilateral or equifacial leaves- leaves stand almost vertically erect so that both the
surfaces are very much similar, or almost identical. Both surfaces have same internal
structure.
 The leaf surface, that is continuous with the surface of the stem above the point of leaf insertion,
known as upper or ventral or adaxial side, and the opposite side is known as lower or dorsal or
abaxial side.
 Heterophylly : the condition which the plant bears two types of leaves at its life cycle.
Eg. Artocarpus heterophyllus
Limnophylla heterophylla

PARTS OF DICOT LEAF

1. Leaf base
 Basal portion of leaf attaches to the stem.
 Protects small buds in axil.
 In some plants leaf base is swollen known to be pulvinus base. Pulvinate leaves
eg. Mimosa, Mango tree, Legumes.
 In Mimosa pulvinate leaves cause sleeping movement.
 In monocot leaves, leaf base has sheath like expansion called sheathing leaf
base. It partially or completely encircled the stem.Eg. Grass
 In dicots,paired leafy lateral outgrowths given out from the base called stipules.
 Stipules absent in monocots.
 Stipules may be spiny, scaly, glandular or photosynthetic.
 Occasionally in get modified to enclose and protect the axillary buds eg. Ficus.
 Leaves with stipules- stipulate leaves eg.Hibiscus, Ixora
 Leaves without stipules – Exstipulate leaves eg. Mangifera indica
2. Petiole
 Leaf stalk, connects lamina to the stem, exposes the lamina to sunlight and
transports water and nutrients.
 Leaves with petiole-petiolate eg. Ficus,Hibiscus

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  Leaves without petiole- sessile Eg. Calotropis,Zinnia.
 Petiole wing shaped in Citrus.
 In Acacia petiole is flat structure called phyllode.
 In Clematis, Smilax, petiole modified to tendrils
 petiole modified into spongy and bulb like in Eichhornia- Help for floatation
3. Lamina or leaf blade
 Is green, thin and expanded part of the leaf.
 For photosynthesis, transpiration, gas exchange
 Leaf tip- leaf apex
 Edge or border of lamina – leaf margin
It is toothed or serrated eg. Hibiscus, Rose
Wavy- Eg. Polyalthia
Lobed- Eg. Tapioca

 Petiole extended throughout the length of lamina as strong vein called mid -vein
or mid rib.
 Midrib gives out branches to the sides called veins. Veins branch and re-branch
in to veinlets.
 Leaf surface is smooth and curved, with a waxy coating. It may bears hairs.

PARTS OF MONOCOT LEAF

 Sheathing leaf base, completely or partially encircle the stem.

 Petiole is absent in grass. In some plants it is modified into rachis.
 In some monocots, a pair of small pair of outgrowths from the junction between leaf base and
petiole called ligule.eg. Grassess
 Lamina of leaves- isobilateral with parallel venation.

LEAF VENATION

 Parallel venation- monocots

Horizontal venation-Eg. Musa. Longitudinal venation– Eg. Grasses
 Recticulate venation- dicots
 Monocot plant with recticulate venation-eg. Aroids, Dioscorea
 Dicots plant with parallel venation. Eg .Alstonia, Calophyllum

TYPES OF LEAVES

1). Simple leaves- with single lamina

2). Compound leaves

 Lamina divided into segments called leaflets or pinnae.

 Individual leaflet may be stalked or sessile and free from each other.

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  All of the leaflets connected on a common stalk called rachis.

Types of compound leaves

1). Pinnately compound leaves

Leaf lets arranged on both sides of rachis. Eg. Neem, Moringa.

a) Unipinnate leaves
Rachis bears leaflets in opposite or sub opposite pairs.
Two types
1). Paripinnate leaves- leaflets ends in even numbers. Eg. Tamarindus, Cassia.
2). Imparipinnate leaves- leaflets end in odd numbers. Eg. Neem, Murraya.

b) Bipinnate leaves

Rachis bears secondary axes (rachillae), which bear leaflets on the sides. So, the leaves pinnate
twice. Eg. Mimosa pudica.

c). Tripinnate leaves

Pinnately compound leaves in which the secondary axes produce tertiary axes to which leaflets

are attached. So, the leaves pinnate thrice. Eg. Moringa

d).Decompound leaves

Pinnately compound leaves, which pinnate more than thrice. Eg. Coriander

2).Palmately compound leaves

Leaves in which leaflets are attached to the tip of rachis, just like fingers of our palm.

Five types

1) Unifoliate- palmately compound leaf with single leaflet eg. Citrus

2) Bifoliate – with two terminal leaflet Eg. Bauhinia
3) Trifoliate- with three terminal leaflet Eg. Oxalis, Mentha
4) Quadrifoliate-with four terminal leaf lets Eg. Marselia
5) Multifoliate – with more than four terminal leaflets Eg. Bombax

PHYLLOTAXY

 Arrangement of leaf on stem and branches

 Main purpose of phyllotaxy to provide sufficient light to leaves.
 Three main kind of phyllotaxy
1). Alternate phyllotaxy-leaves on alternate nodes. Each node bears single leaf.

15
 It is two types
Spiral-alternate leaves arranged spirally on stem. eg. Hibiscus
Distichous- alternate leaves arranged vertically on the two sides of the stem Eg.
Annona
2).Opposite phyllotaxy-two leavesarranged on each node in opposite directions.
Two tyes
Deccusate-adjescent pairs of leaves are arranged at right angles to each
other . eg. Ixora, Clotropis
Superimposed- Adjescent pairs of leaves arranged one above the other in
same plane. Eg. Guava.
3).Whorled phyllotaxy – leaf arranged in three or more leaves arise from each node in
the form of a whorl or circle around the stem. Eg. Nerium, Alstonia.

MODIFICATION OF LEAVES

 Modified for protection, nutrition and climbing

It include
1. Leaf tendrils
Long, spirally coiled spring like leaves.
Help for climb on a support in weak stemmed plants.
Eg. Pisum- terminal leaflet modified to tendril
Lathyrus-entire leaf modified
Gloriosa-leaf tips modified to tendril
2. Leaf spines
Sharply pointed structure. Characteristics of xerophytes like Opuntia, Asparagus
In opuntia axillary buds modified to spines
3. Leaf scales
Thin, stalkless, membraneous structure. Eg, Onion, Garlic.
In onion each scale leaves protect centrally located axillary bud. Scales are fleshy due
to storage of water and food.
4. Pitcher
Flask shaped modification of leaf lamina for tapering insects.
Found in insectivorous plants like Nepenthus, Sarracenia
In Nepenthus, leaf lamina modified to pitcher.
5. Phyllode
Flat and leaf like modification of petiole or rachis. It is xerophytic adaptation to
reduce transpiration. In this case normal leaf lets fall at early stage. Then,rachis
develops to a phyllode Eg. Acacia, Parkinsonia.

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II. Inflorescence

 Inflorescence means a bunch or group flowers in an axis.

 Position of inflorescence, axillary or terminal.
 Stalk of inflorescence called peduncle
 Individual flowers may be sessile (without stalk) or pedicellate (with stalk).
 In some plants like Lotus and Onion a large peduncle originate from the bottom.
At the tip of the peduncle flowers will produced. This long peduncle called scape.
 In onion 3 or 4 flowers are produced in the tip.
 Bract & Bracteoles
Pedicel arises from the axil of a very small greenish, or brownish leaf like structure on the
peduncle, called bract.
Highly reduced and modified leaves and their arrangement on the peduncle is the same as that of
leaves on a vegetative shoot.
It differs from leaf based on colour, shape and size.
Bracteoles are the bract like reduced structure arises from the axil of leaves.
 Flowers with bract – bracteate
 Flowers without bract – ebracteate
 Flowers with bracteoles-bracteolate
 Flowers without bracteoles – ebracteolate
 Kinds of bracts
 Sterile or empty bract
In Pine apple bracts will not produce flowers
 Leafy bract
In bougainvillea the bract is modified and brightly coloured
 Spathe
Some bract protect or cover the inflorescence, when they are young such bracts called
spathe
Eg. Cocos nucifera (coconut)
 Involucre
In some flowers a number ofbracts cover the inflorescence.
Eg. Tridax procumbens
 Epicalyx
Number of bracteoles seen below to calyx
Eg. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

KINDS OF INFLORESCENCE

I. Racemose /indefinite inflorescence

 Main axis grow indefinitely and continuously

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 Flowers are arranged on acropetal succession (base contain older and apex contain
younger flowers or buds)
 Inflorescence axis or rachis never ends in flower.
 In some inflorescence rachis modified to a flat roundish structure called receptacle.
 The arrangement of flowers in a receptacle is centripetally (younger one towards
center, older one towards periphery). Eg. Head inflorescence

1. Raceme or Simple raceme eg. Crotalaria

 Stalked flowers arranged on a unbranched axis in acropetaly .

2. Compound raceme or Panicle eg. Mangifera indica

 stalked fowers are arranged acropetaly on a branched axis.

3. Spike eg. Achyranthus aspera

 Sessile flowers are arranged acropetaly on unbranched axis.

4. Compound spike Eg. Amaranthus spinosus

 Sessile flowers are arranged acropetaly on branched axis.

5. Spadix Eg. Anthurium, Colocasia

 It is characteristic inflorescence of family araceae.
 Variation of spike inflorescence , in which rachis is fleshy and the
flowers are covered with one or more membraneous structure called
spathe.
 In spadix , the axis bears female flowers towards the base, neutral
flowers towards middle and male flowers at apex.
 Tip of axis left bare as appendages.

6. Compound spadix eg. Cocos nucifera

 Axis is branched and each branch be a spadix. It bears female
flowers on the base and male flowers towards the apex.
 The total inflorescence covered by a stiff and leathery boat shaped
spathe.

7. Mixed spadix eg. Musa

 It is characteristic inflorescence of genus Musa.
 Cymose group of flowers are arranged acropetaly on fleshy
inflorescence axis.
 Each cymose group is subtended by a colourful spathe, which will
fall of upon opening.
 The cymose group of flowers are arranged in such a way that the
older spathe subtending the next tender.

8. Catkin or Amentum eg. Acalypha indica

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  Variation of spike.
 Inflorescence axis is thin and weak.
 Unisexual flowers are arranged acropetal order.
 A catkin is usually a drooping down forming a pendulous structure.
 Simply catkin is a pendulous spike with weak axis.

9. Corymb eg. Caesalipinia pulcherrima

 Inflorescence axis is not much elongated. But pedicel or stalk of
flower longer and longer as the flower is placed lower and lowerin
the inflorescence axis.
 So that, all the flowers are more overless seen in the same level.

10. Umbel eg. Biophytum

 Characteristic inflorescence of umbelliferae.
 Inflorescence axis is very much short. A number of flowers with
similar stalk appear as a cluster.
 Flowers are arranged centripetaly. (peripheral-older, center-young).

11. Compound umbel eg. Coriander

 The main axis of umbel branched.
 Each branch will form a simple umbel.

12. Capitate eg. Mimosa pudica

 Characteristic inflorescence of Mimosaceae family.
 It is a special type of inflorescence in which a large number of sessile
flowers grow from a suppressed rachis giving more over less special
structure.
 Capitate is different from head, thus the capitate having no receptacle
and have a condensed rachis.

13. Head or Capitulum eg. Tridax procumbens

 Characteristic inflorescence of Asteraceae family.
 Here the rachis form a flattend more over less convex receptacle. On
which the florets are arranged in a centripetal manner( older ones
periphery, younger ones center.)
 Whole capitulum surrounded by three or four bract called involucre.
 In Sunflower and Tridax etc. two types of floret can szee. Floret
towards the periphery called disc floret (female). And floret towards
the center called ray floret (bisexual).
 No difference among florets of Chrysanthemum.
 In both ray and disc calyx modified into pappus. These pappus helps
for dispersal of fruit.
 Head inflorescence considered as more perfect inflorescence. Here a
single visit of an insect will pollinate very large amount of flowers.

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 14. Spikelet or Locusta eg. Rice, Wheat, Maize
 Characteristic inflorescence of graminae or poaceae family
 Inflorescence axis is branched and the flowers are arranged in a spike
like manner.
 Unit of compound inflorescence called spikelet
 The flowers are arising from the axis of bract called lemma
 The lemma is owned by palea
 Each flowers have 3 stamens, one ovary with two feathery stigma.
 The inflorescence is covered in a boat shaped bract called Glumes
 In rice each spikelet consist of single flower. And each inflorescence
axis is branched to panicle. So it is called panicle.
 In maize, female inflorescence is spadix of spikelet and male
inflorescence as panicle of spikelet.

II. Cymose / definite inflorescence

 Inflorescence axis ends in a flower/flower bud
 It stops its growth activity quite early
 Further growth by lateral branches from the axis
 Basipetal arrangement-older ones in top and younger ones in the basal region of axis
 It is less common compared to racemose inflorescence
1.Solitary cyme eg. Hbiscus rosa-sinensis
 Simplest type of cymose inclorescence .ie pedicel ends in a flower
bud.
 Position of the flower bud is axillary or terminal
-terminal solitary cyme- eg. Gossypium
-axillary solitary cyme - eg . Hbiscus rosa-sinensis

2. Simple cyme eg. Jasmine

 Consist of a cluster of three flowers
 One terminal and two lateral flowers
 Inflorescence axis ends in a flower bud. It has two bracteoles. From
the axil of each bracteoles flower develops.
 Older ones seen towards the periphery called centrifugal
arrangement of flowers.

3. Monochasial cyme
 Peduncle ends in a flower. It has two bracteoles. One is suppressed
and other one produce single lateral pedicel which also ends in a
flower bud
 Two types

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 A. Helocoid cyme eg. Hamelia patens
 Inflorescence axis ends in a flower bud
 It has two bracteoles. One is suppressed. Other one
produce lateral peduncle. Which also end in a flower
bud. And the further branches are arise from a single
side or single plane

B. Scorpioid cyme eg. Heliotropium

 Inflorescence axis terminate in a flower
 It has two bracteoles. One is suppressed and other
will produce lateral branches, which also end in a
flower bud.
 Like this branching occurs alternatively to left and
right (bothside) and all of them ends in a flower
bud.

4.Dichasial cyme eg. Clerodendron, Ixora

 It resembles dichotomous branching
 Inflorescence main axis ends in a flower bud.
 It has two bracteoles from these two lateral branches arises, which
also ends in a flower bud.
 It can easily divided in to small groups of three flowers.
 Arrangement of flower is centrifugal

5. Polychasial cyme eg. Calotropis

 Inflorescence axis ends in a flower bud.
 From the axil of flower bud more than two lateral pedicels are
formed, which also end in a flower bud.

III. Special type of inflorescence

1. Hypanthodium
 Characteristics inflorescence of the genus Ficus
 Here the receptacle modified into hollow cup-shaped structure, which open exterior by
means of ostiole
 Ostiole covered by downwardly hanging hairs
 Sessile and unisexual flowers are arranged in the inner wall.
 Sterile, male and female flower are seen
 Male flowers towards the ostiole
 Female flowers towards the base
 Sterile flowers towards the middle

2. Cyathium
 Characteristics inflorescence of genus Euphorbia under family Euphorbiaceae

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  Involucre modified into cup-shaped structure
 Inflorescence contain, involucre contains single female flower in the center
which is surrounded by numerous male flowers in centrifugally.,
 Female flower is reduced into tricarpellary syncarpous, trilocular ovary with
axile placentation
 Male flowers reduced into single stamen. But the filament have a node which
represent the thalamus.
 One or two necteries also seen in involucre.

3. Verticillaster eg. Leucas aspera

 Characteristics inflorescence of labiatae or lamiaceae
 Members of this family have opposite leaves
 Inflorescence are develops from each of two opposite axils. Opposite cymose
developing on either side and meet around the stem
 Each inflorescence is a dichasial cyme in initial stage, and it is reduced yo a
scorpioid cyme on two side. So it bend around the stem and node and meet
together and it act as a false whorl or verticel around the stem.

4. Thyrsus
 Cymose group of flowers are arranged in raceme manner.
 Main peduncle produce cymose group of flowers in the axil of leaf or bracts in
acropetal sucession.
 Each cymose group with three flowers, central one is oldest.

III.Flower

 It is a reproductive organ
 Stalk of the flower called pedicel
 Flower has a short stalk called thalamus
 Nodes, internodes and specialized floral leaves are present
 The axis is so condensed, so we cannot distinguish the node and internode in thalamus
 Floral leaves are arranged spirally or cyclically on thalamus
 Flower is regarded as the modified shoot

Flower as a modified shoot

Evidences
1. Homology of the flower bud

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  Position of the flower axillary and terminal , the buds developed in the same way
both in shoot and flower
 In the axile there is an axillary bud, which may develop to lateral branches or a
flower hence, flower is a modified shoot
 Sometime floral bud transformed into vegetative bud eg. Agave
2. Shoot nature of the thalamus
A. Thalamus region is condensed, so the shoot nature of thalamus cannot be
identified or distinguishable.
There are some exceptional cases
a) Anthophore
An elongated axis between calyx and corolla
b) Androphore
An elongated axis seen in between corolla and androecium
eg. Passiflora
c) Gynophore
An elongated axis between androecium and gynoecium
Eg. Cleome
d) Gynandrophore
It is also called andrognophore
Gynophore+ Androphore
B. Growth of thalamus limited by carpels, sometime thalamus grows
beyond gynoecium and produce leafy shoot above first flower.
Eg. Rose
C. In Polyalthia longifolia thalamus bears spirally arranged carpel. This
carpel elongate like an ordinary stem and produce aggregate fruit
3. Leafy nature of floral organs
1. Arrangement of floral organs
Floral leaves are arranged spirally or cyclically, it strongly support the phyllotaxy of
the leaf eg. Nymphae
2. Transition of floral members
Transition from sepal to petal, petal to stamen, stamen to carpel.
This transition of floral members is visible in Nymphae

Parts of flower

 Floral organs arranged in a one above other

 Outer most whorl called sepal, its unit called calyx
 The second whorl called petal, it unit called corolla
 Stamen collectively called androecium
 Innermost whorl called carpel, collectively called gynoecium
 In some plants calyx and corolla not distinguishable and have only one accessory word which can
neither be termed as calyx nor corolla, so it is called perianth or tepal
eg. Coconut

23
  The flower having perianth called apetalous flower.
 Flower with 4 floral whorl called complete flower eg. Hibiscus
 If one floral whorl is absent it is said to be incomplete flower eg. Nutmeg, Cucurbita
 Gynoecium and androecium are essential whorls
 Corolla and calyx are non-essential whorls
 If both essential whorls present in a flower called bisexual flower or hermaphrodite or perfect
flower
 If one essential whorl is absent it is called imperfect or unisexual or diclinous flower
 Unisexual flowers either male- staminate flower, female pistilate flower
 If male and female flowers on same plant called monoecious eg. Cucurbita, Maize
 If male and female plant quite separate from each other called dioecious eg. Gracinaria, Nutmeg
 In some plant staminate, pistilate and bisexual flowers are seen , it is known to be polygamous eg.
Mangifera, Cashew
 Dichlamidous flower is a complete flower, whereas monochlamydous flowers with all essential
whorl and one non-essential whorl eg. Coconut

Symmetry of flowers

1. Regular or actinomorphic
 Calyx, corolla, male and female reproductive organs are in uniformly size
and shape and are proportionally arranged around the thalamus
 Flower can into two equal halves through any plane called actinomorphic or
regular flower eg. Hibiscus
2. Irregular or zygomorphic
 Calyx, corolla, male and female reproductive organs are in not uniformly size
and shape and are not proportionally arranged around the thalamus
 Flower can into two equal halves through single plane called zygomorphic
eg. Leucas
3. Asymmetrical
 Flower which cannot give equal halves through any plane of cutting
eg. Canna

Arrangement of floral organs

 Floral organs are arranged in a single strata called cyclic

 Floral organs are in different strata called spiral
 In Annona calyx, corolla arranged cyclically whereas reproductive structures arrange spirally. It is
called hemicyclic or spirocyclic

1. CALYX
 Outermost whorl
 Individual unit called sepals

24
  Venation and structure resembles to leaf functions
 Functions
 Protection of essential organs and delicate petals
 It helps the disposal of fruit (pappus)
 Sepals are green , it perform photosynthesis
 When sepals are attractive or bright coloured, attract insect for pollination.
 Sepals are usually green
 Some case calyx is brightly coloured, this petal like sepal called petalloid sepal.
Eg. Mussaenda
 Pappus-sepal modified into hair like structure eg. Asteraceae family
 One of the calyx is modified into tubular structure called spur. The calyx is called spured calyx
eg. Balsm
 Normally sepals are entire in nature, sometimes it is toothed Eg. Rose
 Calyx is gamosepalous or polysepalous
 Gamosepalous- Individual units are fused with one another and it tip is free Eg. Hibiscus
 Polysepalous- individual unit s or sepals are free from one another eg. Annona
Four different kinds of sepals
1. Caducous
Sepals/calyx fall of soon after flowering eg. Poppy
2. Decidous
Sepals fall off with petal eg. Mustard
3. Persistent
Calyx persist on fruit eg. Brinjal
4. Acrescent
Sepal persistent and continue to grow as a loose jacket around the fruit
eg. Physalis

2. COROLLA
 Single unit of petal
 Second whorl of floral leaves, seen in between calyx and androecium
 Corolla are thin and delicate and attractive
 Attract insects for pollination
 Some time it may be sweet smelling eg. Rose
 It may succulent or green in colour eg. Annona
 Gamopetalous-petals fused eg. Datura
 Polypetalous- petals free eg. Hibiscus
 In polypetalous flower, the small stalk like portion called claw, the expanded upper portion of
petal is limb
 In gamopetalous flower, lower tube like portion called tube,upper expanded portion is limb
 There is some appendages inside the corolla called coronal appendages or corona
 In Crotalaria corolla is butterfly like , it is called pappilionaceous
 Corolla may be regular or irregular

25
 AESTIVATION
 The mode of arrangement of sepal or petal in a flowerbud
1. Valvate aestivation
Adjacent petal or sepal in a whorl does not overlap with one another eg. Annona
2. Valvate-induplicate aestivation
Adjacent sepals or petals are just touch one another but margins are folded eg. Datura
3. Twisted or contorted
Overlapping is regular in one direction. One margin of the sepal or petal overlaps the next
members on one side. While its other margin is overlapped by previous one, which gives a
twisted appearance eg. Petals of Hibiscus
4. Imbricate
Overlapping is there but they do not have any particular order
1. Desending/ Vexillary eg. Crotalaria
 Characteristic inflorescence of papilionaceae family
 It have different sized petal
 The posterior or big petal called vexillum or standard petal
 The second type of petal called lateral or wing petal
 Third boat shaped carina or keel petal
 One petal completely in and one completely out and one partially in or out
2. Ascending imbricate eg. Caesalpinia
 Posterior petal is completely inside and posterior petal is completely outside
and one is partially out and in.
5. Quincuncial eg. Sepals of Allamanda, petals of Guava
 Overlapping is not regular in one direction
 2 petal is completely inside 2 completely outside, one is in and out.
6. Induplicate- convolute
 Combination of twisted and induplicate
 In this corolla is gamopetalous, irregular and have narrow tubular lower portion,
broad circular spreading upper portion. The upper portion have 5 triangular
outwardly radiating whitish portions and in this whitish portion is thick
 In between thin and delicate corolla
 In buds, all the portions are folded inwards and corolla twisted
 And have a thickened portions are exposed (in bud).

