ZNOTES.

ORG
Notes 1 - covering all topics for quick revision!
(practicals not included in this file)

UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

EDEXCEL IGCSE
PHYSICS (4PH1)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

Area under the graph of a velocity-time graph indicates

distance as,
1. Forces And Motion
Total distance s = v × t

1.1. Movement and Position

Speed is a scalar quantity.

Average speed, v= TTotal

Distance
otal T ime (t)

1.2. Forces and Shape

Force is a vector quantity
Units for speed: m/s, km/h, cm/s, mph However, in the Some examples of forces are: friction, upthrust,
IGCSEs, we use metric units. Hence, always use m/s. weight, normal reaction force, etc. Its unit is Newton
Distance-time graphs: (N).
They indicate how much a vehicle has travelled within In most situations there will be more than just one force
a given interval. The gradient (slope) of distance-time acting on the object.
graphs indicates speed. Unbalanced force can be calculated by taking into
y2 −y1
Speed= Distance
T ime = x2 −x1 account the magnitude and direction of the forces acting
on a particular object.
If forces are unbalanced, it can cause the object to
change the way it moves. If balanced, the forces will have
no e ect.
Friction is the force that causes moving objects to slow
down and nally stop. Friction occurs when solid objects
rub against other solids, and also when objects move
through uids.
Forces can also change the shape of an object. These
changes in shape can be both temporary or permanent.
Ex - elastic band, it returns to its original position after
The steeper the gradient, the higher the speed. As it can be being stretched (temporary).
seen in the above graphs Ex – glass (permanent)
Springs stretch when force is applied and returns to its
Graph (a) has zero speed. original position after force is removed.
In Graph (b), Object A has higher speed than Object B. Hooke’s Law:
Speed is increasing in Graph (c). This law states that the extension of the spring is
Speed is decreasing in graph (d). directly proportional to the force applied. The graph
Lastly, speed is constant in graph (e). obtained by plotting force against extension is a
Vector quantities have both magnitude as well as straight line passing through the origin.
direction. It is applicable only up to a certain point called the
For example, displacement is distance but with a limit of proportionality. This is the point where the
particular direction whereas velocity is speed with a spring stops obeying Hooke’s law and starts to stretch
particular direction. more for each increase in the load force.
Once elastic limit has reached, the spring will not
Average velocity= increase in displacement time taken
return to its original length.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
a= change in velocity v−u
time taken = t
Negative acceleration is known as deceleration.

Velocity-time graphs:
They indicate the velocity of a particle within a given
amount of time. The gradient of velocity-time graphs
indicates acceleration.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

The graph of force against acceleration, when mass is

constant, is a straight line passing through origin.
Therefore, F ∝ a.
F = ma
Brakes on cars and bicycles work by increasing the
friction between the rotating wheels and the body of the
vehicle.
However, if the road is wet, or the tires are in bad
condition, frictional force will be smaller. If the brakes are
applied too hard, the tires will not grip the road surface
and the car will skid.
It can take a driver an amount of time to react to a new
object or situation in front of them. The time they take to
Elastic bands are made of rubber. When they are react is known as reaction time.
stretched, graphs like this are achieved. The amount of distance travelled during this reaction
time is known as thinking distance.
The distance travelled within the time when brakes are
rst applied and the car stops is known as braking
distance.
The weight of an object is the force that acts on it
because of gravity.
W = mg
An object moving through air experiences a force that
opposes its movement known as air resistance or drag.
The size of the drag force acting on an object depends on
its shape and its speed.
The drag coe cient is a measure of how easily an object
moves through the air.

1.3. Forces and Movement

If there are unbalanced forces acting on an object, the
object may accelerate or decelerate depending on the
direction of the unbalanced force.
The acceleration depends on the size of the unbalanced
force and the mass of the object.
Velocity–time graph for a free-fall parachutist
reaching terminal velocity:

1.4. Momentum

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

Momentum is a measure of how di cult it is to stop more stable the object.

something that is moving.

