UNIT -I Chapter 1

PHYSICAL WORLD AND MEASUREMENT

Physics:- It is the branch of the science which deals with the study of natural
phenomenon.
Fundamental forces in nature
1.Gravitational Forces:- The forces of attraction between two objects due to their
masses .
According to Newton’s law , force between two objects is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them.
F ∝ m1m2
F ∝ 1/r2 Combining both,
F ∝ m1m2/r2
F= G(m1m2/r2) Here G=Universal Constant = 6.67X10-11 Nm2/kg2 ,because its value
remains same throught the universe .
Features of gravitational forces:-
1.These are attractive forces in nature.
2.These are long range forces.
3.They are weakest forces in nature.
4.These obey inverse square law. (F ∝ 1/r2)
5.These are conservative force.(workdone by these force do not depend on path )
6.These are central forces.(these force act along line joining of centers of two bodies)

2.Electromagnetic Forces: -The forces between moving charged particles is

electromagnetic forces.
The force b/n static point charge particle is electrostatic force.
According to Coloumb’s law the force of attraction or repulsion between two point
static charges is direcctly proportional to the product of two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
F ∝ q1q2
F ∝ 1/r2 Combining both ,
F ∝ q1q2/r2
F= k(q1q2/r2) force constant k=9×109 Nm2/kg2

FEATURES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES

1.These are attractive as well as repulsive in nature.
2.These obey inverse square law.
3.These are conservative force
4.These are central forces.
5.These are 1036 times more stronger then the gravitational forces.
6.It is caused by the exchange of photons between charged particles.
( 3).Strong Nuclear Forces:- In any atom , nucleus contains protons and neutrons
which are known as nucleons. The forces that holds nucleons in the nucleus are called
strong nuclear forces.

FEATURES OF STRONG NUCLEAR FORCES

1. These are the strongest forces in the nature.
2. These do not obey inverse square law.
3. These are not conservative force and charge independent character.
4. These are not central forces.
5. These forces works at a distance less then 0.5 fermi. (nucleus size 1 fermi=10-15m)
(4).Weak Nuclear Forces:- The forces between elementary particles emitted during
radioactive decay of radioactive substances is known as weak nuclear forces.
* In β decay only two particles are emitted that are electrons and anti neutrinos
(Uncharged particles). The forces between the electrons and anti neutrinos is called
weak nuclear forces.
NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS:-
1.Law of Conservation of Charge:- The total charge of an isolated system is conserved
or remains constant. Charge can neither be created nor destroyed only it can be
transferred from one object to other object.
2.Law of Conservation of Energy:- The total energy of an isolated system remains
constant.The energy can neither be created nor destroyed it can only be changed from
one form to other form.
3.Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum:- Linear Momentum of an isolated
system remains constant.
4.Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum:- Angular Momentum of an isolated
system remains constant.
* isolated system – any system on which no external force acts is called an isolated
syatem .