3.ANDROECIUM

 Male reproductive organs

 Some stamens which is attractive and expanded called petalliod stamen eg. Canna
 Stamens are arranged in concentrically
 Stamens may be free, means free from petals
 Stamens may be epipetalous, means stamens attached with petals
 A stamens have three different part

26
 1. Filament: slender stock of stamen, terminally bears anthers.
-Sometimes filaments does not bears anther lobe called stamininode.
-In some flowers filaments are shorter than corolla tube, which is inserted in it.
Called inserted or included stamen.
-In some flowers filament are longer than corolla and this stamen seen outside
called exerted or protruded

2. Anther: fertile portion of stamen, consist of two similar halves

Each half have two lobes, each lobe has two sporangium. Hence it is called

tetrasporangium

3.Connective: sterile portion, which connect the lobes

 Various types of fusion in stamen

a) Monadelphous eg. Hibiscus, Crotalaria
The filaments of all set of stamen in a flower fused to form a tube
b) Diadelphous eg. Clitoria
The filaments are fused to form two sets of tube or two bundles.
c) Polyadephous Eg. Bombax
Filaments of stamen are fused to form more than two bundles
d) Synandrous eg. Cucurbita
-Characteristic inflorescence of Cucurbitaceae
- filaments and anthers of all stamens fuse to form a bundle

e) Syngenecious eg. Helianthus

- characteristic of Asteraceae

- anther lobes are fused but filaments free

Attachment of anthers

 Attachment filament with anthers

1. Adnate – filamentsattached throughout the length of anther lobe eg. Michelia
2. Basifixed- Filaments attached to the anther lobe eg. Solanum
3. Dorsifixed- filaments attached to the backside of the anther eg. Bauhinia
4. Versatile – seen in poaceae family. Filaments attached middle of the anther

Arrangement of anthers

1. Diplostemonous
Stamens are arranged in 2 whorls and each whorl contains equal number of stamens.
Outer whorl is opposite to sepal, inner whorl opposite to petal eg. Murraya
2. Obdiplostemonous
Stamens are arranged in 2 whorls and each whorl contains equal number of stamens.
Outer whorl is opposite to petal, inner whorl opposite to sepal eg.Citrus

27
Length of stamen

 In Mustard and Raddish , there is 6 stamens – 4 long and 2 short. All long stamen in same length
and short stamens at same length. This condition called tetradynamous
 In Thunbergia and Leucas, there is 4 stamens- 2 long and 2 short. Longer with same length and
short stamens also. This condition called didynomous

Dehiscence of anthers- break down of anthers and release of pollen grains

1. Longitudinal – anther open by a vertical slit in each lobe which wides and gradually liberate pollen.
Commonest method eg. Cucurbits
2. Apical or porus- pollengrains are liberated by a pore or hole on apical region of anther eg. Solanum
3. Valvular – it opns by a shutter like opening at its top. Pollengrains liberated through it eg. Barberry
4. Transverse- a transverse slit is formed through which pollengrains are liberated.

4.GYNOECIUM

 Individual units called carpels.

 Carpels are composed of megasporophyll
 Flowers with single carpel- monocarpellary
 Flowers with many carpel- polycarpellary
 In polycarpellary gynoecium may be syncarpous or apocarpous
Syncarpous- carpels fused eg. Hibiscus
Apocarpous- carpels free eg. Vinca
 Gynoecium with three parts
1. Ovary: basal swollen portion. Ovary may be single chambered- unilocular or it may be
multi-chambered –multilocular
Ovules is connected to the ovary by a stalk called funicle
2. Style: slender middle portion , which connects stigma to ovary
It hold stigma in correct position.
3. Stigma: flat terminal portion. It has the function to receive pollen grains. Stigma secretes
a sugary substance to promote pollination.

Cohesion of carpel

1. The fusion of carpel throughout their entire length ( ovary, style and stigma) eg. Citrus
2. Fusion of carpel in the lower part of ovary
3. Fusion of ovary, style and stigma free eg. Hibiscus
4. Fusion of style and stigma but ovary free eg. Catharanthus
5. Fusion of stigma but style and ovary free eg. Calotropis

Placentation

 Placenta is the tissues in the ovary, in which future ovule are formed
 Placentation is the mode of arrangement of placenta
 Types of placentation

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 1. Marginal
- Characteristic to papilionaceae family
- Usually seen in monocarpellary/multicarpellary, apocarpous, unilocular ovary
- Placenta bearing ovules are borne on the ventral suture
2. Parietal placentation
- Usually found in unilocular ovary
- Ovary bearing placentas are borne on innerwalls of ovary, which from periphery to
centre eg. Pappaya
- In cruciferae ovary become two chambered by the formation of false septum
- It is also seen in cucurbitaceae
- In Cucurbits, ovary is tricarpelary and unilocular
3. Axile placentation
- Usually found in multicarpellary, bicarpellary, syncarpous ovary
- Placenta bearing ovules are found on the center axis, ovules are arranged from
center to periphery eg. Malvaceae family
4. Basal placentation
- In monocarpellary unilocular ovaries
- Rarely in bicarpellary unilocular ovary
- One or two ovaries seen on the base of thalamus eg. Asteraceae

5. Pendulous placentation
- ovules found on the top of the ovary, or just opposite to basal
- ovules are hanging from down from top to bottom
- Seen in Combritaceae famiy

6. Free central placentation

-ovules bearing placenta on the central axis of thalamus, the axis is formed by the
elongation of thalamus. Eg. Ten „o clock plant

7. Superficial placentation

- seen in multilocular, multicarpellary syncarpous eg. Nymphae

- it is overdevelopment of axile placentation, in which placenta bearing ovules are borne

on all the inner walls of chambers. So that ovules are found all around

Types of flowers

 Based on the position of thalamus or arrangement of thalamus

1. Hypogynous flower/ superior ovary
 Below gynoecium
 Thalamus is slightly swollen, convex shaped or conical with calyx, corolla,
androecium are borne on successively on it
 Thalamus is terminated by pistil/ gynoecium, so that ovary is in superior in position.
So that ovary called superior ovary

29
 2. Epigynous flower/inferior ovary
 Thalamus is modified into cup shaped structure which is fused with calyx.
 Ovary is below to non-essential whorl.
 Ovary is inferior.
3. Perigynous ovary/half inferior/half superior
 Thalamus is modified into a flat structure.
 Gynoecium arranged at the ring of the margin.
 Perigynous ovary is the characteristic of leguminosae/ fabaceae

IV.Fruits
 Fruit means ripened and fertilized ovary contain one or more seeds.
 Pollination stimulate growth and development of ovary and it prevent abscission.
 Thus pollen grain secrete auxine and it induces the growth of carpel.
 Some changes occurs in the formation of fruit from ovary.
1. Ovary begins to enlarge by cell division and enlargement
2. Succulent parenchyma develops within the ovary
3. Cell get loaded with acids, sugars and flavoring substances
4. Dissolution of the existing wall in some cell and formation of septa in others. It alter the
nature and appearance of ovary
5. Transformation of ovary wall to fruit wall or pericarp
 After maturation some biochemical changes occurs
1. Conversion of starch to sugar
2. Decrease of acid content
3. Breakdown of chlorophyll
4. Production of esters (smell)
5. Formation of ethylene
 Formation of fruit without fertilization called parthenocarpy. Such fruits are parthenocarpic fruits.
 Natural parthenocarpic fruit- banana, pine apple
 Artificial parthenocarpic fruit- watermelon, grapes
 Significance of fruit
a) Seed protection: fruit form a case or vessel around the seed.
b) Seed dispersal: if it valued by any animal, then it is easily carried by them.
c) Chemical defense: usually immature fruit have palatable taste and repellence. It may
disappear on ripening.
 Parts of fruits
1. Seed-developing from ovule
2. Pericarp- differentiated to outer epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp
 Kinds of fruits
1. True fruits- developed from ovary

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 2. False fruits- developed from other than ovary
a) Apple- thalamus modified to fruit
b) Cashew-modification of pedicel/peduncle
c) Pineapple-calyx is modified into fruit.

Classification of fruits

Fruit

Simple Aggregate Multiple

Dry Fleshy Etaerio of follicle Sorosis

Etaerio of achene synconous

Dehiscent Indehiscent Schizocarpic 1. Drupe Etaerio of Drupe Coenocarpium

1.Legume 1.Caryopsis 1.Lomentum 2.Berry Etaerio of berries

2.Follicle 2. Achene 2,Cremocarp 3. Pepo

3.Siliqua 3. Cypsela 3. Carcerulus 4. Balausta

4.Silicula 4. Nut 4.Regma 5.Hesperidium

5.Capsule 5. Samara 6.Pome

6.Utricle

I. Simple fruit

 Single fruit developed from single ovary

 Here the ovary must be monocarpellary unilocular or multicarpellary syncarpous.

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 Most diverse types of fruit among fruits
1. DRY FRUITS- fruit wall dry at maturity
A. Simple dry dehiscent
 Fruit wall dries at maturity and burst open automatically to discharge the seeds.
a) Legume eg. pea
 Characheristics of family pappilionaceae
 Develops from monocarpellary, unilocular and perigynous ovary with
marginal placentation
 Dehisces along the sutures from apex to base
b) Follicle eg. Calotropis
 Develops from monocarpellary, superior and unilocular ovary with
marginal placentation and many seeds.
 Dehisces along one suture, usually ventral one
c) Siliqua eg. Mustard
 Characteristic of family crusiferae
 Develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous and superior ovary with
parietal placentation
 Pericarp dehisces into two valves
d) Capsule
 One or more chambered fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous
superior or inferior ovary
 Contain many seeds
 Derived from syncarpous pistil commonly known as capsule.
 Variously named according due to their dehiscence
a. Loculicidal capsule eg. Abelmoschus esculentus
 Common in Malvaceae
 Pericarp split open middle of the locule and
separate into valves
 Number of valves equal to number of locules
b. Septicidal capsule eg. Ricinus communis
 Dehisces along the partiotion or septa between
the locule
 Dividing capsule into component carpel
c. Septifragal capsule eg. Datura
 Dehisces longitudinally in such a way that the
valves break away from the partition.
d. Porus capsule Eg. Opium
 Characteristic fruitof papaveraceae
 Dehiscence of fruit occur by the formation of
number of porus on the top of ripe fruits through
which the granular seeds are liberated, when the
fruits are shaken by wind.
 It is called Censor mechanism.

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B. Simple dry indehiscent
 Never splits open at maturity and seeds are liberated through decay of pericarp or
accidental destruction
a).Caryopsis eg. Rice
 Characteristics of Poaceae
 Develops from small, single-seeded,unilocular,superior ovary
 Seedcoat completely fused with the pericarp.

b). Achene eg. Mirabilis

 Fruit wall not completely fused with seed coat as in caryopsis.

c).Cypsela eg. Tridax

 Characteristic of family Asteraceae

 One seeded fruit developing from a bicarpellary syncarpous
unilocular inferior ovary with basal placentation.
 Fruit with persistent pappus- dispersal mechanism-parachute
mechanism.
d). Nut eg. Cashew
 Develops from a bicarpellary to multicarpellary syncarpous, unilocular
superior ovary.
 With tough and stony pericarp.
 True fruit is nut.
 False fruit modification of fleshy peduncle.

e). Samara eg. Ailanthus

 One or two seeded wing fruit developing from a monocarpellary or

bicarpellary syncarpous ovary.
 Wings thin and membraneous, helps for dispersal of fruit.
 Wings is the modification of pericarp.

f). Utricle eg. Amaranthus

 Modified achene.
 Characteristics of Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae.
 Small seed occupied by a portion of the fruit.
C. Simple dry Schizocarpic fruit
 Intermediate between dry and indehiscent fruit
 Never dehisces longitudinally instead it break transversely into one or two seed
containing fragments called mericarp.
 Seeds liberated by the decay of pericarp.
a). Lomentum eg. Mimosa pudica
 Elongated fruit, develops like pod.

33
  Develops from monocarpellary, superior ovary with one or two
seeds
 At maturity pod become constricted between the seeds
 Some times break into a number of one or two seed containing
mericarp.
 Characteristics of mimosaceae.

b).Cremocarp eg. Coriander

 Two seeded
 Develops from bicarpellary syncarpous inferior ovary.
 Characteristics of family Umbelliferae.
 At maturity fruit spilt into one seeded mericarp.
 Each mericarp is born on an elongated axis called
carpophore, which is the prolongation of thalamus into
ovary.
c).Carcerulus eg. Ocimum
 Characteristics of Lamiaceae.
 Develops from bicarpellary syncarpous superior ovary
 At maturity split into one seeded segment.

d). Regma eg. Hevea

 Characteristics of Euphorbiaceae
 Develops from tricarpellary, syncarpous trilocular
superior ovary.
 At maturity split into one seeded segments called cocci.
2. Fleshy –pericarp fleshy
a).Drupe eg. Mango, Coconut
 With hard endocarp
 Mesocarp fleshy in Mango, fibrous in Coconut.
 Endosperm is edible part of coconut.

b). Berry or Bacca eg. Lycopersicon esculentum

 Develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous superior or inferior

ovary
 Seed is hard part, other parts are fleshy.
 In Papaya, Musa, Grapes.
 In the beginning the seeds attached to the placenta later it
become loose in the pulp.

c). Pepo eg. Cucurbits

 Characteristics of Cucurbitaceae
 It develops from multicarpellary syncarpous inferior ovary with
parietal placentation

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  Seeds embedded in the pulp, attached to placenta.

f). Balausta eg. Punica granatum

 Many seeded many chambered fruit

 Develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous multilocular inferior
ovary.
 Pericarp leathery
 Calyx is persistent, found at the tip of the fruit.
 Seed coat form the edible fleshy part.

g). Hesperidium eg. Citrus lemon

 Characteristic fruit of Rutaceae.

 Develops from multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous
superior ovary with axile placentation.
 Epicarp leathery, have many glands of aromatic oil.mesocarp
is the white fibers fused with epicarp.
 Epicarp and mesocarp together form the rind
 Endocarp thin and pepary.

h). Pome eg. Pyrus malus

 Fleshy fruit surrounded by fleshy thalamus, that forms the

edible part.
 Develops from 2 or more carpellary syncarpous inferior
ovary.
II. Aggregate fruit
 Cluster of fruit develops from apocarpous ovary of a single flower.
 All of which ripe together and aggregate as a unit in a common receptacle.
 Each fruit let represent single ovary of an apocarpous pistil or gynoecium.
 The group of fruit are called Etaerio.
1. Etaerio of Follicle eg. Vinca
 Number of follicle together on a single pedicel.
2. Etaerio of Achene eg. Naravelia.
 In Naravelia and clematis , fruitlets are provided with persistent style, helps
for the dispersion by wind.
3. Etaerio of Drupe eg. Rasberry
 Fruit with a single pedicel.
4. Etaerio of Berry Eg. Polyalthia
 Characteristics of Annonaceae
 In annona many berries arrangedon a fleshy thalamus, epical portion ofvthe
individual fruitlet together form a fruit, hence it is similar to a multiple fruit.
III. Multiple fruit
 Massive, fleshy, compound fruit formed from entire inflorescence.
1. Sorosis eg. Artocarpus

35
  Develops from spike, spadix, or catkin.
2. Synconus eg. Ficus
 Develops from Hypanthodium inflorescence
 Receptacle form a hollow succulent cavity, opening out by a smsll apical pore.
3. Coenocarpium eg. Ananas
 Multiple fruit formed by the fusion of ovaries, floral parts and receptacles of many
flowers.
 With a fleshy axis.

SEED
 Fertilized ovule undergoes a series of development and becomes the seed
 Two integuments become the seed coat. Outer testa, inner tegmen
 Two different types of seeds
1. Exalbuminous seed eg. Pea
2. Albuminous seed eg. Rice
 Dispersal of fruit and seeds
-distribution of seeds or fruit on different mode.
1. Dispersal by wind
2. Dispersal by water
3. Dispersal by animals
4. Dispersal by the explosive bursting of fruit

SYSTEMATICS

I. MODULE 1

 Systematics is the scientific study of the kinds, diversity and interrelationship of organisms. Or it
is the study of the diversity and natural relationship of organism.
 Systematics includes collection, observation, identification and classification.
 Systema-system of classification
 Importance of systematics
 It presents a vivid picture of the magnificent biodiversity of our planet and enebles us to
make a deep inquiry into it.
 Provide valuable information regarding the phylogeny of life, the mechanisms of organic
evolution, and the role of natural selection of evolution.
 Reveals the interrelationship among and between different kinds of organisms.
 Brings to light the evolutionary implication of biodiversity.
 Provides a very convenient method for understanding the extant and extinct organism.
 Provides a universally accepted system of biological nomenclature.
 Serves as basic tool for the preparation of an inventory of the flora and fauna.
 Considerably accelerates the growth of other branches of biology.
 Plays a significant role in the study of economically important organisms and also in the
growth of applied biology.
 Modern systematics is the hierarchial system of natural classification, introduced by Linnaeus.

36
 Linnaeus –father of modern systematics.
- Books-Species Plantarum ( 5900 species of plants)
- Systema Naturae (4300 species of animals)
 New systematics is based on phylogenetic considerations, so that it reflects the ancestral relations
and evolutionary history of species.
 Lamarck and Charles Darwin proved that species characters are dynamic and mutable and they
undergo slow changes. On the basis of these ideas, Julian Huxley, Hubbs and others proposed the
concepts of biosystematics, in distinction with classical systematics.
 New trends in systematics
Old morphological species concepts got replaced by the new concepts of biological species like
ecological, cytological, biochemical, molecular.
1. Morphological approach
 Morphological features (morphological and micro morphological) are taken as
consideration for classification.
2. Ecological approach
 Ecological aspects like ecological niche(sum total of the food relations, nutritional
habits, response and tolerance, utilization of resources, interaction with other species
of an organism) considered for the classification.
 Each species have its own ecological niche which is different from other species in
the same community.
3. Cytological approach
 Cytological features of a species like karyotype or chromosomal complement and
the DNA content of cells, are very valuable in taxonomy.
 Number, size and morphology of chromosome and the amount of genomic DNA
constant among each species.
 Help to determine phylogenetic relationship of closely related species.
4. Biochemical approach
 It includes enzymology, histochemistry.
 Here the segregation and detection of species based on different biochemical
characteristics.
5. Molecular taxonomy
 Recently emerged branch of taxonomy.
 Includes data based on amino acid sequence of proteins, nucleotide sequence of the
genes which governs the synthesis of these protein (DNA sequencing).

 Disciplines of systematics
Systematics encompasses six basic components or disciplines\
1. Description
 Listing of the inherent features or attributes of organisms for identifying and
classifying them.
 Detailed and accurate description is most essential for correct identification and
classification.
2. Identification
 Detection of the exact species to which the organism under study belongs.

37
  It is the process of finding out a known or unknown ( named or unnamed) taxon for
determining the exact systematic position or rank of a particular organism.
 Identification based on deductive reasoning in individual species.
3. Phylogenetics
 Phylogeny of organism, evolutionary relationship within and between different
taxonomic levels.
 Findings related with the affinities or similarities and differences between different
groups of organisms.
4. Classification
 Ordering or grouping of organism based on their morphological, anatomical,
physiological, biochemical and phylogenetic and other interrelationship.
5. Taxonomy
 Theoretical study of classification, including it bases, principles, procedures and rules
(Simpson).
 It encompasses the rules for constructing classification, the technical procedures used
in classification, and the theoretical foundations on which classification is based.
 First proposed by A.P. De Candolle(1813) for the theoretical study of plant
classification.
6. Nomenclature
 Scientific system of naming the taxonomic groups or taxa that are recognized in
classification.
 Formal naming of taxa in a scheme of classification.
 Binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus (1753).

II. Systems of classification

 Ordering or grouping of organism based on their morphological, anatomical, physiological,

biochemical and phylogenetic and other interrelationship called classification.
 Four major systems of classification can be recognized, namely practical, artificial, natural and
phylogenetic classification.
1. Practical classification
 Classification based on the utility and economic importance of organisms.
 Plants classified into crop plants, weeds, fruit trees, timber trees and fiber plants etc.
 Here totally unrelated organisms are brought into the same group, without considering
their similarities, ancestry and interrelationship.
2. Artificial classification
 Classification based on easily observable superficial resemblances in morphology,
habit, mode of life, adaptations etc.
 It was adopted by early systematists, such as Theophrastus, Pliny and Linnaeus.
 Classification of plants into herbs, shrubs and trees base on habits.
 Classification based on floral characters like number of stamen and carpel- Linnaeus
sexual system of classification.

38
 Similar and related organisms are placed in separate groups, and totally unrelated and
dissimilar forms are brought into the same group.
 Classification on the basis of superficial similarities does not give any idea about the
evolutionary relationship of organisms.

LINNAEAN SEXUAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

 Carlous Linnaeus proposed a sexual system based on the numerical relations of floral
parts.
 In this classification plants are basically included under 24 classes based on the
number and nature of the stamens.
 Each taxa with
1. Generic name.
2. Its trivial name (specific epithet of binomial system)
3. Short descriptive adjectives.
4. Reference to previous works
5. Original home.
 Linnaeus did not give any importance to specific epithet. Later taxonomist found the
binomial nomenclature very suitable and retained it.
 Classification including 24 classes
Monandria – single stamen
Diandria- 2 stamen
Triandria to decandria - 3 – 10 stamens
Dodecandria – 11 – 19 stamens
Etc.
 In his treatise Genera Plantarum (1737), described all the genera known to and
accepted by him.
 The genera were grouped in 24 classes based on the number and morphological
arrangement of stamens. These classes subdivided into orders based on number of
pistils; unisexuality considered.
 He published his treatise Species Plantarum (1753), it is a two volume hand book
contains 6000 species under 1000 genera.
 His descriptions were limited to twelve words. These were followed by references to
important earlier works in which the species had often been more fully described and
figured; then followed a note on the generic name give the binomial nomenclature.
 Species Plantarum, use of binary names, provides the starting point (1753) for the
modern botanical nomenclature under the international code.
 Merits and demerits of Sexual system of classification
 Only merit of this artificial system is that it helps to quickly and easily
identify plants making use of one or few characters.
 In this system, gymnosperms were placed in the class 14, along with the
angiosperm family Labiatae.
 Dicots and monocots are not considered separately in many cases, families or
orders of dicots and monocots were mixed up and put together eg. Class

39
 gynandria (20) contains Orchids and Pistia of monocots and Grewia,
Passiflora etc. of dicots.
 The families and genera having no relationship and connecting link are put
together, whereas related families and genera are not put together.
 The classes‟ monoecia, dioecia and polygamia are most unsatisfactory
because monoecious or dioecious condition may arise in any family.eg.
Monocot Globba (Zingiberaceae family) and dicot Mangifera
(Anacardiaceae) have only one stamen and so they are grouped under
Monandria.
 In another work, Philosophica Botanica (1751) Linnaeus enumerated 67 natural
orders. As palms, orchids, conifers, conifers, composites, borages represent natural
groups. Some natural orders are mixed with monocots and dicots appearing together.
3. Natural classification
 Classification based on morphological, anatomical, physiological, embryological and
behavioral similarities.
 Closely similar organisms are placed in homogenous groups.
 Natural classification was proposed by John Ray, Bentham and Hooker‟s system of
classification.
 It gives a clear picture of the natural relations among organisms. Since it is a rational
approach, it could enjoy wide acceptance.