p = m*v 2. Electricity
The rate of change of momentum of an object is
proportional to the force applied to that object. 2.1. Mains Electricity
(mv−mu)
Rate of change of momentum = t
The total momentum of objects that collide remains the Power is measured in joules per second or watts.
same: momentum before the collision = momentum after
P=lV
the collision Watts = ampere x volts
Rockets also use the law of conservation of momentum
to propel the spacecraft through space. Energy = power x time
Seatbelts and crumple zones of cars are used to increase E = Pt
time of impact, so that the momentum can be changed. Joules = Watt x seconds
The less the momentum, the less the passengers will be Varying current or voltage in an appliance is called an
a ected. alternating current (a.c.) or alternating voltage.
Newton’s three Laws of Motion: Currents and voltages that are always in the same
Newton’s First Law: direction and have the same value is called direct current
An object will not change its motion unless acted on (d.c.) or direct voltage.
by an unbalanced force.
Newton’s Second Law:
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional
to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s Third Law:
For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Ex. when you sit down, your weight pushes down on the
seat. On the other hand, the seat pushes back on you
with an equal force in the upward direction.
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when
bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains
constant provided no external force acts on the system.

mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

1.5. The Turning E ect of Forces

All objects are turned around a xed point called a pivot.
The turning e ect of the force depends on both the size
of the force applied and on the distance from the hinge
or pivot at which it is applied.
Moment (Nm) = force (N) × perpendicular distance from
pivot, d (m)
How devices are protected:
Moment = F × d
Fuse Circuit Breaker
An object will be in balance if: sum of anticlockwise
moments = sum of clockwise moments
The point through which the entire weight of a body acts
is known as its centre of gravity.

The position of the centre of gravity of an object will

a ect its stability. The lower the centre of gravity, the

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

Fuse Circuit Breaker

A fuse protects a circuit. Thin
piece of wire which overheats
and melts if current is too
An automatic switch which if
high. It is placed on the live
current rises over a speci ed
wire before the switch. This
value, the electromagnet
prevents overheating and
pulls the contacts apart,
catching re. A fuse will have
breaking the circuit. The reset
a speci c current value (e.g.
button is to rest everything. It
13 amps.) So when choosing
works like a fuse but is better
a suitable fuse you must use
because it can be reset.
the one above minimum
value but less than maximum
value

2.2. Current and Voltages in circuits

An electric current is a ow of charge.
Electrons ow easily through all metals, so they are
labelled as good conductors of electricity.
Electrons do not ow easily through plastics - they are
poor conductors of electricity, or, an insulator.
We measure the size of the current in a circuit using an
Some modern appliances use casings made from an ammeter.
insulator such as plastic. This is known as insulation. charge, Q (coulombs) = current, I (amps) x time, t
If all the electrical parts of an appliance are insulated in (seconds)
this way, so that they cannot be touched by the user, the Q = I*t
appliance is said to have double insulation. Appliances energy transferred, E (joules) = charge, Q (coulombs) x
that have double insulation use a two-wire ex. There is voltage, V (volts)
no need for an earth wire. E = Q*V
Bene ts of Earthing a Metal Case:
Many electrical appliances, have metal cases, the There are two main types of electrical circuit:
earth wire creates a safe route for current to ow
Series circuit
through if the live wire touches the casing
Parallel circuit
Earth terminal connected to metal casing, so in such a
The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
case, the current goes through earth wire instead of
The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so
causing an electric shock.
the total current is always greater than the current in one
A strong current surges through earth wire because it
branch
has very low resistance
Combining resistors
This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance
In Series: RT otal = R1 + R2
The wires of a heating element are designed to have a 1
high resistance so that as the current passes through In Parallel: RT otal = 1
+ R12
R1
them, energy is transferred and the element heats up. The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is
We use this heating e ect of current in many di erent less than that of either resistor by itself and the
appliances in our homes such as kettles, dishwashers, current in the two resistors in greater in the source
electric cookers, etc. than in the individual resistors and is equal to the sum
of the currents in all the resistors connected in
parallel.
Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
If one lamp breaks, the other still works
Each lamp gets maximum PD
In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the
components combined
In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents in
the separate branches.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

The relationship between current, voltage and resistance

is expressed by Ohm's Law.
This states that the current owing in a circuit is directly AND gate
proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the OR gate
temperature remains constant.
NAND gate
Circuit symbols:

NOR gate
Cell
NOT gate

Battery of cells Or
2.3. Electrical Resistance
Power supply
V (volts) = I (amps) x R (ohms)
a.c. power supply
We measure resistance in units called ohms (Ω).
Junction of conductors
Current voltage graph for a wire:
Lamp
Fixed resistor
Thermistor

Variable Resistor

Light dependent resistor

Heater
Switch

Earth or Ground Current voltage graph for a lament bulb:

Electric Bell

Buzzer

Microphone

Loudspeaker

Motor Current voltage graph for a diode:

Generator

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Galvanometer
Potential Divider

Relay Coil
Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass and wood do not
Transformer
allow electricity to ow through them easily. They are
Diode electrical insulators.
Types of resistors:
Light- emitting diode Variable resistor is used to control the size of the
current in a bulb.
Fuse
Oscilloscope

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

If the resistance is decreased, there will be a larger

current and the bulb shines more brightly.
If the resistance is increased the current will be
smaller and the bulb will glow less brightly or not at
all.
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes
with small changes in temperature.

All atoms contain small particles called protons, neutrons

and electrons.

Charge Mass(AMU) location

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that Proton +1 1 Nucleus
changes when light is shone on it. In the dark its
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
resistance is high but in light, its resistance is low.
Diodes are very special resistors that allow charges to Electron -1 0 Orbitals
ow in one direction. Some diodes glow when charges
ow through them. They are called light emitting diodes If an atom gains extra electrons, it is then negatively
(LEDs). charged.
If an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
An atom that becomes charged by gaining or losing
electrons is called an ion.
When electrical insulators of di erent materials are
rubbed together, they become charge.

2.4. Electric Charge

2 types of charges: positive and negative. \
Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).
The presence of an electrostatic charge can be detected
using a leaf electroscope.
If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are
induced.
The metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or
negative) and the metal stem and gold leaf get the
other type of charge so they repel each other.

Painting an awkwardly shaped object with a spray gun

can take a long time and use a lot of paint. Hence,
electrostatic spraying is used to make the process much
more e cient.
Uses of static electricity:
Electrostatic Paint Spraying
Inkjet Printers
Photocopiers
Electrostatic Precipitator
Problems of static electricity:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

As aircraft y through the air, friction causes them to Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves
become charged with static electricity. Solution: Earth
the plane with a conductor as soon as it lands, before
refuelling.

At higher frequencies, the water waves have shorter

3. Waves wavelengths. The speed of the waves does not change.
Plane ( at) mirrors produce a re ection.
Rays from an object re ect o the mirror into our eyes,
3.1. Properties of Waves but we see them behind the mirror.
The image has these properties:
Waves are a way of transferring energy from place to
Image is the same size as the object
place.
Image is the same distance from the mirror as object
Wavefronts are created by overlapping lots of di erent
A line joining corresponding points of the image and
waves. A wavefront is a line where all the vibrations are in
object meet the mirror at a right angle
phase and the same distance from the source.
Image is virtual: no rays actually pass through the
Equation:
image and the image cannot be formed on a screen
wave speed = frequency × wavelength Doppler e ect: It is the change in wave frequency during
v = fλ the motion between a wave source and its observer.
For example, when a sound object moves towards us, the
Frequency: It is the number of waves passing any point frequency of the sound waves increases and hence a
per second measured in hertz (Hz) higher pitch is produced.

1
F requency =
Period
1
f=
T
Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds
Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the
compression of a longitudinal wave
Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to the
corresponding point on the next wave in length
Amplitude: maximum displacement of a wave from its
undisturbed point.

Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

3.2. Electromagnetic Spectrum
Travelling waves in which Travelling waves in which The electromagnetic spectrum (EM spectrum) is a
oscillation is perpendicular to oscillation is parallel to continuous spectrum of waves, which includes the visible
direction of travel direction of travel. spectrum
Has compressions and All electromagnetic waves:
Has crests and troughs
rarefactions Travel at the speed of light: approximately 3 × 108m/s.
For example, light, water They travel at around the same speed in air too.
For example, sound waves
waves and vibrating string Don’t need a medium to travel through (travel
through a vacuum)
Can transfer energy