Strength wise arrangement of fundamental forces

Fg : Fw : Fe : FS = 1: 1025 : 1036 : 1039
Chapter 2:-
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Physical Quantity: A quantity which can be measured directly or indirectly.
Example: Mass , Length , Velocity , Time etc.
Unit: The chosen standard for measurement of physical quantity is called unit.
CHARACTERSTICS OF STANDARD UNIT
1. It should be well defined,widely accepted,easily accessible, be in proper size.
2. It should not change with time , place and physical conditions like pressure ,
temperature etc.
3..It should be easily reproducible at all the places without difficulty.
DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF UNITS
There are mainly four types of systems of units:-
1.MKS System:- In this system the unit of length , mass and time are Meter(m) ,
Kilogram(kg) and second(s) respectively.
2.The CGS System:- In this system the unit of length , mass and time are
centimeter(cm) , gram (g) and second (s) respectively.
3.FPS System:- In this system the unit of length , mass and time are Foot , pound and
second(s) respectively.
4.SI Units( Systeme of Interntional Units):-
SI units were introduced by the general conference of weights and measures in 1960.
This system is modified form of MKS System and hence is also known as Rationalized
MKS System.
In SI System there are seven fundamental units and two supplementary units.
(I).Fundamental units:-
(i).Mass (m) :- One meter is equal to the length of the path travelled by the light in
1/29,97,92,458 th of a second in air or Vacuum.
(ii).Kilogram (kg) :- It is the mass of the Platinum-Iridium(90% Pt + 10% Ir) cylinder
having diameter & height equals to 3.9cm kept in the international bureau of weights
and measures of sevres near Pris , France.
(iii).Second:- It is defined as the time interval occupied by 9,192,631,770 vibrations
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of Caesium(Cs)-133 atom
in its ground state.
(iv).Kelvin:- It is the unit of temperature & is defined as 1/273.6 fraction of the
thermodynamic temperature at the triple point of water.
(v).Candela:- It is defined as the luminous intensity is a given direction due to a source
which emits monochromatic radiations of frequency 540 X 1012 Hertz and of which
radiant intensity in that given direction is 1/683 watt per steradians
(vi).Ampere:- One ampere is that constant current which when flowing through each of
the two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible cross section held ome
meter apart in vacuum exert a mutual force of 2 X 10-7 Newton per meter.
(vii).Mole:-It is the amount of the substance which contains the same number of
elementary units a there are in 0.012kg of Carbon-12 atom.

S.No. Fundamental Unit Symbol

Quantity
1. Length Meter m
2. Mass Kilogarm kg
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Luminous Intensity Candela cd
6. Current Ampere A
7. Quantity of Matter Mole mol

(II) Supplementary Units:-

(i).Radian:- One radian is an angle subtended at the center of the circle by an arc of
length equal to the radius of the circle.
(ii).Steradian:- One steradian is the solid angle subtended at the center of the sphere by
its surface whose area is equal to the square of the radius of the sphere,.
S.No. Supplementary Unit Symbol
Quantity
1. Plane angle Radian ∆
2. Solid angle Steradian ∆Ω

ADVANTAGES OF SI SYSTEM
1.This system is internationally accepted system of unit.
2.It is an absolute system of units i.e. there are no gravitational units in this system.
3.This system is coherent system of units i.e. all the derived units can be obtained with
the help of fundamental units only by multiplication or division.
4.It is a rational system of units i.e. the units of any form of physical quantities remains
unchanged in all the systems of units.
5.It is the metric system of units i.e. all the multiples or sub-multiples of any physical
quantity can be represented in the power of 10.
Some common practical units –
1.Fermi- small measuring unit for nuclear size , 1fermi =1fm =10-15 m
2.Angstrom – used to express wavelength of light ,1angstrom = 1 A0 =10-10 m
3.Nanometer – 1nm = 10-9m
4. Micron - 1µm=10-6 m
5.Light year – Distance travelled by light in vaccum in one year
1 ly= speed of light × time
= 3×108 × 365×24×60×60=9.467×1015 m
6.Astronomical unit – Mean distance of earth from the sun .
1AU= 1.496×1011 m
7. Parsec / parallactic second –Distance at which an arc of length 1 AU
subtends an angle of 1 second of arc.
1 parsec = 1AU / 1// = 1.496×1011 m / [1/3600 ×
π/180 rad.]
= 3.08 × 1016 m

*1 dgree = 60 min (60/ ) = 60 × 60 second

1 second (1// )= [1 / 60×60] degree
[2π radian = 3600 or 10= π/180 rad.]
= [1 / 60×60] × π/180 rad.]