BENTHAM & HOOKER’S NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

 George Bentham (1880-1884) and Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911), two well-
known English botanists, jointly published a system of classification of seed plants
 Its one of the most elaborate natural systems of classification published in Genera
Plantarum (1862-1884), a three volume work in Latin.
 97,205 species of plants grouping under 7569 genera and 202 natural orders (now
treated as families) beginning from Ranunculaceae to Gramineae.
 The classification was a refined version of the system proposed by A.P.de Candolle.
 The system of classification is Pre-Darwinian in concept of fixity of species.
 J.D. Hooker was the director of Royal Botanical Garden Kew. J.D.Hooker
publications-flora of British India (7 volume), Index Kewensis .

 Salient features
 The classification covers only the seed plants or Phanerogams.
 97,205 species of flowering plants are classified under 202 families starting
from Ranunculaceae and ending in Graminae.
 Monocotyledons are placed after Dicotyledons.
 Gymnosperms are treated as a separate group and placed it in between dicots
and monocots.
 Dicotyledons are divided into Polypetalae, Gamopetalae and Monochlamydeae.

40
  The series Disciflorae (characterized by the presence of a well-developed
staminiferous disc) is created newly- a group not recognized by earlier
workers.
 The sub-class monochlamydeae is divided into 8 series on the basis of
terrestrial or acquatic habitats.

 Merits
 The system is natural and very practical. Classification is based on actual
observation and examination of specimen and herbaria.
 Descriptions are accurate at all level, and easy to follow up to the family level.
 The system provides information about geographical distribution.
 The classification begins with Ranales which is now universally considered as
the most primitive among angiosperms.
 Monocots are placed after dicots. In dicots, the dichlamydeous Polypetalae and
Gamopetalae were placed before the Monochlamydeae.
 The placement of Gamopetalae after Polypetalae is justifiable since the union
of petals is considered as an advanced feature over the free condition.
 A special feature of this system is the addition of the new series Disciflorae.
The three series of Polypetalae namely Thalamiflorae, Disciflorae and
Calyciflorae show gradual evolutionary advancement from hypogyny to
epigyny passing through transitional perigynous condition.
 The placement of Heteromerae in Gamopetalae before Bicarpellatae is
justifiable.
 The position of Cucurbitaceae and Umbelliferae at the end of Polypetalae is
appropriate. These two families form a connecting link between Polypetalous
and Gamopetalous families.
 Creation of the sub-class Monochlamydeae and the arrangement of certain
series on the basis of acquatic and terrestrial characteristics are curious.
 Among Monochlamydeae, families with unisexual flowers are placed after the
families having bisexual flowers.
 The series Glumaceae having many advanced characters and extremely
reduced flowers has been rightly placed at the end of monocots.
 Demerits
 Classification is post Darwinian, its concept is Pre-Darwinian. So it does not
consider evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships.
 Gymnosperms are placed wrongly in between dicots and monocots, and the
phylogenetic importance of naked seed is not duly recognized.
 Some closely related families are placed apart. Eg.,Chenopodiaceae and
Caryopyllaceae.
 Monochlamydeae is treated as a subclass. But it is only an artificial group.
 The placing of Asteraceae at the beginning of Gamopetalae is not justifiable.
 The advanced family Compositae is placed at the beginning of Gamopetalae.
Similarly, the advanced family Orchidaceae is treated at the beginning of
monocots.

41
  Retention of Nyctaginaceae, Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae and
Chenopodiaceae in Monochlamydeae is unnatural because they are related to
orders having differentiated perianth.
 While classifying Gamopetalae and Monocotyledons, the authors ignored the
fundamental basis of polypetalous grouping.

Division : Phanerogamae (seed plants)

Class: Dicotyledonae Class: Gymnospermae Class: Monocotyledonae

Subclass: Polypetalae Gamopetalae Monochlamydeae

Series: Thalamiflorae Series : Inferae Series: Curvembryae Series:Microspermae

Order: Ranales Order: Rubiales Multiovulate aquaticae Epigynae

Family : Annonaceae Family: Rubiaceae Multiovulate terrestris Coronarieae

Order:Malvales Order: Asterales Microembryeae Family:Liliaceae

Family : Malvaceae Family: Asteraceae Daphnales Calycineae

Series: Disciflorae Series: Heteromereae Achlamydosporae Nudiflorae

Order:Geraniales Series: Bicarpellatae Unisexuales Apocarpae

Family : Rutaceae Order: Gentianales Family: Euphorbiaceae Glumaceae

42
Series: Calyciflorae Family: Apocynaceae Ordines Anomali Family: Gramineae

Order: Rosales Order: Polymoniales

Family : Leguminosae Family: Solanaceae

Subfamily: Papilionaceae Order: Personales

Subfamily : Mimosaceae Family: Acanthaceae

Subfamily : Caesalpiniaceae Order: Lamiales

Order: Myrtales Family : Lamiaceae

Family: Myrtaceae

Order: Passiflorales

Family: Cucurbitaceae

4. Phylogenetic or evolutionary classification

 Extended form of natural classification.
 Based more on genetic relations and evolutionary history of organisms( evolutionary
history of a group is called phylogeny).
 The system of classification reflects both ancestry and evolutionary relations of
organisms.
 Here the classification mainly denotes the primitive and advanced characters in
consideration.
 Proposed by Engler, Prantl and Hutchinson.

ENGLER & PRANTL’S SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

 Classification proposed by Adolf Engler and Karl Prantl.

 This is the first recognized true phylogenetic system in which families are arranged
according to the increasing complexity of the flower, fruit and seed development. In
this classification, the groups are built up in a stepwise manner to form a generally
progression series.
 It was first published in 20 volumes in the monumental work,”Die Naturalichen
Pflanzen-Familien”(1897-1915).
 It provides keys and description for the known genera of algae, fungi, bryophytes and
higher vascular plants.
 This system is still in use in many herbaria all over the world.
 This classification including 14 divisions from schizophyta to embryophyta
Siphonogama.
 Engler and Prantl recognized 280 families of flowering plants, including those of
gymnosperms.

43
  In the system families of higher vascular plants are arranged in accordance with
increasing complexity of flowers.
 Here naked flowers with a bract like perianth considered as most primitive, and those
with well differentiated calyx and corolla are considered to be advanced one. And
fusion of petals probably represents a more highly evolved stage.
 In this system monocots are placed before dicot, and orchids are considered to be
more evolved then grasses.
 Those angiosperms divided into 2 classes, namely monocotyledoneae and
dicotyledoneae.
 Monocotyledeae further divided into 11 seriesand 45 families.
 Dicotyledoneae into 2 subclasses, Arachichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae. Including
33 series, 199 families and 11 series , 56 families respectively.
 Gymnosperms are placed before angiosperms.
 Here the flowers without perianth are considered primitive. At the same time, with a
single whorl of perianth or with two-whorled perianth and distinct sepals and petals
are considered advanced.
 Unisexual flowers are considered primitive, and bisexual ones are considered as
derived ones.
 Zygomorphy and epigyny are advanced evolutionary lines.
 The family Orchidaceae regarded as the highest developed family and Typhaceae is
regarded as the most primitive family.
5. Phylogeny group system
 Most recent classification.
 In the late 1990‟s , an informal group of botanists from major institutions of the world
that have been carrying out the analysis of plant genetic material came together under
the title of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group or APG.
 Their intention was to provide a widely accepted and more stable point of references
for angiosperm classification.
 The first attempt at a new system was published in 1998 ( APG I). three revision have
been published, in 2003 (APG II), 2009 (APG III) and 2016(APG IV), each
superseding the previous system.
 This system was initiated by Mark W. Chase & Peter F. Stevens with contributions of
many taxonomists.
 APG, shows that the monocots form a monophyletic group(clade), but that the dicots
do not.(paraphyletic).
 Monophyletic refers to a group that consist of a common ancestor plus all descendants
of that ancestor. Paraphyletic refers to the group that includes a common ancestor plus
some, but not all, descendants of that common ancestor.
 The groups in this system are regareded as monophyletic clades.
 The diversity of flowering plantsis not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belongs
to the eudicots(75%), monocot(23%) andmagnolids (2%) clades. And the remaining 5
clades includes 9 families.

44
  There are somany revision taken after APG I. including addition and deletion of
groups. Initially it contains 462 families and 40 monophyletic orders, later on it
changed.
 Family containing a single genus and orders containing a single family are avoided
where this is possible without violating the over-riding requirement for monophyly.

MOULE 2: Study of Angiosperm families

ANNONACEAE

 Commonly known as Custard apple or Annona family.

 Largest family of order Magnoliales, with 129 genera and about 2,120 species.
 Family consists of trees, shrubs and woody climbers found mainly in the tropics and a few
species extend into temperate regions.
 Many species are valuable for their large pulpy fruits, some for timbers and others ornamentals.
 Bark, leaves and roots of several species are important in folk medicine and others are important
sources of perfume and spice.
 Plants have simple leaves with smooth margins that are alternately arranged in two rows along
the stems.
 Flowers in some species are borne directly on large branches or on the trunk.
 Flowers are radially symmetrical and usually bisexual.
 In most cases the 3 sepals are united at the base.
 Petals may be 3 or 6 in brown, yellow, or greenish in colour.
 Many stamens in a spiral, and many pistils, each with a one chambered ovary
 Diagnostic characters
1. Perennial woody trees, shurbs or woody climbers; no herbs.
2. Leaves simple, two ranked, exstipulate, glands are present.
3. Flowers fascicled or solitary.
4. Flower small bisexual, hemicyclic, hypogynous and actinomorphic; sweet scented
(Artabotrys).
5. Perianth outer whorl sepalloid; small; lobes free and valvate aestivation.
6. Stamens many, free, acyclic, spiral arrangement of stamens on the convex thalamus, stamens
with short and thick filaments. Connectives thick and broad and sometimes surpass the anther
lobes; stamens hooded; anther linear and extrorse.
7. Gynoecium polycarpellary; apocarpous; carpels spirally arranged, acyclic, marginal or basal
placentation, anatropous ovule.
8. Fruit eterio of berries or drupes; seeds endospermic; endosperm ruminate.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters.

1. Habit -Mostly mesophytic shrubs and trees, often aromatic. Artabotrys and Unona are hook
stragglers.

45
 2. Root – Tap root.
Stem- Erect, branched; monopodial in Polyalthia and Cananga, sympodial in Artabotrys.
Leaves-Simple, alternate, exstipulate, margins entire or wavy (Polyalthia), pinnately
recticulate venation. Leaves are gland-dotted in Annona.
3. Inflorescence – Solitary cyme and various types.
4. Flowers- Regular, bisexual, actinomorphic, spirocyclic (perianth- cyclic, stamen, carpel-
spiral), trimerous, hypogynous.
5. Perianth – Mostly in 3 whorls, each consisting of 3 members, outer calyx-like (sepalloid),
inner corolla- like (petalloid), thalamus forms a large convex or conical structure above the
perianth.
6. Calyx- Sepals 3, valvate aestivation, free or connate below, green in colour.
7. Corolla- Petals 3 (single whorl) or 6 (two whorls with 3 petals), valvate aestivation.
8. Androecium- stamens numerous, spirally arranged and closely packed on the conspicuous
thalamus. Short filament with a prominent dithecous anther, connectives is prolonged to form
a hood at the top. Dehiscence of anther is longitudinal.
9. Gynoecium- carpels many, apocarpous, closely arranged in the thalamus in a spiral manner.
Each carpel with ovary style and stigma; single basal anatropous ovule in Annona; ovary
superior; marginal or basal placentation.
10. Fruit-aggregate of free berries in Polyalthia, Artabotrys. In Uvaria, each carpel develops into
an elongate fruit which is constricted inbetween the seeds. In Annona Squamosa it is
aggregate of berries.
11. Seeds-with endosperm, endosperm ruminate.

 Economic importance.
Ornamentals- Polyalthia, Cananga odorata , Artabotrys uncinatus.
Fruit- Annona squamosa, A. muricata, A. cherimolia, A. reticulata, Asimina triloba (paw paw),
Porcelia saffordiana.
 Common plants:

Annona angustifolia (Native to Brazil)

Annona cherimola (Cherimoya)

Annona dioica ( Native to Bolivia)

Annona glabra (Alligator apple)

Annona muricata (Mullanchakka)

Annona reticulata (Chakkapazham)

Annona squamosa (Seethapazham)

Annona tomentosa (Native to Bolivia and Brazil)

Asimina triloba (Paw paw)

46
 Cananga odorata (Ylang-ylang)

Oxandra lanceolata (Lancewood)

Polyalthia korinti

Polyalthia longifolia (Aranamaram)

Rollinia mucosa (Native to America)

Uvaria narum (Anakoori)

Uvaria ovata

MALVACEAE

 Hibiscus or mallow family.

 243 genera and at least 4225 species of herbs, shrubs and trees.
 Cosmopolitan in distribution, members are mostly confined to tropical regions.
 Diagnostic characters
1. Herbs or shrubs with stellate pubescence on vegetative parts.
2. Presence of mucilage in the cortex and pith.
3. Leaves stipulate and alternate.
4. Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic and hypogynous.
5. Presence of epicalyx in some genera.
6. Monadelphous stamens with monothecous, reniform anthers.
7. Multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary with ovules on axile placenta.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters.

1. Habit –Herbs (Abutilon, Sida, Urena), shrubs (Hibiscus, Gossypium) or tree (Thespesia,
Kydia).
2. Root- Tap root
Stem –Erect, branched.
Leaves- Simple or palmately lobed, alternately spiral, stipulate, leaf margin serrated or entire
leaves with acute apex.
3. Inflorescence-Solitary axillary cyme in Hibiscus, solitary terminal cyme in Gossypium,
axillary or terminal panicle in Kydia.
4. Flower- Bracteates, bracteolate, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous, pentamerous, cyclic
and complete. Unisexual in Napaea and polygamodiecious in Kydia.
5. Epicalyx –An epicalyx or involucral bracteoles formed of bracteoles is present in most
members. Epicalyx is formed of 2 or more involucral bracteoles. In Malva it is formed of 3
bracteoles, in Hibiscus it is 5 to many, many in Althaea. Epicalyx is absent in Sida and
Abutilon.
6. Calyx- Sepals 5, free or united at the base. Valvate aestivation.

47
 7. Corolla- Petals 5, either free or adnate at the base with staminal tube. Twisted aestivation in
most plants
8. Androecium- Stamens numerous and monadelphous. Staminal tube is formed by the union
of the filaments of all the stamens. It is divided into numerous filaments at the top in Sida.
The filaments of the stamens are given off at all levels from the apically 5-toothed stamina
tube in Hibiscus. Anthers reniform, monothecous, dehisces by transverse slits at the top.
Pollengrains large and spinulose.
9. Gynoecium-Carpels 3 to many, syncarpous, superior. Style is terminal, single or divided
apically. The number of stigma may be the same as that of carpels or double the number of
carpels. Ovules are one to many in each chamber on axile placenta. Insect pollination.
10. Fruit- Loculicidal capsule in Abelmoschus esculentus. In Malvaviscus, it is berry. It is
schizocarp formed of many mericarps in Sida and Abutilon. The loculicidal capsule breaks
open violently to disperse the seeds.
11. Seed-reniform or ovoid and glabrous hairy or woolly.
The epidermal outgrowths on the seeds of cotton help in dispersal by wind. In Sida and
Urena hooks are developed on mericarp.
 Economic importance
Ornamental plants: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, H. mutabilis, H. hirtus, H. schizopetalus,
Malvaviscus penduliflorus, Thespesia populnea, Abutilon hybridum etc.
Commercial plants: Gossypium arboreum, G. barbadense, G. herbaceum and G. hirsutum- cotton
yielding.
Abelmoschus esculentus- vegetable.
Hibiscus cannabinus, H. sabdariffa- for edible leaves and fibre.
Medicinal plants: roots of Sida alnifolia for rheumatism, Abelmoschus moschatus to cure
stomach ache. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis etc.
 Common plants

Abelmoschus esculentus (Ladies finger)

Abutilon indicum

Gossypium arboreum

Gossypium herbaceum (Cotton)

Hibiscus cannabinus

Hibiscus hirtus

Hibiscus hispidissimus

Hibiscus Mutabilis (Changing rose)

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose)

Hibiscus schizopetalus

48
 Sida acuta (Anakurunthotty)

Sida alnifolia

Sida cordifolius

Sida rhombifolia

Thespesia populnea( Poovarash)

Urena lobata (Uthiram)

RUTACEAE

 The Citrus family of flowering plants composed of 160genera and about 2070 species.
 Mostly includes woody shrubs, tree and few herbaceous perennials and is distributed throughout
the world, especially in warm temperate and tropical regions.
 The family comprises economically important fruit trees as well as several ornamental species.
 The perfect flowers arranged in inflorescence, which facilitates pollination by insects such as
small flies and bees. The flowers are conspicuous for their colour, fragrance and nector.
 Diagnostic character
1. Plants are aromatic due to oil glands in leaves.
2. Leaves are pinnately compound or unifoliate compound, shiny, gland dotted; exstipulate,
alternate, rarely opposite, petioles winged.
3. Inflorescence axillary panicles or solitary or cymose clusters.
4. Flowers bisexual, polygamous or unisexual, pentamerous or trimerous or tetramerous,
hypogynous, actinomorphic rarely zygomorphic, thalamus concave, sepals 3-5, polypetalous,
gland dotted, aromatic.
5. Disc presents below the ovary; disc is cushion like.
6. Stamens 3-10 or many, free or polyadelphous, obdiplostemonous.
7. Gynoecium 2,4 or 5 carpellary, syncarpous, locules as many as carpels, ovules 1-2 or several
in each locule; axile placentation, disc below the ovary.
8. Fruit hesperidium or capsule.
9. Seed endospermic.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters
1. Habit- Shrub (Murraya exotica), evergreen shrub (Glycosmis pentaphylla), tree (Aegle
marmelos,Citrus), herb (Ruta graveolens).
2. Root-Tap root
Stem-erect, branched.
Leaves- Simple or compound leaves, alternate rarely opposite, exstipulate, usually pinnately
compound (Murraya), trifoliate (Aegle), unifoliate (Citrus). Leaves are aromatic, shining and
gland dotted.
3. Inflorescence-Axillary or terminal, rarely solitary or fascicled (Triphasia, Citrus), terminal
paniculate or corymbose cymes (Murraya).

49
 4. Flower-Usually actinomorphic, bisexual, and pentamerous; rarely unisexual (Toddalia) or
polygamous (Feronia). Zygomorphic (Dictamus).
5. Calyx-Sepals 5 or sometimes 4, free or variously united. In some zygomorphic genera, calyx
become gamosepalous and tubular; imbricate or quincuncial aestivation.
6. Corolla-Petals 5 or sometimes 4, polypetalous.
7. Androecium- Stamens 3-5, or as many as petals in male flowers of Toddalia, Evodia. 3+3 in
Triphasia, 4+4 in Acronychia, 5+5 in Murraya (long and short stamens), obdiplostamonous
in Glycosmis and Chloroxylon, stamens numerous and free in Aegle, in Citrus numerous
stamens are in polyadelphous. Anthers dithecous and longitudinal dehiscence. Staminodes are
seen in female flowers of Toddalia.
8. Gynoecium- Syncarpous, carpels varies according to genus; pentacarpellary in Toddalia,
tricarpellary and trilobed in Chloroxylon and Triphasia, bicarpellary in
Murraya,multicarpellary in Citrus. Style usually stout and prominent, stigma capitate and
sticky, ovary superior. Usually axile placentation but in Feronia numerous ovules are in
parietal placentation. In each carpel there are usually 2 ovules. A pistilode is present in male
flowers of Toddalia.
9. Fruit- berry in Murraya, hesperidium in Citrus, loculicidal capsule in Chloroxylon and Ruta..
10. Seed – endospermic or non-endospermic.
 Economic importance
Ornamental plants- Ruta graveolens, Murraya paniculata.
Fruit- different species of Citrus; Citrus limon, C. aurantium, C. sinensis, C. medica, C. paradisi,
C. reticulata, C. aurantifolia.
As sacred tree in hindu religion- Aegle marmelos leaves.
For flavouring curries- Murraya koenigii leaves are used.
 Common plants

Aegle marmelos

Citrus aurantifolia.

Citrus aurantium

Citrus medica

Citrus paradisi

Citrus reticulata

Citrus sinensis

Citrus limon

Glycosmis pentaphylla

Murayya koengii

Murraya exotica

50
 Ruta graveolens

LEGUMINOSAE

 One of the largest families of flowering plants in the World..

 Approximately 690 genera and 17,000 species distributed Worldwide.
 This family classified into three subfamilies
1. Papilionaceae
2. Caesalpiniaceae
3. Mimosaceae
 Diagnostic character common for three subfamilies.
1. Leaves alternate, leaf base pulvinate, stipulate or exstipulate, simple or compound leaves.
2. Racemose inflorescence.
3. Flowers bisexual, perigynous and pentamerous.
4. Androecium of diplostemonous origin; but showing many variations.
5. Monocarpellary unilocular gynoecium with marginal placentation which develops pod or
legume dehiscing by the dorsal suture.
6. More or less cup shaped receptacle.
7. Fruit legume or lomentum.

SUB-FAMILY PAPILIONACEAE
 Diagnostic characters
1. Tap root with nodules
2. Pinnately compound leaves with pulvinous leaf base.
3. Racemose inflorescence
4. Pentamerous, perigynous and strictly zygomorphic flowers.
5. Papilionaceous corolla with descendingly imbricate aestivation.
6. Stamens 10, monadelphous or diadelphous.
7. Monocarpellary, half inferior or half superior ovary with marginal placentation.
8. Fruit is legume
 Vegetative and reproductive characters
1. Habit-mostly herbs, some are trees. Annual herb (Tephrosia), annual shrub (Sesbania),
climbers(Dolichos and Clitoria), tendril climbers (Lathyrus and Pisum), climbing shrub
(Abrus), perennial shrub ( Aeschynomene aspera), trees (Pterocarpus, Pongamia). Ulex show
xerophytic adaptation.
2. Root – normal tap root with root nodules.
Leaves- simple or compound imparipinnate, alternate, stipulate, stipules leaf like (foliaceous
in Pisum and Lathyrus), leaf base pulvinate. Leaves of Desmodium show turgor movements,
leaves are spinosus in Ulex, entire leaf modified into tendril in Lathyrus and terminal leaflet
modified into tendril in Pisum sativum.
3. Inflorescence- usually racemose type, corymbose raceme or a terminal panicle (Cajanus),
axillary solitary (Cicer), terminal or lateral panicle (Dalbergia).
4. Flowers- bisexual, strongly zygomorphic, perigynous, pentamerous.

51
 5. Calyx-sepals 5, gamosepalous, irregular, valvate aestivation. Calyx is 2- lipped in
Aeschynomene.
6. Corolla- petals 5, free, irregular, descendingly imbricate (vexillary) aestivation. Posterior
largest standard petal, lateral 2 wing petals, anterior 2 keel petals.
7. Androecium- 10 stamens, diadelphous (9+1) or monadelphous. Stamens opposite to standard
petals.
8. Gynoecium-monocarpellary, with short stalk, flattend ovary, terminal style that ends in a
capitate stigma, ovary unilocular with many ovules on marginal placentation.
9. Fruit-straight or twisted legume or lomentum in Desmodium. Seed is endospermic.