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

Are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy

in some way
Are transverse waves

Applications: Total internal re ection: It only occurs when rays of light

Radio waves: radio and television communications are travelling towards a boundary with a less optically
Microwaves: satellite television and telephones
dense medium (a medium with a lower refractive index).
Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues Use of total internal re ection: Optical bres, submarines,
Infrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and etc.
grills), remote controllers for televisions and intruder As the bres are very narrow, light entering the inner
alarms
core always strikes the boundary of the two glasses at an
X-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer
angle that is greater than the critical angle.
cells) and security No light escapes across this boundary, providing a path
Safety issue: is a mutagen, it causes cancer that the light follows even when the bre is curved.
(mutations) Di erent materials can bend rays of light by di erent
Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and
amounts. We describe this by using a number called the
colour (used in lasers)
refractive index (n).
UV light causes the skin to tan, but overexposure (too The refractive index of glass is about 1.5 and water is 1.3.
much) will lead to sunburn and blistering. We can use the equation below to calculate the refractive
Gamma rays, like x-rays, are highly penetrating rays index of a material:
and can cause damage to living cells. This can cause
mutations which can lead to cancer. sin(i)
Gamma rays are also used to sterilize medical
n=
sin(r)
instruments, to kill microorganisms so that food will
keep for longer and to treat cancer using (where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of
radiotherapy. refraction)

Another equation can be extracted:

3.3. Light Waves
1
sin(c) =
Light waves are transverse waves that can be re ected n
and refracted.
Laws of re ection: 3.4. Sound Waves
Angle of incidence = angle of re ection
The incident ray, re ected ray and normal are always Sounds are produced by objects that are vibrating.
on the Speed of sound can be calculated using, d = v**t.
Some other properties of sound:
same plane (side of mirror) Sound waves are longitudinal: they have
compressions and rarefactions and oscillate
Critical angle: angle at which refracted ray is parallel to
backwards and forwards.
the surface of material.
Sound waves need a medium to travel through as it
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
moves due to oscillating particles.
there is no refracted ray, there is total internal re ection.
Compression: High pressure section of a longitudinal
If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle the
wave
incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and a weaker
Rarefaction: Low pressure section of a longitudinal wave
re ected ray.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

useful energy input

eff iciency = total energy output × 100

E ciency does not have a unit because it is a ratio.

4.2. Thermal Energy

Thermal or heat energy is energy that is stored in 'hot'
matter.
Thermal conduction is the transfer of thermal (heat)
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
energy through a substance by the vibration of the atoms
The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.
within the substance. The substance itself does not move.
The average person can only hear sounds that have a
Conduction is the ow of heat through matter from
frequency higher than 20 Hz but lower than 20 000 Hz.
places of higher temperature to places of lower
temperature without movement of the matter as a whole.
In non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its
atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the
adjacent atoms.