1 acre= 4047 sqm.,1 hectare = 10000sqm,

1tonne= 1000kg
1 quintal = 100kg ,1slug = 14.57 kg,
1pound =453.6 gm
Time – Time is simply what a clock reads
1 miunute (1l )= 60s (60ll) , 1 decade=10 yrs , 1 century = 100yrs,
1 millenium= 1000yrs,1ms= 10-3 s , 1 µs =10-6 s , 1 shake = 10-8 s ,
1 ns =10-9 s

Abbreviation of power 10-

Prefix value Prefix value
Deci (d) 10-1 Deca (da) 101
Centi (c) 10-2 Hecto (h) 102
Milli (m) 10-3 Kilo (k) 103
Micro (µ) 10-6 Mega (M) 106
Nano (n) 10-9 Giga (G) 109
Pico (p) 10-12 Tera (T) 1012
Femto (f) 10-15 Peta (P) 1015
Atto (a) 10-18 Exa (E) 1018
Derived unit -. The unit of physical quantities which can be obtained by using
fundamental units (mass, length and time) are called derived units. e.g. newton, joule e

Dimension/Dimensional Formulae/Dimensional equation

The power of basic fundamental unit mass (M), length (L), time (T) are called
dimension of physical quantity
Ex: - Force=mass x acceleration
= [M1] x [L1T-2]
= [M1L1T-2] (Dimensional Formulae)
1, 1 and -2 are the dimension of M, L, and T respectively
[F] = [M L T ]
1 1 -2
(Dimensional Equation)

Some dimensional formula of Physical quantity

S.N. Physical Quantity General Formula Dimensional Unit

Formula
1. Distance/Displacement Distance Covered [ M⁰ L¹ T⁰ ] m
2. Speed/Velocity Distance/time [ M⁰ L¹ T⁻¹ ] m/s
3. Acceleration a=velocity/time [ M⁰ L¹ T⁻² ] m/s²
4. Volume V=l x b x h [ M⁰ L³ T⁰ ] m³
5. Area Area= l x b [ M ⁰L² T ⁰ ] m²
6. Density Mass/volume [ M¹ L⁻³ T ⁰] Kg/m³
7. Force F=mass x a [ M¹ L ¹T⁻² ] N
8. Momentum P=mass x velocity [ M¹ L ¹T⁻¹ ] Kg m/s
9. Gravitational Constant G =Fr² /m₁ m₂ [ M⁻¹ L³ T ⁻²] Nm²/kg
²
10. Plank’s Constant (E=h ν) Energy / ν [ M¹ L ²T ⁻¹] Js
11. Work W=F x d [ M ¹L ²T⁻² ] J
12. Power P=work / Time [ M¹ L² T⁻3 ] J
13. Angle Θ =arc/radius [ M⁰ L⁰ T⁰ ] radian
14. Wave Length (𝝺) Length of wave [ M⁰ L ¹T ⁰] m
15. Impulse Force x time [ M¹ L¹ T⁻¹ ] Ns
16. Pressure(Stress) Force/area [ M¹ L⁻¹T⁻²] Nm⁻²
17. Acceleration due to Gravity Change in velocity [ M⁰ L ¹T⁻² ] ms⁻²
(g) time taken
18. Thrust(Tension) Force [ M¹ L¹ T⁻² ] N
19. Moment of Inertia (I) m x r² [ M¹ L² T ⁰] kgm²
20. Moment of Force/torque Force x distance [ M¹ L² T⁻² ] Nm
 21. Angular velocity (w) Angle / time [ M⁰ L⁰ T ⁻¹] Radian/
s
22. Angular acceleration (α) Angular [ M⁰ L⁰ T⁻² ] Radian/
velocity/time s²
23. Angular momentum Ixῳ (J=mvr) [ M¹ L² T⁻¹ ] kgm²/s²
24. Strain Change in [ M⁰ L⁰ T⁰ ] -
dimension/
origional dimension
25. Frequency No of vibration [ M ⁰L ⁰T⁻¹ ] Hz
26. Time Period Time [ M⁰ L⁰ T¹ ] s
27. Angular Frequency 2π x frequency [ M⁰ L⁰ T⁻¹ ] 1/radia
n
28. Velocity Gradient Velocity/distance [ M⁰ L⁰ T⁻¹ ] 1/s
29. Coefficient of Viscosity η = F ×dx/A dv [ M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻¹ ] Pascal
F= η A dv/dx second
30. Gas Constant R= PV /nT [ M ¹L² T⁻² J/Kmol
K⁻¹ Mol⁻¹ ]
31. Coeficient of elasticity Stress/strain [ M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻2 ] Nm-2