 Economic importance
Seeds of following plants used as pulse:
Glycine max, Phaseolus vulgaris, P. aureus, P. mungo, V. sinensis, Cajanus cajan, Dolichos
lablab, Arachis hypogaea, Cicer arietium,
Vegetable: Pisum sativum, Dolichos lablab
Ornamentals: Sesbania grandiflora, crotalaria aculeata, Lathyrus odoratus, Erythrina indica,
Piptanthus nepalensis.
For furniture: timber of Dalbergia sissoo used.
 Common plants
Abrus precatorious

Arachis hypogea

Cajanus cajan

Cicer arietinum

Clitoria ternatea

Crotalaria aculeata

Crotalaria nana

Crotalaria pallida

Crotalaria retusa

Dolichos lablab

Erythrina indica

Glycine max

Indigofera tinctoria

Lathyrus odoratus

Phaseolus aureus

52
 Phaseolus mungo,

Phaseolus vulgaris

Piptanthus nepalensis

Pisum sativum

Pongammia pinnata

Sesbania grandiflora

Tephrosia purpurea

Vigna sinensis

SUB-FAMILY MIMOSACEAE

 Diagnostic characters
1. Tropical or subtropical in distribution.
2. Mostly shrubs or trees: rarely herbs.
3. Leaves bipinnate, never simple.
4. Cymose head or cylindrical spike inflorescence.
5. Bisexual, actinomorphic, pentamerous or tetramerous , perigynous flowers.
6. Sepals 5, gamosepalous.
7. Petals 4-5, gamopetalous tubular with valvate aestivation.
8. Stamens numerous or 10 in number and very rarely 4 as in Mimosa; filaments are brightly
coloured; free (Acacia) or slightly united at the base as in Albizzia.
9. Gynoecium monocarpellary, marginal placentation.
10. Fruit is lomentum; seeds non-endospermous.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters

1. Habit-Mostly shrubs or trees; tree (Enterolobium), shrub (Acacia). Acacia and Prosopis
are xerophyte, Neptunia is a hydrophyte, Entada is tendril climber.
2. Root-Tap root.
Stem- Erect and branched.
Leaves- Bipinnately compound, alternate and stipulate; stipules modified into spines in
Acacia. Petiole modified into phyllode. Leaves of Mimosa shows sleeping movement.
3. Inflorescence- Usually globose head; pedunculate, elongated spike (Prosopis) or condensed
cymose head (Enterolobium, Albizzia)
4. Flower-Bisexual, actinomorphic, regular, pentamerous and perigynous; flowers of Mimosa
is tetramerous. Polygamous in Entada.
5. Calyx- Sepals 4-5, gamosepalous,clearly toothed, valvate. In Mimosa it is minutely toothed

53
 6. Corolla- Petals 4 or 5, united, valvate, tubular; in Prosopis petals are connate at the base.
7. Androecium- Stamens 4 or 10 to numerous; 4 in Mimosa, in Acacia 10 to numerous and
free, in Prosopis 10 stamens, free and slightly exerted. In Albizzia numerous stamens are
united at the base by means of filaments.
8. Gynoecium- Monocarpellary , ovary sessile or stalked, style filiform and stigma minute.
Many ovules in the unilocular ovary on marginal placenta.
9. Fruit-Legume or lomentum. Seed is non- endospermous.
 Economic importance
Acacia senegal- yields gum Arabic
Acacia arabica- pods and foliage are used as fodder for cattle and the bark is used in tanning.
Acacia catechu – very hard wood and used for plough making.
Albizzia lebbeck – use as fodder, bark, leaves, flowers, seeds used in medicine.

 Common plants
Acacia arabica

Acacia auriculiformis

Acacia catechu

Acacia nilotica

Acacia senegal

Adenanthera pavonina

Albizzia lebbeck

Entada pursaetha

Enterolobium barinense

Enterolobium barnebianum

Mimosa pudica

Neptunia acinaciformis

Prosopsis spicigera

Samanea saman (cheeni)

SUB-FAMILY CAESALPINIACEAE

 The subfamily with approximately 135 genera, distributed in tropical and subtropics of world.

54
 Most plants are wild, but many are cultivated for their beautiful flowers and timber.
 Diagnostic characters
1. Mostly trees and shrubs; rarely herbs.
2. Inflorescence mostly raceme or panicle.
3. Flowers bisexual, slightly zygomorphic, pentamerous and perigynous.
4. Sepals 5, free or slightly fused and imbricate.
5. Corolla shows distinct 5, free petals; ascendingly imbricate aestivation, odd petal smallest
and innermost.
6. Stamens 10, in 2 whorls of 5 whorls of each; some may be reduced to staminodes as in
Caasia sp.; usually free and of variable lengths.
7. Gynoecium monocarpellary, with marginal placentation.
8. Fruit is long, legume; seed in some cases is endospermous. Pollination mostly entemophilous
but ornithophily in Bauhinia.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters

1. Habit-Mostly shrubs or trees; Parkinsonia shows xerophytic adaptation, Cassia is
undershrubs or shrubs, trees (Tamarindus), climbing species of Bauhinia show coiled
tendrils formed from the axillary buds.
2. Root-Tap root.
Stem-Erect, branched, woody. Sometimes they are herbaceous or climbing.
Leaves-Large pinnately or bipinnately compound leaves and stipulate. Stipule either small
or auriculate or spiny (Parkinsonia), the main rachis is modified into a spine and the
flattened secondary rachises or phyllodes arise on it. In Bauhinia vahlii conspicuous
circinately coiled branched tendrils are present in the axils of the leaves which are simple;
leaf base is typically swollen and pulvinate.
3. Inflorescence- A many flowered raceme, terminal corymb (Caesalpinia pulcherrima) or
like corymbose panicle (Saraca).
4. Flower-Big and showy and forming a clusters; bracteate, ebracteolate, complete, bisexual,
perigynous and pentamerous.
5. Calyx-5 green sepals, united or free, may be only 4 in some (Saraca and Tamarindus).
Sepals are petaloid in genera where petals are completely absent. Valvate aestivation
(Delonix) or imbricate (Cassia, Saraca).
6. Corolla- Petals 4-5, aestivation is ascendingly imbricate. Anterior 2 petals are completely
suppressed or represented by glands or bristles in Tamarindus. Petals are absent in Saraca.
7. Androecium-10 stamens, diplostemonous, but diadelphous in some, monadelphous in
Tamarindus. Anthers are dithecous, basifixed or versatile, dehiscing by longitudinal slits or
by pores in Cassia. In some species of Cassia and other species stamens are sterile.
8. Gynoecium-Monocarpellary or rarely bicarpellary, apocarpous in Saraca; ovary is
cylindrical with terminal style and capitate stigma, ovary unilocular with numerous ovules
on marginal placentation.
9. Fruit-Legume and rarely samara as in Pterolobium. Seeds endospermic or non-
endospermic.
 Economic importance

55
 Ornamentals- Bauhinia purpurea, Cassia fistula, Bauhinia varcigata, Caesalpinia
pulcherrima, Poinciana regia, Saraca indica.
Used as stain or dye – Haematoxylum campechianum
Commercial- Parkinsonia aculeata, for making papers and ropes.

 Common plants
Bauhinia purpurea

Bauhinia vahlii

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

Cassia fistula

Cassia occidentalis

Cassia tora

Haematoxylum campechianum

Parkinsonia aculeata

Saraca indica

Tamarindus indica

MYRTACEAE
 Myrtle family of shrubs and trees.
 About 150 genera and 3300 species, widely distributed in the tropics.
 They have rather leathery evergreen leaves with oil glands.

 Diagnostic features

1. Vegetative parts, especially the leaves, are aromatic due to lysigenously formed oil cavities.
2. Leaves are simple, opposite, exstipulate, recticulate, evergreen and aromatic.
3. Inflorescence is solitary racemose, cymose clusters or panicle.
4. Flowers are regular, bisexual or unisexual, perigynous or epigynous and pentamerous disc
below the calyx tube.
5. Epicalyx is rarely present.
6. Thalamus forms a deep cup which is adnate to the ovary.
7. Calyx is conspicuous, sepals are 4-5 and gamosepalous and polysepalous.
8. Petals are 4-5, free, orbicular, imbricate or united and they form a cap in the bud which
comes off as the stamens expand.
9. Stamens are numerous, bent in the bud condition and free or polyadelphous.
10. Ovary is 2-5, muticarpellary and syncarpous, with axile placentation and multilocular
ovules.
11. Fruit is a berry, capsule or drupe.

56
 12. Seeds are non- endospermic.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters.
1. Habit- Mostly shrubs and trees; rarely herbs and climbers also.
2. Root-Tap root.
Stem- Erect, branched.
Leaves- Simple, exstipulate, alternate or opposite, coriaceous and pinnately reticulate. Leaf
shape varies, even in a single genus also. Margin entire with a prominent intramarginal
vein.
3. Inflorescence-Axillary and solitary cyme (Guava, Myrtus) or generally in short cymes
(Rhodomyrtus), rarely racemose (Eucalyptus), or much branched cyme (Eugenia
jambolana).
4. Flowers-Bracteate, bracteolate or ebracteolate, actinomorphic, bisexual, and usually
epigynous, but may be rarely perigynous when ovary is free from the receptacle.
5. Calyx- 4 or 5 free sepals and aestivation is quincuncial. Sepals are valvate and connate in
the bud (Guava) and they may separate when the flower opens. Calyx is adnate to the ovary
and closed in the bud condition.
6. Corolla- 4-5 petals, free, imbricate and inserted on the top of the deep cuplike receptacle.
Petals are orbicular form a cap in the bud condition and they fall off as a calyptra due to the
pressure of the growing stamens. Petals alternate with sepals.
7. Androecium- Stamens are numerous, free and arranged on the rim of the receptacle in
several whorls. They occur rarely in bundles. Filaments bent inwards in the bud condition.
Anthers are dithecous, versatile, introrse and are gland tipped, and they dehisce by
longitudinal slits.
8. Gynoecium-Tertra or pentacarpellary and syncarpous. Style is terminal and simple. Stigma
capitate. Ovary inferior or half inferior in Callistemon. Ovary has many chambers as are the
carpels. There is 1-many anatropous ovules, arranged in a horizontal or pendant manner on
axile placentae. Unilocular ovary with parietal placentation (Rhodamnia)
9. Fruit- Berry (Guava, Gooseberry), or loculicidal capsule (Eucalyptus) and rarely drupe or
nut (Darwinia). Pollination entomophillous. Seed non-endospermic. In some species of
Eucalyptus with winged seeds.
 Economic importance.
Edible fruits from Syzygium jambolanum, Psidium guajava
Oil obtainted by the steam distillation of leaves and branches of Eucalyptus species.

 Common plants
Pimenta dioica (All spice)

Callistemon lanceolatus (Bottle brush)

Syzygium aromaticum (Clove)

Eucalyptus regnans

Psidium guajava

57
 Syzygium jambolanum

Eucalyptus citriodora

Syzygium malaccense

CUCURBITACEAE

 A large group of plants are commercially important with 130 genera and 800 species.
 Also known to be gourd family.
 Diagnostic characters
1. Large, weak, juicy herbs, climbing by means of tendrils.
2. Bicollateral vascular bundles in the stem.
3. Leaves are simple, cordate, alternate, exstipulate and alternate, palmately lobed, with coarse
hairs. Oil glands are absent. Leaves are provided with tendrils in extra- axillary position.
4. Flowers are usually regular, unisexual, monoecious. Female flowers are solitary, while male
flowers occur in racemes or corymbs.
5. Corolla 5, free or fused.
6. Stamens 5, mostly in 2+2+1 condition and normally synandrous. Anthers extrorse, sinuous.
7. Ovary is tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior and trilocular, with ovules on parietal
placentation. Styles are terminal and branched with trifid stigma.
8. Fruit is pepo.
9. Seed is non-endospermic.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters.
1. Habit- Mostly climbing or prostrate annual herb, rarely perennial herbs, shrubs and trees.
2. Root- Tap root.
Leaves-Simple, alternate, uaually palmately lobed, but show considerable variation in form;
plants climb up by means of simple and branched tendrils. Tendrils are sensitive to contact.
3. Inflorescence-Axillary and usually a solitary female flower and several male flowers in
various cymose types or racemes.
4. Flowers-Unisexual or rarely bisexual, actinomorphic and epigynous. Thalamus forms a cup
above the thalamus.
5. Calyx-5 sepals, free, valvate or imbricate aestivation, sepals are usually narrow.
6. Corolla- 5 petals, usually united, rarely free as in Luffa and Fevillea. Valvate or imbricate.
Petals are white or yellow.

58
 7. Male flower- Androecium with 5 stamens, alternating with petals. This group shows a
drastic change in the union of the stamens. In sicydium the stamens are paired, but show
union among the filaments at the base, anthers remaining free. In Citrullus filaments and
anthers are united, forming synandrous. In Sicyos the filaments are united and anthers are
curved. In Cyclanthera stamens are completely united to form a central column with two
rings of pollen containing chambers at the top. Anthers are monothecous, sinuous and
extrorse. In Sechium, one stamen bears monothecous anther and the others bear dithecous
anthers. Staminodes are seen in female flowers.
8. Female flower- Gynoecium is syncarpous with tricarpellary ovary. Ovary inferior, either
unilocular with parietal placentation, or trilocular with axile placentation. The number of
ovules varies varies from one to indefinite in each placenta. In Sechium ovary unilocular
with single seed. Single style ending in stigma.
9. Fruit- Pepo.

 Economic importance.
Vegetable: Benincasa hispida, Momordica charantia, Trichosanthes anguina, T. dioica,
Cephalandra indica, Luffa cylindrica, Cucumis pepo.
Fruit: Citrullus vulgaris.
 Common plants
Benincasa hispida (Ash gourd)

Cephalandra indica

Citrullus colocynthis

Citrullus colocynthis

Cucumis melo

Cucumis pepo.

Cucumis sativus

Cucurbita andreana

Cucurbita maxima

Lagenaria siceraria

Luffa cylindrica

Luffa echinata

Momordica charantia (Bitter gourd)

Mukia scabrella

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 Trichosanthes anguina

Trichosanthes dioica

ASTERACEAE

 Sunflower family comprises of 950 genera and 20,000species.

 Most plants are herbs and cosmopolitan distribution.
 Commonly known as sunflower family.
 Diagnostic characters
1. Most plants show herbaceous habit.
2. Flowers are aggregated together in dense heads surrounded by the involucral bract, which
make them very conspicuous and attractive.
3. Floral parts are completely whorled and typically pentamerous. Sepals gt reduced into
pappus.
4. Carpel is inferior.
5. Flower buds are well protected by involucral bract.
6. Corolla tube is short enough to enable the necter to be reached by insects.
7. Fruits are very light due to the presence of hairy pappus.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters.

1. Habit- Large number of plants are cultivated garden plants such as Helianthus annuus,
Chrysanthemum sp., Tagetes erecta, Calendula officinalis, Gaillardia sp., Lactuca sativa,
Centaurea cyanus, C. moschata etc are annual herbs. Vernonia and Catamixis are
undershrubs. Sonchus, Launaea, Ageratum are either annual or perennial herbs.
2. Root-Tap root.
Stem- Usually stem is slender and covered by different types of trichomes. Stem tubers are
produced in Helianthus tuberosus and Crepis bulbosa. Stem is leaf like in Baccharis.
Leaves- Radical or cauline, simple , opposite or alternate; succulent leaves in Notonia, scaly
in Haplophyllum, exstipulate, venation pinnately reticulate.
3. Inflorescence-Head or capitulum with distinct involucral cup formed of bracts. Capitulum
may be solitary (Tridax) or on profusely branched paniculate cyme (Blumea).
The marginal sterile or female flowers called ray floret and central bisexual flowers are disc
floret.

60
 Ray floret: Zygomorphic, pistilate or neutral, ligulate and epigynous. Each floret arise from
the axil of the bracteoles
Calyx-Usually represented by a ring of small teeth of numerous hairs or scales, called
pappus.
Corolla-Petals 5, gamopetalous, strap shaped or ligulate.
Gynoecium – Bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary with basal placentation.
Disc floret: Actinomorphic, bisexual, tubular and epigynous.
Calyx- Pappus.
Corolla-Petals 5, gamopetalous and tubular.
Androecium- Stamens 5, epipetalous, syngenecious.
Gynoecium – Bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary with basal placentation, style
simple and stigma bifid.
4. Fruit- Cypsela with persistent pappus. Seeds non-endospermic.

 Economic importance.
Seed oil extracted from Helianthus annuus.
Insecticide pyrethrin obtained from dried leaves of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, Wedelia
calendulacea used as hair tonic.
 Common plants
Tridax procumbens

Helianthus annuus

Vernonia abbreviata

Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium

Wedelia calendulacea

Tagetes erecta

Dahlia arborea

Haplopappus aberrans

RUBIACEAE

 Known as madder family

 About 450 genera and 6500 species.
 Most of the plants are distributed in tropics, some plants in temperate regions.
 Diagnostic characters
1. Leaves simple, opposite or whorled with inter-petiolar or intrapetiolar stipules.
2. Inflorescence usually in cyme or cymose panicles.
3. Flowers tetramerous or pentamerous, bisexual, regular and epigynous.

61
 4. Corolla tubular, rotate or funnel- shaped, lobes sometimes valvate.
5. Stamens 4-5, inserted on the corolla tube and alternating with the corolla lobes.
6. Carpels usually 2, syncarpous, inferior with 1 or many ovules on axile placentation.
7. Fruit a capsule or berry.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters.
1. Habit- Herbs, shrubs and trees. Geophila is a creeping herb, Rubia is climbing herb, Ixora,
Mussaenda, Pavetta are shrubs while Hedyotis, Dentella and Spermacoce are herbs.
Morinda, Neolamarckia are trees.
2. Root-Normal taproot, Myrmecophily seen in Myrmecodia.
Stem-Erect or twinning (Rubia) with or without spines. Rarely truly prickly in Canthium.
Leaves- Simple, oppositely decussate or whorled and stipulate. Leaves margin entire or
toothed with reticulate venation. Stipules may be interpetiolar (between petioles) or
intrapetiolar (between the petiole and axis). Sometimes stipules may united with the petiole
and forms a sheath like structure and round the stem (Mitracarpus) or they divided into
bristle like structure (Hedyotis).
3. Inflorescence-Varies according to genus. Dichasial cyme or panicled cyme. It may be
terminal (Mussaenda) or axiilary (Coffea arabica). In Neolamarckia cadamba it is a globose
head (condensed dichasial cyme).
4. Flowers- Mostly bisexual or rarely unisexual (Coprosma), epigynous, tetramerous or
pentamerous. Actinomorphic or rarely zygomorphic (Henriquezia). Pollination
entemophilous.
5. Calyx-Sepals 4-5, gamosepalous, valvate aestivation. In Mussaenda a petalloid sepal is
seen, to attract insects. In Rubia calyx may be inconspicuous or entirely absent. Or calyx
reduced in a ring in Morinda.
6. Corolla-Petals 4-5, gamopetalous. Petals united into a tubular funnel shaped structure. The
aestivation may be valvate (Hedyotis, Mussaenda), twisted (Ixora). Or corolla may be
bilabiate with imbricate aestivation as in Henriquezia.
7. Androecium- Stamens 4-5, as number of corolla lobes, epipetalous. Anthers dithecous and
introrse and they dehisces longitudinally.
8. Gynoecium- Usually bicarpellary, syncarpous with inferior ovary. But sometimes it may be
2 or more carpels. Ovules are one to many on axile placentation. Style single with bifid
stigma.
9. Fruit-Berry in Coffea, Mussaenda and Ixora, capsule in Hedyotis and Mitracarpus, and
multiple fruit in Morinda. In Galium the fruit separate into one seeded segments that are
indehiscent.
 Economic importance.
Coffee powder from Coffea arabica.
Quinine is an alkaloid produced from Cinchona officinalis- remedy for malaria.
Ornamentals- different species of Ixora, Mussaenda, Hamelia, Pentas, Rondeletia,
Neolamarckia are used as garden plants.
Many plants of this family used for making furniture, sticks, agricultural implements and
building materials.
 Common plants
Chassalia curviflora

62
 Coffea arabica

Hamelia patens

Hedyotis auricularia

Hedyotis corymbosa

Hedyotis herbacea

Ixora acuminata

Ixora coccinea

Ixora javanica

Mitracarpus villosus

Mussaenda frondosa

Neolamarckia cadamba

Ophiorrhiza prostrata

Pavetta indica

Spermacoce mauritiana

APOCYNACEAE
 About 400 genera and about 4,555 species of trees, shrubs, woody vines, and herbs.
 Members of the family are distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical areas of the world.
 Plant parts produce milky latex.
 Diagnostic characters
1. Plants usually with milky latex.
2. Leaves simple, opposite and mostly exstipulate.
3. Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic and hypogynous.
4. Presence of coronary outgrowth on corolla.
5. Sagittate anthers.
6. Bicarpellary, apocarpous or syncarpous stigma.
7. Dumb-bell shaped stigma.
8. Fruit is follicle.
9. Seeds with crown of long silky hairs.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters.
1. Habit- Herbs, shrubs and trees. Herb- Vinca rosea, shrub-Tabernaemontana, Nerium,
woody climbers like Allamanda and large and medium sized tree like Alstonia scholaris.
2. Root-Taproot.
Stem- Erect and woody.

63
 Leaves-Simple, mostly oppositely decussate. Sometimes they may be alternate or even
whorled. Most plants are exstipulate with entire margins.
3. Inflorescence-Terminal or axillary cyme. Flowers are solitary or in axillary pairs in Vinca.
In Allamanda the flowers arranged in axillary paniculate cymes. In Carissa , corymbose
cyme; in Plumeria terminal cymes are present. In Rauvolfia , in corymbose or umbellate
cymes and Alstonia with branched panicle.
4. Flowers- Bracteate, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous and pentamerous.
5. Calyx- Sepals 5, free or united, imbricate aestivation.
6. Corolla- Petals 5, united. Shape may vary with different genus. Bell shaped in Allamanda,
hypocrateriform in Vinca and funnel shaped in Nerium. Coronary outgrowths are often
present on the corolla tube or at its mouth. Aestivation is twisted.
7. Androecium-Stamens 5, epipetalous, often inserted at the throat of the corolla tube. Anthers
are usually connivent around the stigma. Anthers are two lobed, linear and sagittate.
8. Gynoecium- Gynoecium is bicarpellary, superior and seated on a honey secreting disc. It is
partially inferior in Plumeria. It is either apocarpous or syncarpous with a common style and
stigma. In Plumeria and Carissa, the syncarpous ovary with axile placentation or unilocular
with parietal placentation in Allamanda. In apocarpous, each carpel is single celled with
many ovules on marginal placentation as in Vinca. Most of the plants with single style;
stigma is either hour- glass shaped or dumb-bell shaped.
9. Fruit-Drupe (Rauvolfia), berry (Carissa) and pair of follicle (Vinca).
 Economic importance.
Fruit- Raw and ripe fruit of Carissa carandas.
Ornamental- Allamanda cathartica, Vinca rosea, Nerium odorum, Plumeria rubra,
Cascabela thevetia.
Timber-Wood of Alstonia scholaris is light and used for carvings, make tea boxes and
black boards.