4. Energy Resources and

Energy Transfer
4.1. Energy Transfers
For energy to be useful, we need to be able to transfer it
from one form to another.
When transferring energy, some energy might be wasted.
Unwanted energy transfers reduce e ciency.
The principle of conservation of energy states that:
Energy is not created or destroyed in any process (only
transferred from one form to another).
Sankey diagrams are a simpler and clearer way of
showing what happens to an energy input into a system.
The energy ow is shown by arrows whose width is
proportional to the amount of energy involved. Wide
arrows show large energy ows, narrow arrows show In metals – conduction happens in the previous way and
small energy ows. in a quicker way –electrons are free to move, they travel
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on
the vibrations Good conductors are used whenever heat
is required to travel quickly through something
Bad conductors (insulators) are used to reduce the
amount of heat lost to the surroundings
Convection is the ow of heat through a uid from places
of higher temperature in places of lower temperature by
movement of the uid itself.
As a uid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which are
warmer become less dense and rise.
They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating a
cycle called convection current.
As particles circulate, they transfer energy to other
Real systems always have an unwanted energy output so particles. If a cooling object is above a uid it will create a
can never have 100% e ciency. convection current as well.
The e ciency of an energy conversion system is de ned
as: Radiation is the ow of heat from one place to another by
means of electromagnetic waves. It does not require a
medium.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot Type Advantages Disadvantages
objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation is
Fuel: burnt to Harmful wastes:
part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
make thermal Cheap
Greenhouse/
energy, makes Plentiful
Matt Black White Silver pollutant gas
steam, turns Low-tech
Radiation
Emitter Best Worst turbine
Re ector Worst Best
Wave energy:
Absorber Best Worst generators driven
No greenhouse
by up and down Di cult to build
An emitter sends out thermal radiation.
gases produced
motion of waves at
A re ector re ects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad sea.
absorber.
Tidal energy: dam
An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat
built where river
up more quickly and a re ector will not heat up quickly.
meets sea, lake lls Expensive
The amount of radiation also depends on the surface when tides come No greenhouse
Can’t be built
temperature and surface area of a body.
in & empties when gases produced
everywhere
Consequences of energy transfer include:
tide goes out;
Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it
water ow runs
conducts heat
generator
Convection currents create sea breezes. During the
Hydroelectric: river Low impact on
day the land is warmer and acts as heat source.
& rain ll up lake environment
During the night the sea acts as the heat source. Few areas of the
behind dam, water Energy
A black saucepan cools better than a white one, white world suitable
released, turns produced at
houses stay cooler than dark ones.
turbine ∴ constant rate
generator
4.3. Work and Power Geothermal: water
Deep drilling
pumped down to
The gravitational potential energy of an object that has No CO2 produced di cult and
hot rocks rising as
been raised to a height, h, above the ground is given by: expensive
steam
gravitational potential energy, Nuclear ssion:
Produces a lot of
uranium atoms Produces
GPE = mgh energy with very
split by shooting radioactive waste
The kinetic energy of a moving object is calculated using little resources
neutrons at them
the equation,
Wind: windmills
K.E = ½ mν2 are moved by the
No CO2/
breeze. They Few areas of the
Greenhouse gasses
In some cases, work done of object = gain in GPE before generate electricity world suitable.
produced
hitting the ground from kinetic
Work transfers energy to an object: energy.
Solar cells/
Work = Force × distance
photovoltaic cells:
Power is the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of made of materials Variable amount of
doing work. that deliver No CO2 produced sunshine in some
work done
Power = time taken
electrical current countries
when it absorbs
light
4.4. Energy Resources and Electricity
Solar panels:
Generation absorbs energy
and use it to heat
Renewable sources are not exhaustible water
Non-renewable sources of energy are exhaustible

Type Advantages Disadvantages 5. Solids, liquids and gases

5.1. Density and Pressure

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

Solids, liquids and gases have di erent properties and Solid Liquid Gas
characteristic Almost no
mass
Density = volume Strong forces of Weaker attractive
intermolecular
attraction between forces than solids-
m forces- large
ρ= particles- particles medium distances
v distances between
close to each other. between particles
particles
The units for density are
No xed pattern,
kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) or, Fixed pattern Particles far apart,
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).
liquids take shape
(lattice) and move quickly
Force of their container
Pressure = Area
Atoms vibrate but
F Collide with each
can’t change Particles slide past
P = other and bounce
A position ∴ xed each other
in all directions
volume and shape
Gases also exert pressure on things around them. The
pressure exerted by the atmosphere on your body is
Some other properties:
about 100,000 Pa.
mass of water, m = (A x h) x p
This equation can be used for calculating pressure
di erences in other liquids or gases, as long as you know
their densities.
Density of a liquid: Place measuring cylinder on balance.
Add liquid. Reading on measuring cylinder = V, change in
mass on balance = m. Use formula.
Density of solid:
Finding the volume: To nd out volume of a regular
object, use mathematical formula. To nd out volume
of an irregular object, put object into a measuring
cylinder with water and the rise of water is the volume ΔQ = mcΔT
of the object.
When you supply energy to a substance you would expect
Finding the mass: Use balance
its temperature to rise and this is generally true.
An object will oat in a uid if its density is lesser than the
The more the kinetic energy in a gas, the faster its
density of the liquid, i.e. The volume of uid displaced has
a greater mass than the object itself. particles move and therefore the gas is at a higher
Equation: temperature.
The pressure gases exert on a container is due to the
pressure di erence = height × density × gravitational eld particles colliding on the container walls.
strength The greater the kinetic energy in gasses the faster they
ΔP = ρhg move and the more often they collide on the container’s
walls.
Therefore, the volume is constant, then increasing the
5.2. Solids, Liquids and Gases
temperature will increase the pressure.
Thus, if there is a change in momentum of the particles,
the kinetic energy decreases, decreasing the collisions on
the container walls and thus the pressure.
GAS LAWS:
Charles' Law- gives the relationship between volume
and temperature if pressure and amount of gas are
held constant. Volume and temperature are inversely
proportional.
Solid Liquid Gas
Boyle's Law - states that the volume of a given
Fixed volume but
No xed shape or amount of gas held at constant temperature varies
Fixed shape and changes shape
volume, gases ll inversely with the applied pressure when the
volume depending on its
up containers temperature and mass are constant.
container
Pressure law - states that for a xed mass of gas the
pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin
temperature once the volume is kept constant.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