Uses of dimensional analysis

1.Conversion of one system of unit to another system of unit-
Magnitude of physical quantity remains same whatever may be the system of unit .
Q=N1U1 = N2U2
N2 = N1U1/ U2 Where U1 =M1a L1b T1c , U2 =M2a L2b T2c
N2 = N1 × (M1 / M2 )a × (L1 /L2 )b × (T1 /T2 )c
Where N1 , N2 , U1 and U2 are numerical values and unit of first and second physical
quantities
Ex : - Convert 1 Newton into Dyne
Force= [M1L1T-2] a=1 b=2 c=-2
N2 = N1 × (M1 / M2 ) × (L1 /L2 ) × (T1 /T2 )
a b c

N2 = 1× (1kg /1g)1× (1m/1cm)1 × (1s/1s)-2

= 1 × 103g × 102m × 1
= 105 gm/s
= 105 dyne 1Newton = 105 dyne

2.To check the correctness of formula

According to the principal of homogeneity, that formula is correct in which dimension
of left hand side is equal to dimension of left hand side. (dimension of each term of both
sides are equal )
Ex-Check the correctness of given formula E=mc2
Dimension of LHS = [ M ¹L ²T⁻² ]
Dimension of RHS = [M ] [ LT-1]2 = [ M ¹L ²T⁻² ]
Dimension of LHS = Dimension of RHS
Given formula is correct .
Ex. F = a+bx2 find dimension of a & b .
a = [F] = [ M ¹L1 T⁻² ]
bx2 = [F]
or b = [F] / x2 and b = [ M ¹L1 T⁻² ] / [L]2 = [ M ¹L-1 T⁻² ]
3.Derive relationship among different physical quantity –
Derive an expression for the centripetal forces F acting on a particle of mass m moving
with velocity v in a circle of radius r.
F α ma vb r c ……..(1)
[ M ¹L1 T⁻² ] = [M] a [LT-1]b [L]c
= M a Lb+c T-b
Comparing both sides , we get
1=a , 1= b+c , -2 = -b
From these , a=1 , b= 2 , c= -1 putting these values in (1) \

F α m1 v2 r c-1
F= mv2/r (k=1)

Limitation/drawback of dimensional analysis

1.It is not cleared about constant in dimensional formula.
2.Using this analysis we cannot derive formulae like.
V=u+at, S=ut+at2/2
3.It cannot derive formula which depends upon more than three physical Quantities.
4.It is not clarified abut trigonometric functions, Exponential function, Logarithmic
function etc.
Round off
Round off means to increase or decrease the number to the nearest whole number.
Rules -
1.If the rounding off digit is less than 5 then there is no change in the previous digit.
Eg:-2.743 =2.74
2.If the last digit of the number is greater than 5 then the preceding digit increased by
one
Eg:-3.728=3.73
3.If the last digit of the number is 5 followed by non-zero number than the preceding
digit is increased by 1
Eg:-3.752=3.8
4.If the last digit of the number is 5 or followed by zero then there is no change in the
preceding number if it is even.
Eg:-7.3450=7.34 & 7.345 =7.34
5.If the last digit of the number is 5 or followed by zero than the preceding digit is
increased by 1 if it is odd.
Eg:-3.4750=3.48 & 3.475=3.48