 Common plants
Allamanda cathartica

Alstonia scholaris (Ezhilam pala)

Carissa carandas (cheri)

Cascabela thevetia

Ichnocarpus frutescens ( Palvalli)

Nerium indicum( Arali)

Nerium odorum

Plumeria rubra

Rauvolfia serpantina (Sarpaghandi)

64
 Tabernaemontana alternifolia

Vinca rosea (Nithyakalyani)

ASCLEPIADACEAE
 Presence of laticiferous tissue containing milky latex.
 About 320 genera and 2000 species. Distributed in tropical regions of the World.
 Important characters
1. Plants are mostly woody or herbaceous; generally mesophytes while some are
xerophytes.
2. Latex present in leaves and stem.
3. Leaves are simple, opposite, decussate, exstipulate or stipules are minute, leaves
sometimes modified into pitcher or reduced in to scales.
4. Inflorescence extra axillary umbellate cyme of several flowers.
5. Flowers are actinomorphic, pentamerous, bisexual, complete and hypogynous.
Zygomorphic in Ceropegia.
6. Corolla rotate or companulate, valvate or twisted; 5 lobed or 5 parted calyx and corolla:
sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial.
7. Stamens 5, epipetalous, united with the stigma forming gynostegium: pollinia and
translators invariably present.
8. Stamina corona (Calotropis) or coralline corona (Cryptostegia) is present.
9. I –shaped translators are present; each translators carries 2 waxy pollinial masses.
10. Carpels are with separate ovaries; styles joined together towards the tip ending in a large
stigma of variable shape.
11. Gynoecium bicarpellary, apocarpous, each carpel has several ovules along the ventral
suture; marginal placentation; stigma is 5 angled disc, united with the anthers to form
gynostegium.
12. Fruit is a pair of follicle; seeds are with comose hairs and endospermic.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters

1. Habit – Mostly mesophytes. Some xerophytes like Caralluma, Stepalia etc with thick
succulent stems and leaves are reduced into spines. Species of Dischidia are epiphytes and
the adventitious roots help in climbing. Calotropis is a large erect shrub. Leaves are
pitcher like in D. rafflesiana, Cryptostegia grandiflora is a stout climbing stout shrub.

65
 Oxystelma, Hemidesmus, Leptadenia are twinning herbs. In Ceropegia like herbs the
perrenate by means of a fascicles of thick fleshy roots.
2. Leaves- Simple, short petioled, opposite and decussate, rarely alternate or whorled; broad
(Calotropis); narrow (Oxystelma) and reduced (Caralluma). Stipules are entirely absent or
very minute. Leaves are succulent in Hoya. In Dischidia, leaves modified into pitcher.
3. Inflorescence – Extra axillary, short or long peduncled umbellate cyme, basically dichasial
but ending in monochasial cymes.
4. Flower- Complete, bisexual, actinomporphic and hypogynous, rarely zygomorphic
(Ceropegia).
5. Calyx- Sepals 5, free, imbricate aestivation.
6. Corolla- Petals 5, gamopetalous, tubular, hairy outgrowth either inside or at the mouth
forming corona known as coralline corona (Cryptostegia).
7. Androecium- 5 stamens, which are united in a hollow, horn like appendages known as the
staminal corona. Epipetalous, anthers are united to the margins of the pentangular stigma
forming a gynostegium. Pollen cohering into 2 pollen masses (sac-like structure) known as
pollinia; one lying in each lateral anther lobe. The pollinia of 2 anther lobes are united by a
structure called a translator. The translator is made of 2 parts-
a. Corpusculum- gland like structure, attached to margins of the stigma.
b. Retinaculi- by means of which the pollinia of adjascent anther lobes are attached to
corpusculum.
8. Gynoecium- Bicarpellary, apocarpous. Ovaries remain separate from each other and
terminate above 2 distinct styles which unite to form a common style; styles end in a
dilated pentagular stigmatic head, with which are united the anthers of 5 epipetalous
stamens. The ovary is with marginal placentation.
9. Fruit- Paired follicle. Seeds are flat, compressed and covered with hairs.
 Family divided into two tribes based on the nature of pollen grains and shape of
translator.
1. Periplocoideae- Pollen grains in tetrad; translator spoon or funnel shaped. Eg.
Cryptostegia.
The pollen grain tetrad with a sticky disc at the top. As the pollen grains in the form of
pollen tetrads are matured, they are shed into the spoon or the funnel- shaped body with the
sticky disc projecting towards the outside. As the insect visit the flower, the pollen grains
get attached to the stigmatic surface.
2. Cynanchoideae- Pollen grains in pollinia, translator made up of corpusculum and retinaculi.

66
 At the time of pollination, insect sit on the stigmatic head to draw the honey, the legs gets
entangled into the slit or the space between the anthers. As it tries to release itself, the
corpusculum gets attached to its legs and with it the pollinia are drawn out of the anthers
and carried away by insects. As it visits another flower, the pollinia are transferred to the
stigmatic surface, and the pollination thus effected.
 Economic importance

Medicinal- Leaves of Tylophora asthmatica, powdered roots of Calotropis gigantea and C.

procera used as native medicine. Roots of Oxystelma secamone used to treat jaundice.
Roots of Hemidesmus indicus are highly aromatic and medicinal for rheumatism, scorpion
and snake bite. Asclepias curassavica roots are used as the remedy for piles and
gonorrhea.
Ornamentals- Asclepias and Ceropegia are cultivated as ornamentals.
Daemia extensa- stem yield a very strong fibred which is substitute for flax.

 Common plants
Asclepias curassavica
Calotropis procera
Calotropis gigantea
Ceropegia aberrans
Cryptostegia grandiflora
Daemia extensa
Hemidesmus indicus
Tylophora asthmatica

SOLANACEAE
 Commonly known as potato family
 Plants distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.
 About 102 genera and 2500 species are distributed worldwide.

67
 Diagnostic characters
1. Herbs, shrubs or small trees.
2. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, entire and pinnatified.
3. Inflorescence cyme or cymose panicle.
4. Flowers bisexual, regular, hypogynous, rarely zygomorphic.
5. Sepls 5, persistent, become enlarged in fruits.
6. Petals 5, gamopetalous, funnel shaped or bell shaped corolla, imbricate sometimes plicate
or convolute.
7. Stamens 5, alternate with thw corolla lobes, free, epipetalous, anther with apical porous or
longitudinal dehiscence.
8. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, obliquely placed, ovary 2- chambered or more.
9. Stigma capitate or slightly bilobed.
10. Fruit many seeded berry; sometimes capsule.
11. Seeds albuminous, flat, compressed.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters
1. Habit – Annual or perennial herb, sometimes small shrub or trees. Climbing shrub like
Solanum trilobatum.
2. Root – Tap root, branched.
Stem- Herbaceous erect, branched, hairy or prickly, underground in potato forming tubers.
Leaves- Simple, alternate in vegetative region and opposite in the floral region, exstipulate.
3. Inflorescence- Usually terminal, sometimes axillary or extra-axillary cymose. In Nicotiana
it is panicle.
4. Flower – Bisexual, hypogynous, pentamerous with the reduction in two members in the
innermost whorl. Flowers are almost regular but for the oblique position of the ovary.
Hence it is obliquely zygomorphic. In Schizanthus, flowers are extremely zygomorphic
because of the presence of irregular bilobed corolla.
5. Corolla- petals 5, united, twisted. Corolla is rotate, infundibuliform (Datura) or
campanulate (Atropa). Usually regular but it is two lipped in Schizanthus.
6. Androecium- 5 free stamens, epipetalous and alternating with lobes of corolla. In
Schizanthus, only 2 stamens are fertile others reduced as staminodes. The filaments bear
large dithecous anthers which usually liberate pollen by apical pores (porus dehiscence). In
Datura dehiscence is longitudinal.
7. Gynoecium- Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary with terminal style ends in capitate
stigma. The arrangement of the carpels is peculiar. The posterior carpel is tilted towards the

68
 right and the anterior one is tilted to the other end and so the septum occupies an oblique
position, whereas normal condition, it occupies the horizontal position. So it described as
obliquely zygomorphic flower.
8. Fruit- Berry (Tomato) or capsule (Datura). Sepals may be inflated and persistent, helping
in dispersal (Physalis, Solanum). Seeds are flattend, endospermic.
 Economic importance
Vegetable- tubers of Solanum tuberosum, fruit of Lycopersicum esculentum and Solanum
melengena. Fruit of Physalis minima are edible. Fruits of Solanum nigrum, S. indicum and S.
xanthocarpum are eaten by natives.
Ornamentals- petunia, Cestrum nocturnum, C. diurnum are cultivated as garden plants.
Commercial- Nicotiana tabacum cultivated for the commercial tobacco. Tobacco leaf contains
nicotine. Stramonine is a poisonous alkaloid produced from Datura stramonium. Atropine
produced from the leaves and roots of Atropa belladonna.
 Common plants
Atropa belladona
Capsicum annum
Capsicum frutescens
Datura stramonium
Lycopersicum esculentum
Nicotiana tabacum
Petunia axillaris
Physalis minima
Solanum indicum
Solanum melengena
Solanum nigrum
Solanum torvum
Solanum tuberosum

ACANTHACEAE

 Commonly called Acanthus family.

 Most plants are distributed in warmer parts and subtropics of the world.

69
 Around 240 genera and 3000 species are distributed.

 Diagnostic characters
1. Mostly herbs or shrubs with usually cylindrical stem and swollen nodes, plant parts non-
aromatic.
2. Leaves are simple, opposite, decussate and exstipulate.
3. Inflorescence is spike with well- developed bracts and bracteoles, or dichasial cymes with
monochasial tendency.
4. Flowers are hypogynous, zygomorphic and often bilabiate.
5. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, unequal or reduced.
6. Petals 5, gamopetalous, bilabiate, 5- lobed, oblique.
7. Stamens 4, didynomous, hairy, epipetalous, alternipetalous, with spurred anthers, 5th
stamen is always suppressed.
8. Gynoecium bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, with 2 to many anatropus ovules in each
locules. Disc is present beneath the ovary. Style simple and terminal, in ovary ovules are in
axile placentation.
9. Fruit is loculicidal capsule.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters

1. Habit – In different habit like
Herb- Justicia, Andrographis
Undershrub- Strobilanthus, Adhathoda, Barleria.
Climber- Thunbergia, Mendonica.
Mangrove plants- Acanthus ilicifolius.
2. Root- Tap root, tuberous in Ruellia.
Stem- Erect, nodes are swollen and internodes elongated.
Leaves- Simple, oppositely decussate, rarely whorled, anisophyllous in Strobilanthus
anisophyllus, exstipulate, leaves are entire.
3. Inflorescence- Axillary or terminal. Flowers are densely crowded at the base of the plant in
Lepidagathis; Panicle in Andrographis; spike in Rungia and cyme in Ruellia. Bracteoles
sometimes encloses the flower.
4. Flower- Small, bracteate, bracteolate, complete, bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic and
pentamerous with reduction in the number of stamens and carpels. Bracts and bracteoles
are conspicuously large and colured (Thunbergia).

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 5. Calyx- Sepals 4 or 5, free, irregular in size. Reduced as ring like structure in Thunbergia.
Valvate or imbricate aestivation.
6. Corolla- Petals 5, gamopetalous, and personate or bilabiate (upper lip 2+ lower lips 3).
Aestivation is valvate or imbricate.
7. Androecium- Stamens 4, didynomous, epipetalous, posterior 5 stamen suppressed or
represented by a staminode in Barleria cristata. Anthers are dithecous, basifixed, introses
and spurred or beareded. Anther lobes may be equal or unequal, separated by a connective.
8. Gynoecium- Bicarpellary, syncarpous. Terminal style and stigma with elongated superior
ovary.
9. Fruit- Loculicidal capsule, rarely drupe in Mendonica. Capsule splits into two valves
carrying 2 to 10 seeds, arranged in a double row. Seeds non-endospermpus, with ejaculator
mechanism of dispersal.
 Economic importance
Ornamentals- All species of Barleria used as ornamentals. Thunbergia alata, T. coccinea, T.
fragrans and T. grandiflora, Crosandra infundibuliformis, Pachystachis coccinea and
Ruellia prostrata.
Medicinal- Adhathoda vasica, leaf powder for rheumatism, skin troubles and chronic
bronchitis. Leaf juice for diarrhoea. Leaves and roots of Barleria used for haemoptysis and
menorrhagia. Andrographis paniculata used for fever, dysentery, cholera, diabetes, itches
and piles.A. echioides for fever. Asystasia gangetica for rheumatism and swellings. Some
species of Justicia also a medicinaly important plant.

 Common plants
Adhathoda vasica (Malabar nut plant or adalodakam)
Andrographis paniculata (kiriyaatha)
Asystasia gangetica
Barleria cristata
Crosandra infundibuliformis
Crosandra infundibuliformis ( Kanakambaram)
Justicia procumbens
Pachystachis coccinea
Ruellia prostrata
Ruellia suffrutticosa
Thunbergia alata

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 Thunbergia coccinea
Thunbergia fragrans
Thunbergia grandiflora

LAMIACEAE
 Commonly known as mint family.
 Most of the plants are highly aromatic and pubescent.
 About 200 genera and 3200 species are distributed in tropical and temperate regions of the
World. Wild species occur in hills.

 Diagnostic characters
1. Aromatic herbs or undershrubs
2. Stem quandrangular and plant parts are hairy.
3. Leaves are simple, opposite, decussate and exstipulate.
4. Inflorescence is verticillaster or thyrsus.
5. Flowers are bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic, often bilabiate.
6. Sepals 5, fused, bilabiate, persistent and tubular.
7. Petals 5, gamopetalous and bilabiate.
8. Stamens 4, didynomous, epipetalous.
9. Gynoecium is bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior and bilocular, but the ovary becomes
tetralocular by the formation of false septum. Ovary is often placed on a nectariferous disc.
Ovules are anatropous, with one ovule in each locule.
10. Style is gynobasic.
11. Fruit is schizocarpic carcerulus, breaking into 4 nutlets or achenes.
12. Seeds are non-endospermic.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters
1. Habit- Herbs, shrubs, undersrubs and tree.
Herb- Ocimum, Leucas, Lavandula, Pogostemon.
Undershrub- Salvia
Shrubs- Ocimum gratissimum
Tree-Leucosceptrum
2. Stem- Aerial, erect, quadrangular, aromatic and hairy.
Leaves- simple, opposite, decussate and sometimes whorled and exstipulate.

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 3. Inflorescence- Condenced verticillaster, located in the axils of opposite leaves ( Leucas).
Simple, three flowered cyme in Salvia. Thyrsus in Ocimum, spike in Anisochilus or
panicle in Hyptis.
4. Flowers- Bisexual, zygomorphic, hypogynous, bracteate and bracteolate. Slightly
zygomorphic in Mentha.
5. Calyx- sepals 5, valvate or imbricate aestivation.
6. Corolla- Petals 5, gamopetalous, irregular and bilabiate (2/3 or 4/1). Posterior petal forms
the upper lip which is concave (Salvia) or hood like (Leucas). Lower lip formed by 3
petals of which the middle one is larger. Corolla show 4/1 arrangement in Ocimum,
Plectranthus.
7. Androecium- Stamens 4, didynomous, epipetalous. The 5th posterior stamen is suppressed
or sometimes represented by a staminode. Stamens 2 in Salvia. In Coleus, monadelphous
condition is seen.
8. Gynoecium- Bicarpellary , syncarpous. Superior ovary, gynobasic style and stigma.
Ovules are seen in axile placentation.
9. Fruit- Single seeded schizocarp- breaking into 4 nutlets. Fruits are dispersed through wind.

 Pollination mechanism
In the flowers, the lower lip of corolla act as a landing place for insects. There are 2 stamens,
placed at the throat of the corolla. The inner ends of the connectives of stamens block the entry
of insects towards the nectar. While trying to gets towards the nectar, the insect pushes the
inner ends of the connectives. Since the connective can swing as a lever on the tip of the
filament, its long upper half, together with the fertile anther lobe, descends on the back of the
insect dusting it with pollen. In the next stage, the style of the ovary bends down, keeping the
stigmatic lobes open to receive foreign pollen from the body of the insect.
 Economic importance
Medicinal- Ocimum sanctum, different species of Leucas. Anisomeles malabarica leaf infusion
used for dyspepsia, teething troubles etc.
Camphor – Ocimum kilimandscharicum ( Karpura tulasi ) used to prepare camphor.
Lavender oil- extracted from Lavandula augustifolia. Rosemary oil extracted from Rosmarinus
officinalis and used in perfumes and soap.
Ornamentals- some species of Ocimum
Menthol obtained from Mentha piperita ( menthol is a derivative of peppermint).
Food- Mentha aruensis leaves are used as food additives.

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 Common plants
Anisomeles malabarica
Hyptis saveolens
Lavandula augustifolia
Leucas aspera
Leucas lavandulifolia
Mentha aruensis
Mentha piperita
Ocimum gratissimum
Ocimum kilimandscharicum ( Karpura tulasi)
Ocimum sanctum
Plectranthus sp.
Pogostemon
Rosmarinus officinalis
EUPHORBIACEAE
 One of the largest and genetically diverse plant families.
 Around 322 genera and 8910 species are primarly distributed in tropics.
 Commonly known as Spurge family. Many species contains milky latex.
 A characteristic inflorescence cyathium present in Euphorbia.
 Diagnostic characters
1. Presence of milky or watery latex.
2. Leaves simple or compound, usually alternate and stipulate.
3. Flowers unisexual and monochlamydeous.
4. Inflorescence of various types: raceme, cyme and cyathium.
5. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, trilocular superior ovary with axile placentation.
6. Fruit regma or berry.
7. Seeds are carunculate.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters
1. Habit – Herbs, shrubs and trees. Euphorbia hirta, E. heterophylla, Phyllanthus amarus are
herbs. Ricinus is shrub and Hevea , Macaranga are trees. Euphorbia tirucalli is xerophyte
with fleshy stem and small caduceus leaves. Excoecaria is mangrove and Tragia is a climber.
2. Root- Normal tap root. Tuberous root in Manihot esculenta.

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 Stem- Herbaceous or woody, erect or prostrate. Stem modified into cladodes or phylloclades
for photosynthesis in Euphorbia tirucalli.
Leaves-Simple, alternate and stipulate. Palmately lobed in Manihot, Jatropha, Ricinus etc.
leaves are oppositely arranged in Euphorbia hirta. The leaves are nearer to the inflorescence
are coloured in Euphorbia pulcherrima.
3. Inflorescence-Highly variable in family. Cymes (Jatropha), panicle ( Ricinus), axillary
clusters ( Phyllanthus), drooping catkin( Acalypha) and cyathium ( Euphorbia).
4. Flowers -Small, bracteates, unisexual, monoecious or dioecious, hypogynous,
monochlamydeous and actinomorphic or rarely slightly zygomorphic.
Male and female flowers of euphorbia are achlamydeous, while male flowers of Croton are
dichlamydeous.
5. Perianth- 5 sepalloid and much reduced tepals. In Jatropha and Croton, perianth
differentiated into calyx and corolla. While tepals are absent in Euphorbia with cyathium
inflorescence. Tepals are free and partially imbricate or valvate.
6. Male flower or androecium- Stamens vary from one to numerous, free or united into one
bundle (Phyllanthus) or into several bundles ( Ricinus). Anthrs 2- celled. Dehiscences
longitudinal, transverse or by apical pores. Intrastaminal disc and pistillode usually present.
7. Female flowers or gynoecium- tricarpellary, syncarpous, trilocular and superior ovary, with
one or two pendulous ovules on axile placenta. Style three, basally connate or distinct. Stigma
3 or 6, papillate or dissected into filiform segments.
8. Fruit- Schizocarpic capsule, drupe, berry. Regma in Hevea. Seeds carunculate.
 Economic importance

Biofuel- produced from seeds of Jatropha curcas.

Castor oil from seeds of Ricinus.

Vegetable- tubers of Manihot esculenta

Natural rubber – produced from milky latex of Hevea braziliensis.

Ornamental- Euphorbia pulcherrima, E. tirucalli, Codiaeum variegatum

Medicinal- Phyllanthus emblica (Triphala) is medicinally important plant, P. amarus.

 Common plants

Acalypha indica (Poochaval)

Euphorbia heterophylla

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 Euphorbia hirta

Euphorbia pulcherrima

Euphorbia tirucalli

Excoecaria agallocha

Hevea braziliensis (Rubber plant)

Jatropha curcas (Physic nut)

Macaranga pelatata

Manihot esculenta (Cassava Or Tapioca)

Phyllanthus amarus ( Keezharnelli)

Phyllanthus emblica (Nelli)

Ricinus communis (Castor bean)

LILIACEAE
 Commonly known as Lilly family.
 Cosmopolitan distribution. Primarily to temperate and subtropical regions.
 About 300 genera and 3700 species are present.

 Diagnostic features
1. Plants are herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers.
2. Leaves radical or cauline, exstipulate.
3. Inflorescence usually a spike.
4. Flowers hypogynous, trimerous and actinomorphic.
5. Perianth lobes are petalloid; 6 in number, 2 whorls of 3 each.
6. Stamens 6, free in 2 whorls, epipetalous.
7. Ovary single, stigma three lobed.
8. Fruit loculicidal or septicidal capsule.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters

1. Habit – Herbs with fibrous root persisting from season to season by means of rhizome, bulb,
corn and bulbils from leaf axils. Xerophytic Aloe with succulent leaves. Asparagus and Smilax
are climbing plants. Asparagus and Ruuscus with phylloclade.

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 2. Stem- Underground bulb or rhizome.
Leaves- Radical or cauline, alternate, fleshy (Dracaena) or reduced to scales (Asparagus),
usually with parallel venation ( not- veined in Smilax, Trillium).
3. Inflorescence- Terminal or axillary scape; solitary (Tulip), panicled raceme (Asphodelus),
cymose umbel (Allium, Smilax) and solitary, axillary in Gloriosa.
4. Flower- Pedicellate, bisexual, actinomorphic or zygomorphic, hypogynous, complete,
trimerous rarely 2 or tetramerous.
5. Perianth- Petalloid, polyphyllous or gamophyllous, 6 in number, 2 whorls of 3 each.
6. Androecium- Stamens 6, epiphyllous, arranged in 2 whorls or 3 each. In Ruscus only 3
stamens seen and they united to form a stamina column in the outerwhorl. Whereas in Paris
quadrifolia, 8 stamens two whorls. Anthers are dithecous with longitudinal dehiscence.
7. Gynoecium-Superior, tricarpellary and syncarpous. Trilocular with one or 2 ovules in each
locule on axile placentatation. Style is entire or divided into 3 branches ending in separate
stigmas.
8. Fruit- Loculicidal capsule or a berry (Asparagus). Seeds endospermous.
 Economic importance
Underground bulbs of Allium cepa (Onion), Allium sativum (Garlic).
Medicinal- Rhizome of Gloriosa superba. Aloni drug prepared from Aloe.
Ornamental- Tulipa, Asparagus, Lillies and Yucca.

 Common plants
Allium cepa (Onion)
Allium sativum (Garlic)
Aloe vera
Asparagus adscendens
Asparagus officinalis (Asparagus)
Asparagus racemosa
Dracaena
Gloriosa superba (Menthonni)
Smilax officinalis
Tulipa

POACEAE

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 One of the largest families of angiosperms.
 Commonly known as grass family. It consists of 10,000 species.
 Cosmopolitan distribution. They grow on all continents, in desert to fresh water and marine
habitats, and all but the highest elevations.
 The poaceae family is the world‟s single most important source of food.
 Grassess is occupied about 24 percent of the earth‟s vegetation.

 Diagnostic characters
1. Mostly annual herbs with fistular (hollow) stem.
2. Leaves distichous with sheathing bases and ligule.
3. Inflorescence unit is a spikelet.
4. Perianth is reduced to lodicules or even absent.
5. Anthers are versatile.
6. Stigma is feathery.
7. Fruit is caryopsis.

 Vegetative and reproductive characters

1. Habit- Mostly annual or perennial herbs. Woody and large size herb (Bambusa) is present.
2. Root- Fibrous and many plants possess rhizomes. The perennial grasses persist by means of
rhizome formed by the lower internodes of the stem.
Stem- Erect, prostrate or creeping. It is divided into nodes and internodes. Stem of grasses is
called a culm, which is usually fistular or hollow (Bambusa). Rarely solid as in Saccharum
officinale. Some plants produced by runners and suckers.
Leaves- Simple, alternate, exstipulate, distichous and ligulate. Leaves possess sheathing bases
and venation is parallel. Ligule is represented by hairs at the juncture of sheathing base and
lamina.
3. Inflorescence- Spikelet arranged in racemes, panicle or spike. Spikelet is the ultimate unit of the
inflorescence in grasses, which is arranged variously on the rachis. Spikelet may have only
bisexual flowers, or may have bisexual and male flowers or may have male and female flowers.
Each spikelet has a very short or minute axis called rachilla, on which bracts or glumes are
arranged in two vertical rows. The lowest 2 glumes are sterile and bear nothing in their axils.
The upper ones are fertile and each of them subtends a simple flower in its axil. This fertile
bract or glumes, which subtends the flower called lemma. The flower is enclosed by another
membraneous structure from above, the palea (considered as bracteole). The flower is enclosed

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 by the lemma from below and by the palea from above. Fertile glume (lemma) are closely
similar to the sterile glumes or differs from them in shape, size and texture. Each floret is
typically trimerous with great variation in the reduction of its parts.
4. Flower- Small, bracteates, bracteolate, sessile, bisexual (Oryza) or unisexual (Zea), hypogynous
and zygomorphic.
5. Perianth- perianth totally absent or represented by membranous scales called lodicules.
Lodicules are situated above and opposite the palea. 2 in Oryza, 3 in Bambusa, and absent in
Anthoxanthum.
6. Androecium- stamens 3, seen as outer whorl. In Oryza and Bambusa, there are 6 stamens
arranged in 2 whorls. Stamens are numerous in Pariana. Anthers are dithecous, versatile and
introrse, open by a longitudinal slit.
7. Gynoecium- monocarpellary or bicarpellary or tricarpellary, syncarpous and superior. But it is
always unilocular with a single ovule on basal placenta. Style usually 2, rarely 1 or 3
(Bambusa) or absent. Stigmas are 2 and feathery.
8. Fruit- caryopsis, nut in Dendrocalamus, berry in Bambusa, utricle in Eleusine.

 Economic importance
Grains are used as food – Oryza sativa, Zea mays, Triticum vulgare, Elusine coracana, Setaria
italica, Andropogon sorghum, Avena sativa, Hordeum vulgare.
Intoxicating drinks are obtainted on fermentation of certain grains like- Arrack from rice, Whisky
from rye and barley, rum from the molasses of sugarcane.
Sugar obtainted from- Saccharum officinale
Lemon grass oil from Cymbopogon citratus leaves.
For construction – Bambusa arundinacea stem is used.
Sand binder in sea shore made up of Spinifex squarrosus.
Many grasses are cultivated as ornamentals and for lawns.

 Common plants
Andropogon sorghum (Cholam)
Avena sativa (Oats)
Bambusa arundinacea (Bamboo)
Cymbopogon citratus (Lemon grass)
Elusine coracana (Ragi)

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 Hordeum vulgare (Barley)
Oryza sativa (Rice)
Pennisetum polystachion
Saccharun officinale (Sugarcane)
Setaria italica (Thina)
Triticum vulgare (Wheat)
Zea mays (Maize)

MODULE 3

Taxonomic structure
 The taxonomic system in which different taxonomic groups are assigned to specific categories,
based on the different levels of the diversity of organism, is known as taxonomic structure.
 Taxonomic hierarchy is the orderly arrangement of organisms in a graded series of progressively
higher and complex categories. Or it the arrangement of categories in an ascending scale, ranging
from the lowest to the highest category.
 The different levels in taxonomic hierarchy are called ranks.
 The different plant groups of a particular rank are called taxa or taxonomic groups. Taxonomic
group of the same rank thus belongs to the same category
 Features of taxonomic hierarchy
1. A plant may be a member of several taxonomic groups each of which is assigned to a
taxonomic category, but not a member of any specific taxonomic category. This means, a
particular plant species belongs to all the taxonomic groups, but does not belongs to any
particular category.
2. The character, shared by the members of a taxon of a lower category, constitutes the
characters of a taxon of a taxon of the next higher category.
3. The lower the rank of the taxon in the taxonomic hierarchy, the fewer would be its members
and the higher would be the number of common characters
 Significance of taxonomic hierarchy
1. Enables the grouping of organisms into different categories on the basis of their degree of
their diversity.
2. Helps the assignment of an appropriate category for a particular group of plants.

Nested box system

 In heirarchial taxonomic structure, species is the smallest and the lowest category. So it is the
basic unit of biological classification. A species is a group of genetically similar and potentially
inbreeding individuals, which share a common ancestry.

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  Several similar species for a large category, called genus. Several similar genera form a still
larger group, called family. Several similar families form an order, and so on.
 Every individual organism is a part of a series of progressively higher categories and each lower
category is a subordinate to and included under higher categories. This can be illustrated by
nested box system or box-within-box arrangement.

Major and minor categories

1. Major category
 Highest categories in the hierarchical system.
 It includes the division, sub-divisions, classes, order and families.
 The number of diverse types of plants in the major categories will be larger than in the minor
categories.
 Each major category will have its own common characters shared by its constituent minor
categories.
 The higher the major category, the lesser will be number of shared common characters.
 Each category may be divided into intermediate subordinate categories between itself and the
next lower rank. This is done by adding the prefix „sub‟ to the name of the higher categories.
 Major categories
Category ending with

Class - eae

Order -ales

Sub-order -nieae

Family -aceae

2. Minor categories
 Lower categories in the hierarchical system.
 It includes genera, species and variety.
 The number of taxa under each minor categories are lower than higher categories.
 Genus may be divided into sub-genera, which further divided into sections, sub-sections, series
and sub series, or a genus may include a homogenous group of plants of the category species.
 Any category below the rank of species in an infraspecific or sub-specific category. The
commonest infraspecific categories are sub-species, varieties and forms.

81
 Different opinion about the definition of the categories.

Species concept

 Species is the basic unit of biological classification and the fundamental category of taxonomic
hierarchy.
 Species are never static; they constantly undergo slow and steady changes, eventually leading to
their transformation to new species.
 Present day species can be considered as the transient stages or products of the continuous and
never ending process of organic evolution.
 Species is a dynamic group of genetically similar and actually or potentially interbreeding natural
populations, which share a common gene pool and a close common ancestry and are
reproductively isolated from other such groups.
 The members of a species can be freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring, but are
reproductively isolated from the members of all other species.
 Species are discrete genetically closed systems. So each species forms a gene pool which is
accessible only to its own members and is isolated from the gene pool of other species.
 In rare instances, members of closely related animals species do interbreed in captivity or
domestication and produce only sterile offspring. The product of infraspecific and intergeneric
breeding called hybrids. Eg. Mule, hinny, liger, zorse.
 The concepts of species fall under four main categories, namely
1. Typological or essentialistic species concept
 Also known as essentialism.
 This concept was proposed by Linnaeus and his followers.
 Species are static, immutable, eternal and ideal and also that individual organisms are
copies or representation of ideal types.
 Variation among the members of a species result from the imperfections in the
copying of the ideal types. So in typological concept , individual organisms have no
special significance, since they are only the copies of a basic types.
 Tis concept upholds the morphological species or morphospecies. They are
considered to be established only on the basis of morphological traits.
 It is now discarded.
2. Nominalistic species concept
 According to this concept, only individual do exist and species are man-made
abstractions.
 Nominalists believe that nature produces only individuals, and species are non-
existent.
 The concept was advocated by Occam and his followers in 18th century.
 Now it is discarded.
3. Biological or genetical species concept.

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  According to this concept, species are groups of interbreeding natural populations,
reproductively isolated from other such groups.
 According to it, species are absolute realities, typified by individuals, and are not
mere man-made abstractions.
 It contains essential aspects of both typological and nominalistic species concept.
 A biological species forms
1. Reproductive community
2. An ecological unit
3. Genetic unit
 A species may be regarded as a reproductive community since its members recognize
each other as potential mates for reproduction and propagation.
 So species regarded as an ecological unit since it forms a constituent of a biological
community and interacts with the other species of the community.
 Species forms a genetic unit in that it consists of a closed and protected gene pool,
which is prevented from genetic exchange with other species.
 Short comings of biological species concept.
i. The concept holds good only for sexually reproducing organisms.
ii. It does not take into account the evolutionary history of sexuality starting from
primitive ancestors to the present day forms. It is true that the present day
sexually reproducing organisms are linked to their totally different primitive
ancestors of the distant past through a continuous evolutionary chain of a
countless series of intermediate ancestors. Biological species concept does not
consider this evolutionary continuity.
4. Evolutionary or phylogenetic species concept
 Species is a monophyletic group of organisms with a parental pattern of an ancestry
and descent.
 Species is an evolutionary lineage, evolving separately from others and maintaining
its own evolutionary tendencies.

Genus concept

 Taxonomic category that consist of one or more species of monophyletic origin.

 It is separated from other genera by some distinctive features.
 some genera are definitely natural. Yet, they cannot be diagnosed unequivocally by a single
character. This is because every character, even though diagnostic for the majority of the species
of a genus, is modified or absent in one or more species of a genus.
 General features of a genus;
1. A genus should be phylogenetic unit. This means that the constituent species of a genus must
be monophyletic in origin, descended from a common ancestor. In modern taxonomy,
monophyly is established on the basis of cytogenetic and geographical evidences in relation
to morphology. It is very useful in deciding the line of demarcation between two genera.
2. A genus must be an ecological unit. This means that all the species of a genus should exhibit
similar adaptations for a particular mode of life. For examples, the genus Utricularia includes
nearly 250 species all of which are insectivores, and grow in N2 deficient soil.

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 3. A genus should have a distinctive niche or adaptive zone of its own.
4. A genus must be sufficiently different from other genera and could be separated from them
by distinct discontinuous varaitions.
5. An ideal genus is the one in which the constituent species show more similarities than
differences. Sometimes a genus may include only one species. Such a genus is called
monotypic genus.

Family concept

 Family is a taxonomic category which contains either a single genus or a group of monophyletic
genera and is separable from other families by distinct discontinuous features.
 Family has single genera called monotypic family eg. Illiaceae, Leitneriaceae etc.
 A family should be a phylogenetic unit so that its constituent genera must be of monophyletic
origin.
 Family should be an ecological unit and its genera should be similarly adapted for a particular
mode of life. For example, the members of orchidaceae are mostly epiphytic and show
mycorrhizal association with fungi. Similarly, members of Cactaceae are adapted for a xerophytic
mode of life.
 A family must be sufficiently different and separable from other families by discontinuous
variations.
 Families are definable and non-definable.
 Definable families possesses distinct and markedly different from each other. Such families
possess a large number of genera which are difficult to identify because of many common and
overlapping characters. So they have more similarities than differences. Eg. Asteraceae, Poaceae
 Non-definable families show overlapping character and not markedly distinct from each other.
Genera are less in number and are not easily identifiable.

Taxonomic character
 Biological character is an expressed quantitative or qualitative attribute in the form, structure,
functions and behaviour of organisms which can be measured, counted or evaluated.
 Character state is the pattern of expression of a character.
Character Character states
1. Leaf arrangement -alternate, opposite, whorled
2. Leaf venation -recticulate, parallel
3. Floral symmetry -regular, zygomorphic& asymmetric
 Characteristic is the condition in which a particular character state is exclusive to a specific taxon.
Eg. Head inflorescence- Family Asteraceae
Pappilionaceous corolla –family Leguminosae
 Analytic character-Character used in the analytical studies. They are of limited occurrence and
useful in plant identification so it is the diagnostic characters or key characters.
 Synthetic character- Character used in the synthetic studies. They are of wide occurrence and they
are useful in the placement of plants in higher taxa.

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 Analytical character of a particular group may turn to be the synthetic character of another group.
 Quantitative character-character can be measured or counted eg. Leaf size, length, number of
stamen and carpel etc.
 Qualitative character-character cannot be measured or counted, but can be assessed or evaluated.
Eg. Flower colour, leaf arrangement.
 Good character-characters are most reliable in taxonomy. They do not usually exhibit wide
variations and are highly correlated within the group.
 Bad character-those characters not much reliable in taxonomy. They exhibit wide variability and
high inconsistency.
 Characters are not universally good or bad. Some good character of a particular group may be the
bad characters of another group.
 Unit character-it is one of the two or more states of a character which cannot be subdivided. Used
in numerical taxonomy. Eg. Leaf length, seed number etc
 Multiple character-complex characters which can be broken down to unit characters. Eg. Leaf
arrangement.
 Correlation of characters- characters remain in close association and are transmitted together as a
single unit.
 Correlated characters have a significant bearing on our understanding of evolution and phylogeny
and also on the formulation of systems of classification.
 Morphological characters in taxonomy- the characters are easily observable. Extensively used in
the formulation of classification systems, diagnostic keys.
 Morphological characters are necessary for taxonomical studies. Due to the;
 Morphological characters are easily observable.
 For the analysis of morphological characters sophisticate laboratory systems and
advanced techniques are not necessary.
 The time and effort needed for collecting information from other areas of study, such as
phytochemistry, molecular biology etc. can be saved.
 Vegetative and reproductive characters- external morphological characters like vegetative and
reproductive characters are used for taxonomy as well as classification.
 Equal emphasis has to be given to the vegetative and reproductive character.
 Growth habit, phenological characters, underground organs, stem, leaves petiole, stipule etc. are
vegetative characters.
 Type and position of inflorescence, flower symmetry, position of ovary, the number and shape of
floral leaves in each whorl, etc.
 Types of fruit and seeds are also important diagnostic characters in plant classification. And fruit
morphology is constant within genus. But seed structure different for different species in a genus.
In several species both fruit character and seed characters may be constant.
 At normal taxonomic procedure macro-morphological characters are employed for identification
of taxa. Micro-morphological features like hairs, trichome, cell type etc. are often neglected. But
these micro charaters are employed as a supplementary measure.
 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) has been useful in the comparative studies of a large
number of micro-morphological features like studies on the spore and pollengrains, details of leaf
surface, stomatal architechture, fruit and seed surface.

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 Some micro-morphological characters are used for distinguishing genus and species in a family.
1. Various species of Cassia can be identified on the basis stomatal types and cell wall.
2. Unusual development of anther wall was noticed in Myosotis, member of Boraginaceae.
3. The stomatal types of each and every members of Commelinaceae is distinguishable.
4. Extra floral necteries of various species of the genus Polygonum and observed peculiar
features which help in the identification of species.
5. Glandular and non-glandular trichomes are present on the surface of anther lobes in Tecoma
stans of the family Bignoniaceae.
Modern trends in taxonomy

 Taxonomy was initially based on anatomical and morphological characters. Eg.,Linnaeus

systems of classification.
 Later on taxonomy adopted a synthetic approach based on the data and information provided by
other branches such as cytology, genetics, molecular biology and biochemistry also.
 After effect all biologist or taxonomist add different data gained from different field of biology
for systematics. Which cause for the emergence of different branches of taxonomy like,
1. Chemotaxonomy
2. Cytotaxonomy
3. Numerical taxonomy
4. Molecular taxonomy

Chemotaxonomy
 Chemical information can be used for solving taxonomic problems simply known to be
chemotaxonomy.
 The presence or absence biomolecules or how much present in each taxa will used for the
identification of taxonomic group or taxa.
 It has been used since man first began to classify plants as edible and non-edible based on the
chemical differences.
 There are large variety of chemical compounds are found among plants.
 Here the taxonomic problems of genus and families can be solved.
 Biochemical can be classified broadly into
Micro-molecules and macromolecules

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 Biomolecules

Micro-molecules macromolecules

Primary metabolites secondary metabolites non-sementides sementides

Eg. Citic acids non-proteinoic aminoacids cellulose RNA,DNA
Phenolics Starch
Alkaloids
Glucosinolates
Terpenes

Micro-molecules-low molecular weight compounds, with a molecular weight of less than 1000.
1. Primary metabolites
 Biomolecules are present in most of the plant groups. So it has little taxonomic
importance than others.
 Biomolecules involved in the vital metabolism pathway. Eg., citric acid and aconitic
acids.
 Their quantitative variations may however, be the taxonomic significance sometimes.
Eg. Family Rosaceae is rich in Arginine
2. Secondary metabolites
 They are the byproduct of primary metabolism, have non-vital function.
 Earlier this biomolecules are considered as waste products. But recently it is realized
that these molecules have certain role in chemical defense mechanisms against
pathogen, allolepathic agents etc.
Eg., Morphine in Papaver.
a. Non-proteinoic amino acids
 A large number of amino acids not associated with proteins are known.
 Their distribution not universal but specific to certain groups.
 These non-proteinoic amino acids have taxonomic significance.
Eg.., Lathyrine present only in Lathyrus genus. Canavanine in Fabaceae.
b. Phenolics
 Single ring benzene with OH group in different portions. They are
widely distributed in plant kingdom.
Eg., Catechol, Hydroquinone, Pyrogallol
 Taxonomic significance
 Coumarin is a group of Phenolics found in Anthoxanthum
odoratum crushed leaves of this species have characteristic
smell due to this phenolic compound.
 Flavonoids-consists of 2 benzene ring joined by C3 open or closed
structure. Eg., Falvanols, Anthocyanidine, Malvadins.

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  Anthocyanin and Anthoxanthin ( together known to be Anthocyanidine)
are important pigment in the cell sap of petals providing red, blue and
yellow colors.
 Betalains- These pigments like anthocyanidine are absent in some
families and replaced by Betaxanthin or Betacyanin (Betalains).
 Betalains are mutually exclusive with anthocyanins, and concentrated in
the traditional group Centrospermae of Engler and Prantl‟s, now
recognized as Caryophyllales, of the 9 families contain betalains, 7 were
included in centrospermae, cactaceae placed in cactales and
didiceraceae in sapindales.
c. Alkaloids
 Basic nitrogen containing organic compounds, usually with a
heterocyclic ring.
 Alkaloids show significant effects on the central nervous systems of
animals.
 Alkaloids are well- known for their medicinal, chemical and poisonous
properties.
Eg., Quinine- Cinchona
Nicotine- Nicotiana
Ephedrine- Ephedra
Morphine- Papaver
 Families papavaraceae and fumariaceae are closely related. Their affinity
is supported by the occurrence of protopine in both.
 Family solanaceae and convolvulaceae are closely related and their
affinity supported by the occurrence of tropine in both.
 Nymphaceae and nelumbonaceae differs in that, former lack
benzylisoquinoline alkaloids.
d. Glucosinolates
 Group of about 85 thioglucosides which on hydrolysis form glucose and
a corresponding isothiocyanate.
 This biomolecules are called mustard oil glucosides because they are
confined to the taxa of the mustard family (Cruciferae) and some related
families of Capparales.
 Taxonomic significance
Originally, cruciferae, capparaceae and fumariaceae were placed in order
Rhoedales. Later the chemical evidences show that placement of
capparceae and cruciferae in the order Capparales contain glucosinolates.
And fumariaceae and papavaraceae in the order papavarales lacks
glucosinolates.
e. Terpenes
 It‟s a large group of chemical compound derived from mevalonic acid
precursors.
 Most of them are polymerized.
 They are isoprene derivatives.

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 Eg., Camphor- Cinnamomum
Menthol- Mentha
Carotenoids
 Terpenoids is atype of terpene.
 Presence of sesqueterpene lactone in compositae and tribe Genisteae of is
used to recognize different tribes.

Macromolecules --high molecular weight compounds, with a molecular weight of higher than 1000.

1. Sementides
Biomolecules that involved in information transfer. Eg., DNA, RNA and proteins
2. Non-sementides
Biomolecules that not-involved in information transfer. Eg., Cellulose and Starch.
Cytotaxonomy
 Cytology has made an outstanding contribution to taxonomy during the last few decades, in the
elucidation of many taxonomic problems.
 Cytology which includes the study of the cell, or more appropriately karyology, the study of
chromosome has made a significant contribution in taxonomy.
 Cytotaxonomy is the utilization of the cytological characters in the elucidation of taxonomic
problems.
 The chromosome characteristics used in most cytotaxonomic studies include:
1. Chromosome number
2. Chromosome size
3. Chromosome morphology
4. Chromosome behavior at meiosis

1. Chromosome number
 All individuals of angiosperms within a species possess the same chromosome
number.
 Thus the haploid number varies between n=2 ( Haplopappus) and n=132( Poa).
 The majority of them show arrange between n=7 and n=12.
 Variation or constancy in the chromosome number within the taxa of different
categories is an important character for taxonomic groupings.
 In Quercus and Pinus with n=12 chromosome number, this remain constant in all
species of these two taxa. So this constant chromosome numbers shows a
taxonomic significance for the identification.
2. Chromosome size
 Thus chromosome size also very useful in understanding relationship in several
taxa of angiosperms.
 In most of the plants, the length of a chromosome varies from 0.5 to 0.3µm.
 The chromosome size within a particular families shows significance taxonomic
importance.
 Among monocots, the members of Zingiberaceae possess small chromosomes,
the members of Iradiaceae have small to medium sized chromosomes, the

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 members of Amaryllidaceae have large sized chromasomes, and those of
Liliaceae have chromosomes of varying size.
3. Chromosome morphology
 Based on the morphology or their length and position of the centromere,
chromosomes are characterized as medium, sub-median, sub-terminal or
terminal.
 Based on the position of primary constriction (centromere) and secondary
constrictions chromosome are asymmetrical and symmetrical.
 Symmetrical chromosomes with two equal arms and median centromere.
Whereas asymmetrical with unequal arms and sub-terminal centromere.
 Thus the length of the arms of chromosomes, position of centromere and
presence of satellites shows some taxonomical significance also.
4. Chromosome behaviour at meiosis
 The fertility of a plant is highly dependent on the ability of meiotic chromosomes
to pair ( synapsis) and their subsequent separation.
 It also enables comparison between genomes to detect the degree of homology,
especially when they are result of hybridization.
 Degree of sterility and occurance of hybridization are determined by the
behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis.
 And greater degree of non-homology results in either failure of pairing or loose
pairing.

 Systematic values of cytotaxonomy

 Some cytological evidence show taxonomic significance in certain family, genus
and species. These inferences are added to the modern taxonomic studies for the
further analysis and identification of taxa.
A. Cytological variation at family level
 Cytological data provide a logical basis for the appropriate arrangement of
tribes and genera in some families, such as Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae and
Poaceae.
 In Ranunculaceae, all the genera n=7,8,9, and those genera differs from some
character placed under another family. Those genera with long chromosomes
and short chromossomes have been placed under Anemoneae and
Helleboreae.
 Two genera of Helleboreae (Coptis and Zanthorhiza) with very small
chromosome and n=9 have been placed under an additional tribe Coptideae.
 Based on the number and size of chromosome family Poaceae divided into
different subdivisions.
 Based on the cytological inference Yucca and Agave possess 5 long and 25
short chromosomes, so it replaced from Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae into
single family Agavaceae.
 Delimitations of the tribes in Asteraceae have been done on the basis of
chromosome numbers.