P1 P2 A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized

=
T1 T2 when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is
usually weak.
If the volume increases and the temperature stays
It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with
constant, the particles hit the surface less often, thus one end of a magnet
decreasing the pressure. Most e ective method: place it in a solenoid and pass
P1V1**=**P2V2
a large, direct current (d.c.) through the coil.
Methods of demagnetisation:
PV = constant
If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are
The constant is valid at a xed mass of gas at a constant thrown out of line and it becomes demagnetized.
temperature. Heating a magnet to a high temperature also
At a temperature of - 273℃, the pressure of the gas demagnetize it.
would be zero. This temperature is known as 'absolute Stroking with another magnet to destroy the
zero'. alignment of poles
Place magnet with poles opposite to that which is
induced by a d.c. current and insert into coil with d.c.
current
Most e cient method: place magnet inside a solenoid
connected to an alternating current (a.c.) supply.

Soft iron Steel

Gets
magnetized Slow to be
faster but loses magnetized
its magnetism but retains
as soon as acquired
inducing magnetism for
To convert from a Celsius scale (in °C) to a Kelvin scale magnet is a long time.
temperature (in K), add 273 to the Celsius scale removed.
temperature:
temperature in K = temperature in ℃ + 273 High Low
susceptibility susceptibility
but low but high
6. Magnetism and retentivity retentivity

Electromagnetism Use: core in the Use: making

transformer magnets.
6.1. Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Magnets have a magnetic eld around them Electromagnetism
They 2 opposite poles (North and South) which exert
forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and unlike (Transformers)
poles attract. This is caused by the interaction of
magnetic elds.
Therefore, if magnets are facing each other with
opposite poles, they will come together given a small
space between them
They attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent
or temporary) magnetism in them.
Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material
On the left hand side there is a primary coil and on the right
The direction of an electric eld at a point is the direction
of the force on a positive charge at that point hand side there is a secondary coil.
These 2 coils are completely 2 di erent coils.
Induced Magnetism:
These 2 coil are wrapped around an iron core because it can
Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in
be easily magnetise.
them; the material becomes a magnet as well.
Primary coil is connected to a (AC) Alternating current with
The side of the material facing the magnet will
become the opposite pole as the magnet. high voltage (P.D)
Methods of inducing magnetism:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

When the current goes through the primary coil it creates Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)
magnetic elds which are constantly changing its direction. Helium nucleus One high Electro-
This magnetic eld passes through the iron core and it is Nature (2 protons and 2 speed magnetic
passed to the secondary coil. When the current enters the electrons) electron radiation
secondary coil it changes the Voltage or the P.D
Charge +2 -1 none
Iron core is used to increase the magnetic eld and it can be
easily magnetized. Stopped by Stopped by Only reduced
Penetration
Transformers only works with the AC current because we paper aluminium by lead
constantly need change in the magnetic eld to induce the E ect from Very
De ected Not de ected
P.D elds de ected
If there are the same number of turns of the coil then the P.D Ionizing
Very strong Weak Very weak
will remain the same assuming there is no energy wasted. e ect
If there are more turns in the secondary coil then the P.D will Speed ⁄ c ⁄ c c
be greater than the current in the primary coil. This is called a
step-up transformer.
Depending on their charge, they will be a ected by
If there are a double number of turns then the P.D will also
electric and magnetic elds.
be doubled.
The parent nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a
Step down transformers are transformers with more number
particle (decay products).
of turns in the primary coil.
The nucleus changes when undergoing alpha or beta
decay
6.2. Equations
Alpha decay: An element with a proton number 2 lower and
nucleon number 4 lower, and an alpha particle is made (2p +
2n)
e.g. 88226Ra → 86222Rn + 24α
Beta decay:

A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an

antineutrino so an element with the same nucleon
number but with a proton number 1 higher e.g.

e.g. 53131I → 54131Xe + − 10β + 00v

Gamma emission:
7. Radioactivity and Particles
Gamma emission causes no change in mass number or
atomic number; they just emit energy
7.1. Atoms and Radioactivity Some isotopes do not change in mass or atomic number
however they emit energy as their particles rearrange
Atoms consist of: themselves to become more stable
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons
(positively charged) and neutrons. These two types of Radiation and Half-Life
particles are called nucleons. They are bound
together by the strong nuclear force. The unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq). It is a
Electrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating
nucleus in shells per second.
Background radiation: small amount of radiation around
This is proved by Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Proton number: number of protons in an atom us because of radioactive materials in the environment.
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons + Mainly comes from natural sources such as soil, rocks,
neutrons) in an atom air, building materials, food and drink – and even space.
Isotope:
Sources of Background Radiation:
Atoms of the same element that have di erent
numbers of neutrons e.g., Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
There are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-
isotopes.
Radio isotopes are unstable atoms, which break down
giving radiation
Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space & time

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

detected using a Geiger counter.

Archaeological use: carbon 14 – used for carbon
dating.
Radioactive material is stored in a lead container
Picked up with tongs, not bare hands
Kept away from the body and not pointed at people
Left out of its container for as short a time as possible

Fission and Fusion

Nuclear reactions involve a change in the qualities of

atoms. Heavy atoms split into lighter atoms and other
pieces in a process called ssion.
Lighter atoms may be forced to join together to make
heavier atoms in a process called fusion.
Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
A Geiger-Müller (GM) tube can be used to detects α, β and It is used because its nuclei can be split by a neutron. The
γ radiation. process of splitting an atom is called ssion.
Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (unstable arrangement In the ssion reaction, a slow-moving neutron is
of neutrons and protons) is altered to make a more absorbed by a nucleus of U-235.
stable arrangement. The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and
Half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half the splits apart.
nuclei present in any given sample to decay. The fragments of this decay are the two daughter nuclei
Some nuclei are more stable than others. of barium-144 and krypton-89.
Remember to factor background radiation in half-life The ssion reaction produces a huge amount of energy.
calculations involving tables and decay curves. If more than one neutron from each ssion causes ssion
The rate of decay, C, corrected for background radiation, in surrounding nuclei, then the reaction gets faster and
is proportional to the amount of radioactive isotope faster. This is called a chain reaction.
present. If we plot a graph of C against time, t, we can Each ssion results in more nuclei splitting apart.
measure the half-life from the graph. If the process is allowed to take place in a nuclear reactor,
the reactor core overheats, resulting in a nuclear
explosion with the sudden release of enormous amounts
of heat energy and radiation.
In a nuclear reactor the process is controlled so heat
energy is released over a longer period of time.
The heat produced in the core or heart of the reactor is
used to heat water.
The steam produced then drives turbines to turn
generators.

Half-life calculations: Graphs of activity, in becquerels,

against time can be used to nd the half-life of an
isotope, and this half-life information can be used to
make predictions of the activity of the radioisotope at a
In the reactor, graphite is used as a moderator.
later time.
The moderator absorbs some of the kinetic energy of the
Applications of Radioactivity neutrons to slow them down.
The control rods are made of boron or cadmium.
Uses: They absorb the neutrons and take them out of the
Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays ssion process completely.
kill cancer cells using cobalt-60 The reactor vessel is made of steel and surrounded by a
Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes concrete layer which prevents any radiation escaping.
(tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is Fusion is the energy source for stars.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