Significant figures
The significant figures are the number of digit up to which be sure about their accuracy.
Rules-
1.All the non-zero number are significant figures
Eg: - 2, 3, 7 etc.
2.All zero digit between two non-zero digit are significant figures.
Eg: -30007 has 5 Significant figures
3.Do not change the number of Significant figures on changing the system of units.
Eg: -2m has 1 significant figure and 0.02cm has 1 Significant figures
4.All the zero after non zero digits are not significant figures
Eg: - 2500 has 2 Significant figures
5. All the zeroes after non zero digits are Significant figures if they are used in
measurement.
Eg: - 250m has 3 Significant figures
6.A final zeroes or travelling zeroes in the decimal points only are significant .
Ex - .600 or .968000 have 3 and 6 significant numbers.
But in .006 or .000968 the zeroes are not significant no.
7. All zeroes to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are
significant .
Ex . 648700. has 6 significant .
8. All zeroes to the right of a decimal point are significant .
Ex. 161cm, 161.0 cm, 161.00 cm have 3,4,5 significant.

In addition and subtraction – take least decimal numbers

In multiply and divide – take least significant figures

Accuracy –It is the ability of the instrument to measure the accurate value or it is the
closeness of the measured value to a standard or true value .
Accurate is correct or close to real value.
Ex.temperature of an object is 60 deg celcius and all reading shown by thermometer is
60 deg celcius . Then result is accurate and precise.
Precision – Precision means two or more values of the measurement are closed to each
other Precision is how consistent results are when measurement are reapeated .precision
is repeating or reapeatable.
Ex reading of voltages are 100V,101V,102V,104V
Reading are not accurate , they are close to each other so they are precise.
Ex. Resistance of conductor = 60 ohm, multimeter is showing 33 ohms consistly 10
times . So multimeter is precise but not accurate.
Order of magnitude :− A system to write the value in power of ten ( scientific notation )
or The nearest power of ten, in which a quantity can be expressed.
Scientific or exponential notation in the form N×10n , where n lies between 1 to 10 and
may be positive or negative integers.
n is the order of magnitudes
Rule 1- If the left: most digit of the quantity is less than 5(1, 2, 3, 4)
Example. 4962 = 4.962 103.The order of magnitude is three.
Rule 2 - If the left most digit of the quantity is 5 or more (5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
Example. 5125 = 0.5125  104. The order of magnitude is four.
Classification of physical quantity –
1.Dimensional variable- area, volume, velocity, force , coefficient of viscosity
2. Non dimensional variable- angle, specific gravity, strain
3. Dimensional constant – speed of light , gravitational constant, plank constant,
permitivity, permeability, boltzman constant
4. Non dimensional constant – pure no like 1,2,3….and e, π etc

Error
It is the difference of true value and measured value .
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors 2.Random Errors 3.Gross Errors
1. Systematic Errors
Those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative and the whose
causes are known .
(i).Instrumental errors
(ii).Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure.
(iii).Personal errors
(iv).Errors due to external causes.
(v).Least Count Error- The smallest value that can be measured by a measuring
instrument is called the least count error of the instrument. For example, a meter scale
having graduations 1 mm division scale spacing has a least count of 1 mm. Similarly, a
vernier caliper usually has a least count of 0.01 cm and a spherometer or a screw gauge
usually has a least count of 0.001 cm. All the readings or values measured by any
measuring instrument are good only up to its least count.
Thus, the least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
Using instruments of higher resolution and by improving experimental techniques, we
can reduce the least count error.
Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental techniques, selecting
better instruments and removing personal errors as for as possible.
2. Random Errors
Those errors which occur irregularly/randomly.
The random errors are sometimes called the ‘chance errors.’ For
example, when the same person repeats the same observation, he may get different
readings every time.
The random errors may be minimized by repeating the observation a large number of
times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations. The mean value would be
very close to the most accurate reading.
When number of observations is made n times, the random error reduces to
(1/n) time. For example, if random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is
x, then the random error in the arithmetic mean of 400 observations would be x/4.

3. Gross Errors
These errors arise on account of shear carelessness of the observer.
• Reading an instrument without setting it properly.
• Taking the observations wrongly without caring for the sources of errors and the
precautions.
• Recording the observations wrongly.
• Using wrong values of the observations in calculations.
These errors can be minimized only when the observer is sincere and mentally alert.
(a) Absolute Erro
It is the magnitude of the difference between the true and the individual measured value
of the quantity. Let the measured values a1, a2, a3 . . . an.
Arithmetic mean (true value)

_ a + a + a + - - - - ... a n _ n
a = 1 2 3
n
OR a = ai
i =1
Absolute errors
Δa =a –a
1 m 1

Δa = a – a
2 m 1

………….

Δa = Δa – Δa
m m n
(b). Mean absolute error (Δamean) -

(c). Relative error -

(d). Percentage error -

Correct value = mean value +- mean absolute error

Combination of Errors
1.Error in the sum of two quantities –
Z=A+B
ΔA = absolute error in measurement of A
ΔB = absolute error in measurement of B
ΔZ = absolute error in measurement of Z, i.e., sum of A and B.

Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB).
Z± Δ Z = (A + B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
± ΔZ = ± ΔA ± ΔB
The maximum possible error in Z , ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB

2.Error in a difference of two physical quantities -

Z=A–B
Z± Δ Z = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB) = (A – B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
± ΔZ = ± ΔA ± ΔB
3.Error in a multiplication of two physical quantities -
Z = AB
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB) = AB ± B ΔA ± A ΔB ± ΔA ΔB.
Z(1 ± ΔZ/Z) = AB [1 ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔB/B) ± (ΔA/A)(ΔB/B)].
1 ± ΔZ/Z = 1 ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔB/B) ± (ΔA/A)(ΔB/B)
ΔA and ΔB are small, we shall ignore their product. (ΔA/A)(ΔB/B neglected)
± ΔZ/Z = ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔB/B)
Hence the maximum relative error
ΔZ/ Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔB/B).
4.Error in a division of two physical quantities -
Z = A/B
Z± Δ Z = (A ± ΔA)/ (B ± ΔB)
Z [1± Δ Z] = A (1 ± ΔA/A)/ B (1 ± ΔB/B)
Z [1± Δ Z] = A/B [ (1 ± ΔA/A)/ (1 ± ΔB/B)]
[1± Δ Z] = [ (1 ± ΔA/A) / (1 ± ΔB/B)]
[1± Δ Z] = [ (1 ± ΔA/A) × (1 ± ΔB/B)-1 ] using binomial expnsion (1+x)n= 1+nx+....
[1± Δ Z] = [ (1 ± ΔA/A) × (1 ± ΔB/B) ]
1 ± ΔZ/Z = 1 ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔB/B) ± (ΔA/A)(ΔB/B)
ΔA and ΔB are small, we shall ignore their product. (ΔA/A)(ΔB/B neglected)
± ΔZ/Z = ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔB/B)
Hence the maximum relative error
ΔZ/ Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔB/B).

5. .Error in a power of physical quantities –

Z = An
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA)n
Z (1 ± ΔZ/Z) = An [1 ± (ΔA/A)]n
1 ± ΔZ/Z = [1 ± n (ΔA/A)] using bionomial expansion
± ΔZ/Z = ± n (ΔA/A)

If Z = (Ap Bq)/Cr then percentage error

ΔZ/Z × 100 = p (ΔA/A) ×100 + q (ΔB/B) ×100 + r (ΔC/C) ×100

Parallax Method- Large distances (distance of a planet or a star

from earth ) measured by the parallax method.
Parallax is the name given to change in the position of an object with
respect to the background, when the object is seen from two different
positions. The distance between the two positions (i.e. , points of
observation) is called the basis.
For example, in give figure, we hold a pen in front of us
against the background of a wall and look at the pen first by our
left eye L (closing the right eye) and then by our right eye R
(closing the left eye), we find that position of pen changes with respect to the
background wall. This is parallax. The distance between the left eye (A) and right eye
(B) in this case is the basis. Angle AOB is called the parallax angle or parallactic angle.
Taking AB as an arc of length d and radius AO = BO = d , we get,
Θ = arc / radius = AB /d
Knowing d and measuring θ, we can calculate d.
d = AB / θ