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 B. Cytological variation at generic level
 There several examples for generic level identifications.
 The genus Cistus (family- Cistaceae) was formerly included under
Helianthemum. However, is n=8 and Helianthemum with n=9. So this evidence
replaces this Cistus into separate genus.

C. Cytological variation at specific and intra-specific levels

 All species of the genus Tephrosia are with 2n=22, except T. constricta in
which 2n=16, so. T. constricta is treated as distinct genus from others named
as Sphinctospermum constricta.
 Karyotype analysis of Aegilops sitopsis, suggests that it should be shifted to
Triticum and Aegilops, or it should be given the rank of separate genus.
 Cytological studies have recognized 2 races in Veronica prostrata of the
family Scrphulariaceae. It has been suggested that they should be treated as
two sub-species namely prostrata (n=8) and scheereri (n=16).

NUMERICAL TAXONOMY
 It is also called Taximetrics or phonetics
 It is a new methodology in classification proposed by Michael Adanson in families des plantes in
1763.
 He is known as the father of numerical taxonomy who first proposed this idea.
 The method involves thye use of great range of characters with equal weightage to every
character ( apriori weightage).
 Numerical taxonomy does not produce new data and is not a new system of classification.
 It is a method of organizing data on the basis of similarity for the purpose of obtaining
classification.
 The supporters of phonetics stress the importance of using more number of characters, at least 60,
but preferably so or more, that can be correlated on the basis of similarity.
 In 1957, Sneath and Sokal published the revised version of principles of numerical taxonomy.
 7 principles of numerical taxonomy
1. A classification based on more number of characters carry great content of information and
has more predictive value.
2. A priori weighting; every character is of equal weightage in creating natural taxa.
3. Overall similarity between 2 entities is a function of their individual similarities in each of
many characters in which they are being compared.
4. Correlation of characters differs in distinct group of organisms or taxa and the same can be
used to recognize various taxa.
5. Phylogenetic interference can be made from taxonomic structure and character correlation,
which give indications about evolutionary pathways and mechanisms.
6. Taxonomy is viewed and practiced as an empirical science.
7. Classification is based on phonetic similarity.
 Most of these principles except 5 are similar to the ideas conceived by Adanson and are therefore
called Neo adansonian Principles.

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  In numerical taxonomy wise classification. The referring taxa by specific or generic name are
avoided.
 Instead these grouping are replaced with OUT‟s (operational taxonomic unit), the term given to
represent lowest ranking taxon studied in the investigation. In this character states of each
selected character has to be determined for each OUT‟s.
 The data obtained from the character analysis were used to study the total similarity of taxon.
 A data matrix is then prepared and the data are codified for computer processing.
 There are several steps in numerical taxonomy. First step of numerical taxonomy is the selection
of unit characters. Unit character may be defined as a taxonomic character of two or more
character states, which cannot be sub divided logically.
 In numerical taxonomy, the data coded in numerical form can be integrated with existing
electronic data processing systems in taxonomic institutions and can be used for the creation of
descriptions, keys, catalogues, maps and other documents.
 This is a quantitative methods, can give better systems of classification and keys that can be
obtained by conventional methods.
 Numerical taxonomy helps the re-interpretation of a number of biological concepts, posing new
biological and evolutionary questions.

MOLECULAR TAXONOMY

 Recently emerged branch of taxonomy.

 Based on molecular similarity between organisms.
 The core concepts of molecular taxonomy.
 At molecular level, members of the same species may be identical, members of closely
related species may be less similar, members of distantly related species may be less
similar, and members of unrelated species may be totally different.
 The amino acid sequence of protein and the nucleotide sequence of the genes which
govern the synthesis of these protein may be the same or very much similar in closely
related organisms, and different in unrelated organisms.
 Molecular taxonomy utilizes data from nuclear DNA, chloroplast DNA or mitochondrial DNA to
elucidate phylogenetic relationship between plants.
 Phylogeny is the course of evolution of a taxonomic group from a simple to a complex and
advanced state of organization.
 Phylogenetic evolution or cladogenesis or branching evolution , involves the evolutionary
changes that cause the splitting and divergence of an ancestral lineage into two or more lineages.
And the schematic, branching tree like diagram which represents phylogenetic evolution is called
cladogram or phylogenetic tree.

MODULE 4

: Plant Nomenclature

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 Biological nomenclature is the scientific system of naming the taxonomic groups or taxa that are
recognized in classification or it is the formal naming of taxa in a scheme of classification.
 Significance of plant nomenclature
 It provides a universally acceptable name for each species and thereby avoids the
confusions, problems and difficulties caused by the vernacular or local names of
organisms.
 Biological nomenclature follows some internationally accepted criteria, principles and Codes of
law, the scientific name of a species, or that of higher taxon, would be same all over the world.
 The rules of nomenclature are not directly based on phylogenetic considerations or the principles
of classification.
 Linnaeus denoted the plant nomenclature in his treatises like Fundamenta Botanica(1736) and
Critica Botanica (1737). In Philosophica Botanica (1751) he elaborated his view and thereby
formulated a sound and valid system of plant nomenclature, called binomial system, for naming,
ordering and ranking plants.
 A binomial system or two part names, is unique to each species. Each taxon has a genus and
species name. So according to Linnanean principles, no two genera can have the same generic
name, and no two species can have the same specific epithet. If a genus is divided into two or
more genera, the original generic name would be given to any one of them.
 The binomial system was consistently used by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum. He
employed it for avoiding the assignment of different names for the same species or assignment of
the same name to different species.
 Augustin de Candolle (1813) published Theories Elementaire dela Botanique, with instruction
on various nomenclatural procedures.
 Steudel (1821) published Nomenclator Botanique, indexing the names of flowering plants with
their synonyms.

Systems of nomenclature
 Four different biological system of nomenclature has been derived.
1. Uninomial nomenclature
 This system gives one word names for designating taxa that are above the rank of a
species.
 There are different standard endings for different taxa in uninomial nomenclature.
 Eg. In Fungi
Division -mycota
Subdivision -mycotina
Class - mycetes
Sub-class -mycetidae
Order -ales
Family -aceae
2. Binomial nomenclature
 Naming of species by giving two- part names (binomial).

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  Name of a species is a binary combination of two different names. First name generic
name, it has an initial capital letter. The second name is the specific name or specific
epithet (a trivial name) and it has an initial small letter.
 Eg. Mangifera indica, Cocos nucifera.
 In binomial nomenclature, the specific name is followed by the name of the author, who
validly published the name. The authors name would be in abbreviated form.
 Binomial nomenclature was first formulated by Bauhin (1623). And applied by
Linnaeus in Species plantarum (1753).
 This system was internationally adopted in botany since 1753.
 Generic name
It is usually a singular noun.
A genus may be named in honor of a scientist or a renowned person. Eg. Linnaea is used
to in honor of Linnaeus.
Some names have a mythological origin. Eg. Nymphaea denotes the lovely water-
nymphs.
Some names denote some characteristic features of a the plant. Eg. Liniodendron or lily
tree is based on the shape of the flowers of the Tulip tree.
Some generic names are aboriginal in origin. i.e ., the names existed in the lands where
the plants were discovered, but later they were given latin names. Eg.,Betula is an old
Greek name for Birch.
 Specific name
It may be in honor of a person.
It may be derived from a special characteristic of the plant.
May derive from a geographical location where the plant grows.
It may originate from an old common name.
It may be named arbitrarily.
3. Trinomial nomenclature
 It is the system of naming infra-specific taxa, such as sub-species, by giving three-word
(trinomials).
 The first word represent the generic name, the second word represents the specific name,
and the third word represents the infra- specific or sub-specific name. Thus it is
extention of binominalism.
Eg. Crotalaria retusa var, indica. Nampy & Sibi
4. Polynomial nomenclature
 This is the system of designating a species by a many- word name (polynomial).
 It was prevalent before the middle of 18th century for naming for plant species.
 Polynomial system was found extremely difficult for remembering and indexing plant
names.
Eg. Sida cordifolia- Althea maderspanthana subrotundo folio molli
 Peculiarities or requirements of biological nomenclature
1. Stability
 It is the constancy of the names, free from frequent changes and substitutions in time
and space.

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  Frequent change of names would cause great deal of confusion with the result that the
usefulness or applicability of names as specific recognition symbols would get lost and
the very purpose of nomenclature would be defeated.
2. Uniqueness
 It is the extreme specificity of a scientific name in the sense that it is related only to a
specific taxon, and no other taxon can have it.
 Each taxon is known only by a specific name, and different taxa are never known by the
same name.
3. Universality
 It means that a particular species or any other taxon is known only by the same
scientific name all the world over. This implies that scientific names must be
universally acceptable.

INTERNATIONAL CODE OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE

 The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants (ICN), formerly called
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), and abbreviated as Code.
 Code is a set of rules and recommendations set forth for naming plants. Its former name was
changed at the international botanical congress, held in Melbourne (Australia) on 23 rd July, 2011
as a part of Melbourne Code, which replaced Vienna Code of 2005.
 The Code is approved by the international botanical congress (IBC) and published by the
international association of plant taxonomy (IAPT).
 The Code can be changed only by the IBC.
 At every congress, it would be subjected to revisions and amendments, involving additions,
deletions and modifications.
 The current Code has been adopted by the XVIII IBC, held in Melbourne in 2011.
 Each new edition of the Code supersedes the previous ones and is retroactive back to 1753. For
naming cultivars there is a separate Code, called International Code of Nomenclature for
Cultivate Plants. Its rules and recommendations supplement the ICN.
 History of ICN
 ICBN was first framed by Linnaeus. In 1737 he framed some elementary rules for
botanical nomenclature.
 In 1813, A.P.de Candolle set forth a detailed set of rules regarding plant
nomenclature.
 The first botanical congress held in Paris (1886), entrusted Alphonse de Candolle,
son of A.P. de Candolle.
 He convened an assembly of botanists from different countries and prepared a
provisional draft Code. It was accepted with necessary modifications by the next
congress, held in Paris (1867). It was called as Paris Code or Candollean Code.
 Important Codes adopted by IBC
Paris Code (1867), Vienna Code (1902), America Code (1907), Cambridge Code
(1935), Amsterdam Code (1947), Paris Code (1956), Vienna Code ( 2005) etc.
 A Code contain Division I. Principles (I-IV)

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 Division II. Rules and Recommendations (Art. 1-62)
Division III. Provisions for the Governance of the Code
Appendix I. Names of Hybrids
Glossary: Glossary of terms used in this Code
 Aims of ICN
 The Code aims at the provision of a stable method of naming taxonomic groups, avoiding
and rejecting the use of names that may cause error or ambiguity or throw science to
confusion. Botany requires a precise and simple system of nomenclature used by
botanists in all countries. The purpose of giving names to taxonomic groups is not to
indicate its character or history but to supply a means of referring to it, and to indicate its
taxonomic rank.
 The Code is utilized in two basic activities;
1. Naming of new taxa (which were previously unnamed and often not described).
2. Determining the correct name for previously named taxa (which may have been
divided, united, transferred or changed in rank).
 The detailed provisions of the Code are divided into rules, set out in articles and
recommendations- examples are added to illustrate them. The objectives of the rules are to put the
nomenclature of the past in order and to provide guidelines for the future.
 The recommendations of the ICN Code are aimed to bring uniformity and clarity especially in
future nomenclature.
 Principles of ICN (Melbourne Code, 2012)
1. Nomenclature of algae, fungi and plants is independent of zoological and bacteriological
nomenclature. The Code applies equally to names of taxonomic groups treated as algae,
fungi, or plants whether or not these groups were originally so treated.
2. The application names of taxonomic group are determined by means of nomenclatural types.
3. The nomenclature of taxonomic is based upon priority of publication.
4. Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position and rank can bear only one
correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the rules, except in specialized cases.
5. Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their derivation.
6. The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited.
 Rule of Priority. Why certain names are conserved against priority?
 The rule of priority though originally intended to bring nomenclatural stability, its strict
application has created a lot of instability in botanical nomenclature.
 The third principle of the ICBN is priority of publication. When a particular plant is
known by more than one botanical name, it can bear only one correct name- the earliest
legitimate one, validly published in accordance with the rules of nomenclature (except
conserved names).
Eg. Thus Adhathoda zeylanica medic, (1790) is the correct name for the plant commonly
known as Adhathoda vasica nees (1832). The rule of priority only applies to taxa of the
rank of family and below also do not apply outside a particular rank (with a transfer in
rank). Eg. Sida rhombifolia subsp. retusa (I.) Borss. (1966). When this subspecies is
elevated to the rank of a species it should be called Sida alnifolia I. (1753), not as Sida
retusa I. (1763)). The subspecific epithet has no priority as it is outside the rank of a

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 species. The principle of priority for vascular plants starts from 1 may 1753 with the
publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus.
 A scientific name that is well known and frequently used may have to be replaced for
some other name if the latter was discovered to have been published earlier. This lends a
degree of instability to Botanical Nomenclature. However, in such a case, a petition may
be presented and voted upon at the international Botanical Congress to conserve one
name over another that actually has priority.
 Such procedure is outlined as three amendments to the ICBN:
Nomina familiarum Conservanda
Nomina generica Conservanda et rejicienda and
Nomina specifica conservanda et rejicienda
 The rationale for conservation of names is to provide greater stability in Nomenclature by
permitting names that are well known and widely used to persist, even upon discovery of
an earlier, but more obscure name.
Eg. The generic name Naregamia Wight & Arn. (1834) is conserved against the earliest
name Nilanaregam Adans. (1763).
Such conservation puts an end to changes in generic names due to nomenclatural
conventions such as rule of priority but does not rule out changes due to taxonomic
reasons such as an amended circumscription.
 Type method or Typification
 When a species is described new to science, the author must indicate which is the
specimen on which the new species is based.
 In the case of species or names below the rank of a species (subspecies, variety etc.)
The type is an individual herbarium specimen on which the name of a new taxon is
based. If the specimen is too small or unpreservable, then all illustration, photograph,
permanent slide, pure culture may be the type.
 The type specimens or types are among the most valuable possessions in any herbarium.
A deal of care is taken to preserve the type specimens. They are the records for the future
and they alone can solve taxonomic riddles. A name of taxon is valid only if the
nomenclatural type is indicated.
 It is not enough to mention in the original description (protologue) that the specimen was
collected by Robert Wight from Sispara in Silent Valley on 15/01/1825, and that the
specimens is deposited at Central National Herbarium, Culcutta. It should categorically
state the type is Wight 1864.2.
 If the type is not indicated, publication of the new taxon, even if it meets other
requirements of the Code, is not valid. The type of a genus is a species; that of a family is
a genus. Eg. The type of the order Malvales is Malvaceae; the type of the family
Malvaceae is a genus Malva L.; the type species of the genus is Malva sylvestris L.; the
type of the species Malva sylvestris is an herbarium specimen, LINN 870.22 in the
Linnanean herbarium, London. Thus nomenclaturally, the name of a taxon is permanently
attached to its type.
 The type does not need to represent the average or most typical representative of a
population.
 There are different types of types.

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 1. Holotype
It is one specimen or illustration used by the author, or designated by the author as
the nomenclatural types.
2. Isotype
An isotype is any duplicate of the holotype and is always a specimen. If the holotype
is an illustration there cannot be any isotypes.
3. Syntype
It is always a specimen. It is any specimens cited in the protologue when there is no
holotype, or any one of two or more specimens simultaneously designated as types.
4. Paratype
A paratype is any specimen cited in the protologue that is neither the holotype nor an
isotype, nor one of the syntypes if in the protologue two or more specimens are
simultaneously designated as types.
5. Lectotype
It is a specimen or illustration designated from the original material as the
nomenclatural type if no holotype was indicated at the time of publication, or if the
holotype is missing, or if the type is found to belong to more than one taxon.
6. Neotype
It is a specimen or illustration selected to serve as a nomenclatural type if no original
material is extant, or as long as it is missing.
7. Epitype
An epitype is a specimen or illustration selected to serve as an interpretive type when
the holotype, lectotype or previously designated neotype or all original material
associated with a validly published name, is demonstrably ambiguous and cannot be
critically identified for purposes of the precise application of the name to a taxon.
The epitype concept was new to the Code in the Tokyo Code.
 Original Material: original material is defined by the Code as the holotype, isotypes,
syntypes, isosyntypes, and paratypes of a name, as well as any other specimens and
illustration upon which it can be shown that the description or diagnosis validating the
name was based.
 Effective publication (Article 29-31)
 Publication is effective only when the printed matter is distributed to the general public,
or at least to the botanical institutions with libraries that are accessible to botanists.
 Any mode of publication like announcement of names at public meeting, displaying of
new names in collections or gardens, distribution of typescripts and microfilms, etc. will
not be considered as effective publication.
 Publication of a new name on or after 1st January, 1953 of in trade‟smen catalogue or in
non-scientific newspapers, even if accompanied by a Latin diagnosis, will not constitute
effective publication.
 The date of effective publication of a journal is the date on which the printed matter
becomes available.
 Valid publication
 A name published as per the provisions of the Code (Articles 32-45) are considered as
valid publication.

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  The following condition are to be followed for valid publication:
1. The name of the taxon must be effectively published (all conditions for effective
publication should be fulfilled)
2. A name of a new taxon published on or after 1.1.2012 must be accompanied by a
description or diagnosis or by a previously and effectively published description or
diagnosis of the taxon.
3. For all new combinations published on or after 1.1.1953, basionym should be clearly
indicated with full and direct reference to the author and protologue.
4. The rank must be indicated (gen. nov., spec. nov., var. nov., etc.) in all new taxa, and
new combinations (comb. Nov; nom. Nov., stat. nov.)
5. Publication of the name of a new taxon of the rank of a family or below on or after
1.1.1958 is valid only when nomenclatural type is indicated. For the name of a new
taxon of the rank of the genus or below published on or after 1st Jan 1990, indication
of the type must include one of the words “typus” or “holotypus” or its abbreviation.
The institution where the type specimen is permanently conserved also should be
indicated.
 Author citation
 The name of a plant to be accurate and complete, it should be followed by the name of
the publishing author. This enables one to trace the original description and to ascertain
its type and date of publication.
 There are several rules for author citation as follows;
1. Usually, the names are cited in abbreviated forms but never underlined or printed in
italics. Eg., Vitex Linn; V. trifolia Linn, etc.
2. These citations can indicate bibliographic references, which are especially helpful in
the recognition of homonyms. For example, Utricularia caerulea Linn. And
Utricularia caerulea Clarice, are two names referring to two different taxa. But it
would have been impossible for us to recognize this, if the citation of author‟s names
appended to the respective plant names were not given.
3. If the name of the plant is jointly published by two authors, their names should be
linked by means of an ampersand e.g. Nampy & Sibi.
4. When more than three authors are involved, citation is normally restricted to the first
author and followed by et al.
5. If an author validly publishes a name but ascribes it to another person, for example to
the author who suggested the name but failed to publish it validly, then the name of
the latter should be connected to the name of the person who validly publishes the
name by an ex. Eg. Acalypha racemosa Wall ex Baill.
6. If a genus or taxon of lower rank is altered in rank or position, but retains its name or
epithet, the name of the author who first published the name or epithet (basionym)
must be cited in parenthesis followed by the name of the author who effected the
change. This is called double citation. E.g. Leucaena latisiliqua (Linn) Gillis (1914)
Basionym: Mimosa latisiliqua Linn (1753).
7. If a taxon is of garden origin, then while citing the name it should be ascribed to hort.
(hortulanorum) and connected by an ex to the name of the author who published it
e.g., Geaneria dwklarii hort, ex Hook.

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  Choice of names
 There are several criteria for choosing the name of a taxon. Some of them are the
following;
1. When the taxon rank is changed, the earliest legitimate name is its new rank and its
correct name.
2. When two or more taxa of the same rank are united into one, the oldest legitimate
name of these taxa should be retained as the name of the united taxon.
3. When a genus or species is divided into two or more genera or species, the original
name of the genus or species must be retained.
4. When a species is transferred to another genus without the change of rank, the
original name must be retained.
 Rejection of names
 A legitimate name or epithet must not be rejected merely because it is inappropriate or
disagreeable, or because another one is prefereable or better known, or because it has lost
its original meaning.
 A name must be rejected if it is nomenclaturally superfluous when published.
 The following names can be considered illegitimate or unusable
 Synonyms – there are the different names used for the same taxon.
 Tautonyms- these are the names where the specific epithet exactly repeats the
generic name with or without transcribed symbol.
 Typonym-a name is rejected if there is an older valid name based on the same
type.
 Homonym- a name that is shared by two or more different taxa.
 Autonym- automatically created tautonym for intergeneric or intraspecific taxa.
 Nomen nudum- this is a name that does not fulfill the criteria set by the
international Code of Botanical Nomenclature. So, it is not a legally described
scientific name and cannot be used unless it is subsequently proposed correctly.

Plant identification
 Plant identification is the basic activity and one of the primary objectives of systematics.
 It involves the recognition of the characteristics of organisms and the naming of organisms on the
basis of their characters.
 Identification is simply the determination of the similarities and differences between two factors-
whether the two are the same or they are different.
 Or simply identification is the determination of the exact taxonomic identity of an individual
organism.
 Some of the characters commonly considered for plant identification are the following.
 Whether a plant is herbaceous or woody, and annual or perennial in nature.
 Whether milky or colored sap is present in the leaf, stem or other plant.
 Leaf type, phyllotaxy and venation.
 Presence or absence of stipule, and the type of stipule on young shoots.
 The distribution and the types of hairs, trichomes, spines etc. on the plant surface.

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  The part of the flower, the number and arrangement of sepals and petals (aestivation), and
whether they are fused or free.
 Whether perianth is present in one or more series, or is absent.
 Whether pappus, epicalyx, or similar structures are present.
 Whether a nectar-secreting disc is present in the flowers.
 Whether the flowers are actinomorphic or zygomorphic.
 The number and attachment of stamens and whether there is any fusion of anthers or
filaments.
 The number of pistils, styles and stigmas in the gynoecium, the numbers of locules, the
number of ovules per locule, and the type of placentation.
 Position of the ovary and fusion of the perianth.
 There are several methods used for plant identification they are:
 Using taxonomic literature
 Using taxonomic keys
 Direct comparison method and combination of different methods.

Taxonomic literature
 It is the basic and preliminary method for plant identification.
 Here the taxonomist compares the specimens with the published descriptions of the species in
various literatures.
 The taxonomists consider illustrations, articles, research papers, monographs, floras, manuals,
revision, synopsis, conspectus etc. for the identification.

Taxonomic keys
 A taxonomic key enables the taxonomist to easily and quickly identify the species to which a
hitherto unknown plant belongs.
 The ultimate goal of taxonomic key is the identification of taxa.
 Taxonomic keys are a tabulation of the diagnostic characters of a taxonomic group like species,
genus and family etc. which facilitate rapid identification and classifications.
 Taxonomic key consists of a series of contrasting and contradictory statements or propositions
based on which the user can make comparisons and take decisions.
 The main objectives of the keys are to separate and segregate diagnostic characters in such a way
as to provide a series of alternative choices for identification.
 Taxonomical keys are commonly used in floras and taxonomic revisions as a mere aid for
identification. And the final identification depends on a comparison of the characters of the
sample specimens with detailed descriptions and also on matching of the specimen with
previously identified specimens.
 Taxonomic key preparation involves different steps like selection, evaluation and arrangement of
taxonomically important diagnostic characters.

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 An ideal key character is applicable equally to all the individuals of a species. They must be
absolute, external and relatively constant so that they can be observed directly. The conspicuous
characters used in diagnostic key are called key characters.
 Rules for constructing keys
 Only contradictory statement should be taken into an account so that one of them is
accepted and the other one is rejected.
 Morphological characters considered must be visible to naked eye or at the best with
the hand lens.
 The smaller group should be dealt with first, followed by the larger group.
 Avoid the repeating statements.
 Negative statements should not be chosen. For example, stamens free should be
used instead of stamens not diadelphous.
 Both the leads of couplet must start with the same word.
 Use of discontinuous characters is better than the use of continuous or overlapping
characters eg. leaves 4-9cm broad, leaves with white margin and long petiole.
 For making a key for dioecious plants, characters of both male and female plants
must be incorporated.

 Types of keys

 Generally there are two types of taxonomic keys are used of taxonomic identification.
A. Dichotomous key or sequential key or diagnostic key
 It is plant identification key constructed in the form of a sequence of
alternative choices. This alternatives used are precise and the statements
presented are sufficiently definite so that identification is easy.
 The key have two contrasting characters at each step. And these paired
choices are called character couplets. And the two contrasting or
contradictory statements of a couplet are called leads.
 Normally a key may be very simple with a single couplet or pair of lead or it
can be complex with several pairs of leads.
 The first contrasting character in each step is called primary key character or
lead character. The characters following the lead character are called
secondary key character.
 Based on the utility dichotomous key can be classified into two.
 Used for general purposes
1. Indented key
2. Simple bracket key
3. Simple non-bracket key
4. Grouped type key
5. Combination key
 Used for special purposes
1. Branching key

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 2. Circular key
3. Pictorial key
4. Box-type key
 Generally indented key and bracketed key are used in taxonomic literature
for plant identification.
1. Indented key (Yoked key)
 Here the first part of a contrasting couplet is followed by the
subsequent couplets.
 Each two couplet leads or the alternatives of a character are
separated by subsequent and subordinate alternatives.
 And each of the first couplet are indented from the left hand of
the page in such a way that each subordinate couplet is indented
on step further to the right.
 In long indented keys, the alternatives get widely separated and
take more space. So it is much difficult to identify the higher
order taxa.

2. Bracketed key or parallel key

 Here two contrasting alternatives leads of a couplet are
numbered and presented together, without intervening couplets.
 Each alternative are presented side by side, ready comparison is
possible.
 This key best in serving the diagnostic purposes.
 The main advantage is easy to prepare.
 The main disadvantages is that the relationship of the divisions is
not quite apparent as in indented key.

B. Multi-access key or multi entry keys

 Multi-access keys are usually produced in the form of punched cards.
 Punched card keys consists of cards of suitable size, with the names of
the taxa (families, genera or species for which the key is used) printed on
them.
 Each card has a number and any one character is printed near one of its
corners. All the taxa having this character are indicated by perforation in
front of their names, while those lacking it are without any perforation.
 There are some disadvantages regarding the preparation of multi-access
key like; it require plenty of space for storage and the use of card is
relatively time consuming, heavy work and expensive also.
 There are two types of such perforated or punched keys.
1. Edge punched key
 In this type of punched key, there is one card for each taxon
showing the combination of characters of that particular
taxon.

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  Each attribute is represented by punched hole around the
perimeter of the card.
 When taxa possess a particular attribute, the hole clipped or
punched to form an open notch.
 Here the key preparation and plant identification done
through certain steps. Each one of the steps is listed below.
 A list of attributes of the unknown specimen is prepared and
for each attribute the specimen possesses, the hole is
punched.
 All the appropriate cards are stacked together and a needle is
inserted through one of the holes representing one of the
attributes possessed by the taxon.
 The needle is then lifted horizontally and shaken gently so
that all those taxa possessing the attributes fall away from
the whole stack. The cards that fall remain on the needle are
the taxa which do not possesses the attributes and kept aside.
 The cards that fall down are gathered again and the process
is repeated several times so that ultimately one card will fall
from the stack.
 And the taxon represented on the card is the correct
identification of the unknown taxa.
2. Body-punched key
 The holes are punched in rows on the main body of the card.
 Here each card represents one character state or attribute.
 Numbers are printed on the card to point out the standard
position of each taxon; if the taxon possesses that particular
attribute, its position is punched out.
 Here a lisr of attributes possessed by the unidentified taxon
is prepared and appropriate cards are selected.
 When all the cards of the attributes possessed by the
unknown taxon have been placed one above the other, after
punching of the holes, the taxon which possesses all the
attributes will show a hole running through all these cards.
 Position of the hole on the card will give the correct
identification of the taxon.

Taxonomic information resources

 There are different variety of information resources of plant taxonomy are available in this
scenario.
 The major information resources of plant taxonomy include herbaria, taxonomic literature, online
resources, data bases etc.

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HERBARIUM

 Herbarium is the store house of dried and pressed plant specimens, collected from different
places, mounded on appropriate sheets, arranged according to an accepted system of
classification, and kept in pigeon holes of sheet or in wooden cupboards for the future references
an study.
 Herbarium preparation is an art, it was initiated by an Italian taxonomist from Bologna, named
Luca Ghini who collected plants, dried and affixed them on paper with gum in the form of
herbaria specimens.
 Word herbarium was first applied by Pitton de Tournefort in the book Elements.
 Linnaeus stored millions of dried specimens as herbaria.
 Some plants like Cactaceae are preserved in liquid preservatives without pressing and drying.
 Most herbaria include plants from different part of world and are the centres of advanced research
in the field of taxonomy.
 Each specimen in the herbarium should be properly labelled and the label must bear details, such
as scientific name of the species and family, and date and place of the collection, name of
collector, notes etc.
 Each specimen in herbariums is systematically arranged.
 Herbariums are associated with botanical gardens, universities and colleges.
 Kinds of herbarium
1. General or international herbaria-Specimens from different countries.
2. National herbaria- Specimens from particular country.
3. Local herbaria-Specimens from locality or region within a country.
4. Special herbaria-Small herbaria with a limited or specific purpose.
It is based the interest of organization or institution and the contents of the holdings,
various kinds of herbaria can be recognized.
a. Herbaria of organization like Botanical Survey of India contain collections from
many parts of the world.
b. The institutions, which are interested in drugs and medicine, herbaria with plants of
known medicinal properties.
c. Herbaria of universities or colleges generally contain specimens which are necessary
for teaching, or are included in the syllabus and research.
d. The herbarium of Agricultural Colleges and Universities includes specimens of crop
plants and weeds of cultivated fields.
 Herbarium techniques
The major steps in preparation of herbarium specimens are the following:
1. Collection of specimens
 Specimens were collected from different localities and habitats.
 The selected plant should have all plant parts (bud, flower and fruit), including the
root system for herbaceous plants.
 The plant collection tools include collection pick, strong knife, pruning shears, plant
press, hand lens, field book, tags, blotting papers etc.

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  The plants collected may be pressed on the spot, or can be stored temporarily in a
vasculum (a metal box used for plant collection) or in a ruck sacks and pressed after
reaching the camp site.
 Now, polythene bags are used for plant collection.
 Soon after collection, collector must be tagged and the details regarding locality and
the field characters must be recorded in the field book.
2. Poisoning of specimens
 In order to avoid any chance of infection, the specimens must be poisoned
immediately after collection.
 For poisoning the specimens, 1% mercuric chloride. Lauryl Penta Chloro Phenate
(LPCP), 4% formalin etc. are used.
3. Pressing and Drying of specimens
 After poisoning the collection plant specimen are pressed in between sheets of blotting
paper or newspaper.
 The plants are arranged in such a way that there should be one specimen on each
sheet, without overlapping of plant parts.
 The folded sheet or blotting sheet with the plant specimens are then kept tightly
pressed in the press for 24 to 48 hours.
 The press then opened, papers are changed and the plants are properly arranged on
new sheets. Change the paper on different interval up to the proper drying of
specimens.
4. Mounting and labeling of specimens
 After complete drying the specimens are mounted on herbarium sheets of standard size
(16.5×11.5 inch or 41.9×29.5cm ).
 The plant specimens were mounted on the sheet using paste or glue or adhesive or
gummed strips can be used. Stiff parts of woody plants are usually stitched to the sheet.
 The mounted specimens should properly labelled.
 A label is pasted on the lower right- hand corner of the sheet. Herbarium labels
constitute an important part of finished specimens.
 A label should contain the following information
Collection number :
Plant name (scientific name) :
Common or local name :
Locality and altitude :
Habit :
Date of collection :
Ecological notes :
Notes :
Name of collector :
5. Storage of specimens
 Mounted plant specimens are to be stored in specially constructed herbarium cases or
in herbarium cabinets.

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  Specimens should be arranged according to a well -known system of classification like
Bentham and Hooker‟s system.
 The different genera of a family, and the different species of a genus should be
arranged in alphabetic order.
 To avoid fungal infection, 1% Mercuric chloride may be sprayed.
 We use repellants like naphthalene balls and Para Dichloro Benzene (PDB) to avoid
insect attack.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF HERBARIA
1. They serve as a repository of plant specimens as they store dried plant specimens for future
study.
2. They act as a taxonomic aid which provides information for the identification of specimens.
Each herbarium possesses a collection of properly identified specimens. One can identify the
specimens by comparing them with the duly identified herbarium specimens.
3. It is the primary source of information for floristic diversity assessment.
4. Herbaria are comprehensive data-banks, which provide information about the diversity and
distribution of species. It provide the basic material for the study of the flora and vegetation
of different places or regions. Since it serves as a permanent record of flora, collection in the
herbarium provide evidence of the vegetation of a region.
5. Herbaria also provide details of fruit, external features, internal structures, pollengrains,
carpology, etc.
6. Herbaria facilitate the exchange and loan of materials for various research purposes.
7. Herbaria form a very valuable source of information for ethano-botanical researches and
phytogeographical studies.
 World famous herbaria – Royal Botanic Garden Kew, London, Uk.
Missouri Botanic Garden-USA, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh-Uk. Etc.
 Major Indian Herbaria- Central National Herbarium-Shibpur, BSI-South Circle-Coimbathore,
Forest Research Institute Herbarium- Dahradun Etc.

BOTANICAL GARDEN
 Ex-situ conservation of plants
 It is the collection of
 Different varieties of cultivated plants, especially ornamentals.
 Medicinal plants, economically valuable plants, plants of special interest.
 Plants of certain geographic formations, such as desert plants, alpine plants, marsh plants,
aquatic plants, etc.
 Weeds and method of their control.
 Plants mentioned in classical and religious literature, state flowers, national flowers and
favourite flowers of the locality.
 It is mainly for scientific studies of plants.

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  Well planned botanical gardens serve as the centres of aesthetic attraction.
 Role of botanical garden
 It is the unique collections of highly diverse living plants provide the basis for taxonomic
studies, and also for academic studies on cytology, anatomy, phytochemistry etc.
 Botanical gardens serve as acclimatization areas where exotic plants from all regions of
the world live together.
 It provides information on food plants, ornamental plants and medicinal plants.
 Botanical gardens provide germplasm for hybridization.
 Botanical garden provide protection to many endangered plants and economically
important plants in glass-houses, green houses, etc.
 It provides seeds and saplings of important plants on exchange basis to encourage thee
introduction of exotic and useful economic plants.
 Botanical gardens provide training in horticulture landscaping and gardening.
 They are the centres of recreation and aesthetic beauty.
 Special types of botanical gardens
a) Arboreta-botanical garden or parts of botanical gardens only trees or woody species are
grown.
b) Orchidaria-gardens only orchids are grown. eg. National Orchidarium at Botanical Survey of
India, Shillong.
c) Pineta-like arboreta, coniferous trees are grown.
d) Bambuseta-main collection is Bamboo. Eg. Indian Botanical Garden, Kolkata.
 World famous and indian herbaria
1. Royal Botanical Garden, Kew (1760) - World‟s largest botanical garden.
2. Indian Botanical Garden, Kolkata (1787)- with giant banyan tree.
3. National Botanical Garden(1789), Lacknow
4. Lalbagh or The Mysore State Botanical Garden (1760), Banglore
5. Botanical Garden Forest Research institute (1934), Dahradun
6. Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (JNTBGRI) (1979),
Palode, Thiruvanthapuram
7. Malabar Botanical Garden & Institute for plant sciences.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (BSI)

 Government organization. Established in 1890 and recognized in 1954.
 It secures accurate and detailed information regarding the occurrence, distribution, ecology and
economic uses of the plants in India.
 So, its main function is the exploration of the vegetable resources of India.
 And it also collects, identifies and distributes plant materials to support educational and research
activities in Universities and academic institutions. Which implies it coordinates all the botanical
studies and works all over India.
 For the purpose of Botanical survey, the country divided into 4 botanical regions,
East-Calcutta (Sibpur)
North- Bombay
West- Pune
South- Madras

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 Calcutta was the centre of the Botanical survey of India.
 BSI was recognized in 1954 and sanction was accorded to it for the formation of the following
organizations.
1. A headquarters established under a chief botanist at Calcutta. This was meant for controlling
and coordinating the activities of the various units of the BSI and also for implementing the
policy laid down by the Government of India.
2. Four regional circles based on phytogeographical affinities. They are the
Eastern- Shillong
Western-Pune
Northern- Dehradun
Southern- Coimbatore, each under a regional botanists. Each regional botanist will be
responsible for the survey of the area of his jurisdiction and will utilize the facilities provided
by the State and Universities.
3. A central Botanical Laboratory under a Director at a suitable place in Uttar Pradesh. Here
living plants will be studied in relation to their biology and economic utility.
4. A national herbarium which will house the type specimens and fully representative
collections of the plants of India.
5. Maintenances of a Botanical museum on modern lines at Calcutta.
 BSI , nine regional stations
1. Northern circle- Dehradun
2. Eastern circle- Shillong
3. Southern circle- Coimbatore
4. Western circle- Pune
5. Central circle- Allahabad
6. Arid zone circle- Jodhpur
7. Andaman and Nicobar circle- Port Blair
8. Sikkim- Himalaya circle- Gangtok
9. Arunachal field station- Itanagar
 Publications of BSI
 FLORA OF INDIA-
Series 1: National Flora in the form of fascicles.
Series 2: State flora analysis- flora of Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka.
Series 3: District flora- flora of Jawai (Vol.1 & 2), Flora of Tonk District, Flora of
Banswara.
 Records
Bulletin of BSI (a quarterly journal)
The Flora of Khandla on the Western Ghats of India.

TAXONOMIC INFORMATION RESOURCES

 Taxonomical literature is a botanical work associated with the identification,
classification and the determination and use of the correct name of a plant taxon.
 Taxonomic literature can be classified into the following categories.
1. General taxonomic indices.
2. World floras and manuals

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 3. Monographs and revisions
4. Bibliographic catalogues and reviews.
5. Periodicals
6. Online resources and databases.

 General taxonomic indices

 Indices of plant names and they help in locating the original publication of a
name, valid name, synonyms and to which family, subfamily or tribe the plant
belongs.
 Taxonomic indices- Index Kewensis, Index Londinensis, Gray Herbarium Card
Index, Index Filicum, Index Muscorum, etc.
1. Index kewensis plantarum phenerogamarum
 Index of all angiosperms in the world.
 An alphabetical index of the generic name and binomials is used for the new
and changed names of seed bearing plants of worldwide distribution.
 All known specific epithets published for a particular genus are in
alphabetical order under each generic name. Each name or binomial names
is followed by author‟s name, geographical origin of plants and brief
literature citation.
 The original work was compiled into two volume by B. D Jackson(1893-
1895), under the supervision of J. D. Hooker, and then supplement was
added once in every five year.
 Synonyms are mentioned in italics in the first volume. Recent supplements
donot include synonyms, instead references to illustrations have been added.
 Almost 968000 records are included. Approximately every year 6000 entries
are added.
 For the easy availability of data, the index published as CD-ROM.
2. Index londinensis to illustrations of flowering plants, ferns and fern allies
 It was prepared under the auspices of the Royal Horticultural Society of
London at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
 Alphabetical register or index of representations or illustrations of
flowering plants and ferns compiled from botanical and horticultural
publications of the XVIIIth and XIXth centuries
 These illustrations are arranged alphabetically by genus and species.
3. Gray Herbarium Card Index
 It covers the flowering plants and ferns of the Western hemisphere and has
index cards for all the new names and new combinations.
 It was compiled at gray herbarium (1873) and was published from Harvard
University, Cambridge, USA.
 It was published in 10 volumes between 1893-1967, later G.K Hall gave a
supplement to it, it covers 1967 to 1977.
4. Index Filicum
 Listing of filicinae or true ferns.
 Puvlished in 1906 by a Danish botanist C.F. A. Christensen from Denmark.
 The work is completed in year 1905- 1975, the supplements enlisted the
names which is considered as fern.

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  Other supplements include Index Lycopodiorum for earlier Lycopodiales.
 Index Isoetales for Isoetales, Index Psilotales for Psilotales, Index
Selaginellarum for Selaginellales and Index Equisetophyta for Equisetales.
5. Index Muscorum
 Index for bryophytes.
 An alphabetical list of all species and intraspecific taxa of mosses, published
up to the end of 1962. It is 5 volume work.
 C.F. B. Bonner (1962-1973), prepared the Index Hepaticarum, pertaining to
Anthocerotales.

6. Index Nominum Genericorum

 List of all generic names of plants of all groups, both fossils and extant.
 Published in 3 volume work in 1979. Type specimens have been indicated
along with bibliographic and nomenclatural details of about 63,500 entries.
 The first supplement, Regnum Vegetabile, vol.11 (1986), listed another 2500
generic names and correct names of the previous publications.
7. Indices of Algae
 An index of all known algae, with their names, classes, families and
synonyms appeared in volume 103 of Regnum Vegetabile in 1980.
 Diatoms have been recorded in Catalogue of the Fossil and Recent Genera
and Species of Diatoms in 7 parts (1967-1978).
 Floras
 Detailed and systematic enumeration of a major group of plants of a particular
region.
 It will provide full account of vascular plants and all data regarding the plants.
Including complete botanical name, author‟s name, original name with date and
page number of the book, synonyms etc.
 Each flora consists of identification keys with small description.
 Two books of Genera plantarum 1862- 1883 (7 volume work, consist of 200
families and 7569 genera and their species) with its herbarium specimens and
accurate descriptions by Bentham and Hooker and De Naturalichen
Pflazenfamilien 1887-1915 (entire plant kingdom –14 divisions, from algae to
flowering plants) with illustrations and brief descriptions by Engler and Prantl
respectively are the books considered as world floras.
 Based on the area covered floras are classified into
1. Continental flora
 Covers the whole continent.
Examples: Flora of Europea by Tulin et al (1964-80)
Flora of Australiensis by Sentham (1863-78)
2. Regional flora
 It covers the information of plants of a vast geographical area,
usually a large country, a floristic region, etc.
Examples: Flora of British India (7 volume)- Dalton Hooker (1827-
1897)
British flowering plants- Hutchinson (1948)
Palms of British India and Ceylon- Blatter (1926)
Handbook of British flora- Bentham (1930)
3. Local flora
 Flora which covers only a much limited geographical area, such as a
village, district, a mountain range, a state etc.

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 Examples: flora of Presidency of Madras (3 volume, Polypetalae
Gamopetalae and Monochlamydeae)- J.S. Gamble (1915-1936)
Flora of Nilgiri and Pulney Hilltops – F.F. Fyson (1915)
Flora of Assam- U.N. Kunjilal et al (1934-40)
Flora of Nilambur
Flora of Calicut
Flora of Agasthyamala
 Based on the content, floras may be classified into:
1. Research floras
 Floras are regional revisions and self-contained.
 Provide excellent data for taxonomic research.
2. Concise or field floras
 Shorter than research floras.
 Description of each taxon is either very brief or lacking altogether.
 It only includes minimum number of synonyms and type specimens
are not mentioned in this flora.
3. Excursion floras
 Shortest version of flora.
 Mainly used for the identification of plant from field itself.
 It includes the identification keys and descriptions.
 Manuals
 It covers the data of a specialized group of plants. It emphasizes mainly on
providing keys for identification and description.
 It includes the information about the area of coverage and keys and descriptions
of families, genera and species.
 Additional information also provided for each species. Eg., species name,
followed by authors names, synonyms, common or local names, ecological and
distributional data, illustrations and distribution maps.
Examples : Manuals of botany by A. gray (1950)
Manuals of Cultivated Plants by L. h. Bailey (1949)
Manuals of Aquatic Plants by N.C. Fossel
Manuals of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs in Northern America by
A. Reholer
 Monographs
 It is a taxonomic treatise and synthesis of all known information about the taxon.
 It is complete and comprehensive account of a taxon of any rank like family,
genus or species of a given time.
 It includes the existing taxonomic knowledge as well as the results of any
original research work carried out by the author.
 It covers some introductory chapters in which presentation and discussion of the
original research work done by the author. This is followed by descriptive
systematic treatment in which morphological, anatomical, embryological,
palynological, cytological, genetic and ecological data are included.
 All species and infra specific taxa under a genus, and all the genera in a family
must be included in a monograph.
 Many informations, such as extensive literature reviews and nomenclatural
information, designated type specimens, identification keys for all the taxa, full
synonyms, citations of the specimens examined, distribution maps, classification
by the author for all the taxa included and their phylogenetic relationship, etc.
also included in a monograph.

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 Monograph differs from manuals in that it contains a detailed taxonomic
treatment of a taxonomic group.
Examples: The genus Nicotiana by T. H. Goodspeed. (1955)
The genus Datura by A. F. Blakslee, et al (1959)
The genus Pinus by Mirov (1967)
A monograph of genus Avena by B.R. Baum (1977)
 Revisions
 Less comprehensive systematic treatment of any particular taxon occupying a
smaller geographical region.
 It may include an entire family also.
 Revision incorporates a complete synonymy, keys to identify the included taxa,
short description of mostly diagnostic features, distribution maps, a classification
and a brief discussion on supporting data, illustrations in the form of line
drawings.
 Revision is based on the herbarium specimens.
 A taxonomic revision usually incorporates much lesser details of introductory
material and synoptic literature review.
 Each revision based on primarily on original research work, form the core of
systematic botany.
 If there is inconsistency in the characters of a taxon of a particular geographic
range and if there are difficulties in identifying the members of a taxon , such
taxon needs a revision.

 Conspectus
 It is an outline of a revision.
 A conspectus includes listing of all taxa with all or only the major synonyms and
often with a brief mention of the geographical range of each taxon.
 Synopsis
 It is a list of taxa with abridged diagnostic features to distinguish them from each
other.
 Synopsis mostly occupies a few front pages of a revision in the form of a
summary of the contents.
 Journals and periodicals
 Journals are the publication brought out at regular intervals carrying original
research papers.
 Journals are published by a scientific organization or society or by an educational
or non-profit research institution. Titles of some journals are very long and it is
customary to abbreviate them. Eg., Pl. Syst. Evol. Stands for Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Denmark).
 Periodicals are usually entitled as annals, bulletins or proceedings.
 Whenever a monumental work is published by a single author, it is treated as a
Memoir or Transaction. eg., Memoirs of Torrey Botanical Society.
 Some of the periodicals and journals are listed below
 Botanical Journal Of Linnanean Society New Bulletin (Royal Botanical
Garden, Kew, London)
 Rheedea (IAAT, Calicut university)
 Botanical Magazine (Tokyo)
 Journal of Indian Botanical Society ( JIBS , Bangalore)
 Blumea

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 Edinburgh journal of Botany
 New Zealand Journal of botany
 Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society (London)
 Taxon

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