The problem in fusion is creating the very high There are three di erent ways in which astronomers
temperatures needed to make the deuterium and tritium describe the brightness of a star:
nuclei collide. The apparent brightness or magnitude of a star. This
Enough energy to overcome the repulsive force between is the easiest method and is simply a measure of how
the positive electric charge in the nuclei of each isotope is bright a star is as seen from the Earth.
needed. The absolute brightness or magnitude. This is a
measure of how bright stars would appear if they
were all placed the same distance away from the
8. Astrophysics Earth.
The luminosity of a star. This measures how much
energy in the form of light is emitted from a star's
8.1. Motion in the Universe
surface every second.
The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies. When a star rst forms, gravitational forces are pulling
A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars. particles together.
Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy. When nuclear reactions begin, the high temperatures
There is always a force of attraction between any two create forces that try to push the particles When these
objects. This attraction is due to the masses of the two forces are balanced, the star is said to be in its main
objects. This force is called gravitational force. stable period.
The size of this force depends on the: A star in this main stable period is referred to as a main
masses of the two objects sequence star.
distance between the masses. Towards the end of this stable period, there are less
The Sun is the gravitational attraction between this mass hydrogen nuclei and eventually the hydrogen fusion
and each of the planets that holds the Solar System reactions stop.
together and causes the planets to follow their curved As the star shrinks in size there is a large increase in
paths. temperature. So high that fusion reactions between
Those planets that are closest to the Sun feel the greatest helium nuclei begin. The energy released by these
attraction and so follow the most curved paths. reactions causes the star to expand to many times its
Planets that are the furthest from the Sun feel the original size.
weakest pull and follow the least curved path. As it expands it becomes a little cooler and more of its
A satellite is an object that orbits a planet. There are two light energy is emitted in the red part of the spectrum.
types of satellite: natural and arti cial (human-made). The star is changing into a red giant.
Comets are large rock-like pieces of ice that orbit the Sun. Sometime later when most of the helium nuclei have
They have very elliptical (elongated) orbits which at times fused (joined) together, new nuclear reactions begin, but
take them very close to the Sun. now the compressive or squashing forces are larger and
The strength of gravity on a planet or moon is called its the star begins to get smaller or contract.
gravitational eld strength, and given the symbol g. This contraction causes an increase in temperature so the
Di erent planets have di erent masses and di erent star again changes colour.
It now emits more blue and white light. It has changed
radii.
The larger the mass of a planet the greater its into a white dwarf star.
gravitational eld strength. Finally, as a white dwarf star cools it changes into a cold
The larger the radius of a planet the smaller the black dwarf star.
gravitational eld strength at its surface.
On the Moon, the gravitational eld strength is only one
sixth that of the Earth's.
The distance moved by a satellite is the circumference of
a circle with the radius, r.
The time period, T, is the time for one complete orbit. A star that is much larger than our Sun will expand into a
large red supergiant.
2 πr As it contracts it becomes unstable. It explodes throwing
v=
T dust and gas into space to form a new stellar nebula. This
exploding star is called a supernova.
8.2. Stellar Evolution Any matter remaining will form a very dense neutron
star. If the neutron star has a mass that is approximately
Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. ve times greater than that of our Sun or more, it
The colours of stars tell us about their temperatures. A collapses further to become a black hole.
very hot star emits blue in its spectrum and therefore
looks blue, a medium star like our Sun looks yellow and
cooler stars appear red.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS (4PH1)

8.3. Cosmology
The Universe is expanding and at some time in the past,
all the matter in the Universe was in one place just before
an explosion. This theory is called the Big Bang theory.
The equation below shows us how to calculate the speed
at which a star or galaxy is moving relative to us. change
in wavelength,

change in wavelength, △λ velocity of a galaxy, v

=
ref erence in wavelength, λ speed of light, c
λ − λ0 Δλ v
= =
λ0 λ0 c
The Doppler e ect is a property of all waves.
When astronomers look at light spectra from distant stars
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram): shows
and galaxies, they can see the Doppler e ect.
the relationship between the brightness, temperature
In the 1960s scientists detected this afterglow of energy.
and classi cation of a star. They are microwaves and can be detected in all directions
in the Universe. They became known as cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation.
Red-shift indicates that the source of the light waves is
moving away from the observer. Blue-shift would indicate
that the source of light is moving towards the observer.
When we compare the light emitted from all the di erent
galaxies a clear pattern emerges.
Almost all the galaxies emit light with red-shift.
The further away a galaxy is the greater the red-shift and
therefore the faster it is moving away from us.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG