CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS (0625)

A curved speed time graph means changing acceleration.

Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity per unit of
1. General Physics time, and a vector as it’s direction is specified

1.1. Length and Time

DISTANCE TIME GRAPHS
LENGTH

A rule (ruler) is used to measure length for distances

between 1mm and 1meter.
For even smaller lengths, use a micrometer screw gauge.
SI unit for length is the meter (m)
To find out volume of regular object, use mathematical
formula
Gradient = xy22 −y
−x 1 =
​

​
1 ​

​
​
Δd
t ​ = Speed (m/s)
To find out volume of irregular object, put object into
measuring cylinder with water. When object added, it Therefore, distance:
displaces water, making water level rise. Measure this
With constant speed: Speed × T ime
With constant acceleration1:
Final Speed+Initial Speed
rise. This is the volume. 2 ​ ×
T ime

TIME
ACCELERATION BY GRAVITY
Interval of time is measured using clocks or a stopwatch
SI unit for time is the second(s) An object in free-fall near to the Earth has a constant
To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make a acceleration caused by gravity due to the Earth’s uniform
spin, time ~25 circles and then divide by the same number gravitational field
as the number of circles. Objects are slowed down by air resistance. When
deceleration caused by air resistance = acceleration by
1.2. Motion gravity, i.e. no net force acting on a body in free fall, the
body reached terminal velocity
Speed is the distance an object moves in a time frame. It
is measured in meters/second (m/s) or kilometers/hour 1.3. Mass and Weight
(km/h).
Mass: A measure of matter in a body and the body’s
Total Distance resistance to motion.
∴ Speedaverage =
Total Time
​ ​

Weight is the force of gravity on a body as a result of its

Speed is a scalar quantity as it only shows magnitude. mass.
Speed in a specified direction is velocity, which is a vector
Weight = Mass × G
Weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a
balance
SPEED TIME GRAPHS

1.4. Density
Mass (m)
Density (ρ) =
Volume (V)
​

Density of a liquid: Place measuring cylinder on balance.

Area under the line equals to the distance travelled Add liquid. Reading on measuring cylinder = V, change in
y2 − y1 Δv 2 mass on balance = m. Use formula.
Gradient = ​

x 2 −x 1
​

= t = Acceleration (m/s) Density of solid:

​ ​

​ ​

Positive acceleration means the velocity of a body is

Finding the volume: To find out volume of a regular
increasing
object, use mathematical formula. To find out volume
Deceleration or negative acceleration means the velocity
of an irregular object, put object into a measuring
of a body is decreasing

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cylinder with water and the rise of water is the volume First law of motion: If no external force is acting on it, an
of the object. object will, if stationary, remain stationary, and if moving,
Finding the mass: Use balance keep moving at a steady speed in the same straight line.
An object will float in a fluid if it’s density is lesser than the is acting on it, an object will, if stationary, remain
density of the liquid, i.e. The volume of fluid displaced has stationary, and if moving, keep moving at a steady speed
a greater mass than the object itself. in the same straight line
Example: an orange with its peel has a density of Second law of motion: F = ma
0.84g/cm3, we can predict that it will float in water Third law of motion: if object A exerts a force on object B,
then object B will exert an equal but opposite force on
because it is less than 1 g/cm3 (density of water). We can
object A
also say, that an orange without its peel, which has a
density of 1.16g/cm3, will sink because it is greater than
1g/cm3.
HOOKE’S LAW

Springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are

under their proportional limit.
Limit of proportionality: point at which load and extension
are no longer proportional
Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to its
original shape after being stretched

Load (In Newtons) = Spring C onstant × extension

F = kx

1.5. Forces
Force is measured in Newtons

Force = Mass × Acceleration

1 Newton is the amount of force needed to give 1kg an
acceleration of 1m/s2
A force may produce a change in size and shape of a
body, give an acceleration or deceleration or a change in
direction depending on the direction of the force.
The resultant of forces acting in the same dimension will
be their sum, provided a convention for directions is set.
Therefore, the resultant of 2 forces acting in the same
dimension, in the opposite direction will be the difference
in their magnitude in the direction of the greatest.
If there is no resultant force acting on a body, it either
remains at rest or continues at constant speed in a
straight line CIRCULAR MOTION

An object at steady speed in circular orbit is always

accelerating as its direction is changing, but it gets no
RESISTIVE FORCES closer to the center. The speed of the ball stays constant.
Centripetal force is the force acting towards the center of
Friction: the force between two surfaces which impedes a circle. It is a force that is needed, not caused, by circular
motion and results in heating motion,
Air resistance is a form of friction For example, when you swing a ball on a string round in a
circle, the tension of the string is the centripetal force. If
the string is cut then the ball will travel in a straight line at
a tangent to the circle at the point where the string was
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
cut.
First law of motion: If no external force Centrifugal force is the force acting away from the center
of a circle. This is what makes a slingshot go outwards as

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you spin it. The centrifugal force is the reaction to the

centripetal force. It has the same magnitude but opposite
direction to centripetal force.

1.6. Moments
A moment is the measure of the turning effect on a body
and is defined as:

M oment (N m) = F orce (N ) × P erpendicular

distance from P ivot (m) A parallelogram has to be made with the acting forces (F1

Therefore, increasing force or distance from the pivot and F2). The resultant force will be the diagonal. Make
increases the moment of a force sure the same scale is used to convert between length
This explains why levers are force magnifiers and forces. Measure length of diagonal and use scale to
Turning a bolt is far easier with a wrench because the convert value into force (FR).
perpendicular distance from pivot is massively
increased, and so is the turning effect. 1.9. Momentum
In equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
there is no resultant force acting on the body. Momentum: product of mass and velocity
This can be proven by hanging masses of the same
weight on opposite sides of a meter rule on a pivot at p = mv
equal distances from the pivot showing that the meter
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when
rule in stationary.
bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains
constant provided no external force acts on the system.
1.7. Centre of Mass
mA u A + mB u B = mA v A + mB v B
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Centre of mass: imaginary point in a body where total

mass of body seems to be acting. Impulse: product of force and time for which it acts
An object will be in stable equilibrium when it returns to its
Ft = mv − mu
original position given a small displacement.
For an object that is displaced, it will stabilize only if the
force caused by it’s weight is within it’s base. 1.10. Energy
Energy: amount of work and its measured in Joules (J)
An object may have energy due to its motion or its
position
Conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or
destroyed, when work is done, energy is changed from
one form to another.
Energy can be stored

Energy type What it is Example

Kinetic Due to motion Car moving
Gravitational From potential to fall Book on shelf
Chemical In chemical bonds Bonds in starch (food)
Strain Compress/stretch Stretched elastic band
For an object to start rotating it needs to have an
Atoms Released in nuclear
unbalanced moment acting on it Nuclear
rearranged/split plant
Internal Motion of molecules In a glass of water
1.8. Scalars and Vectors
Electrical Carried by electrons Battery to bulb
A scalar is a quantity that only has a magnitude (so it can Light Carried in light waves From sun
only be positive) for example speed. Carried in sound
Sound From speaker
A vector quantity has a direction as well as a magnitude, waves
for example velocity, which can be negative.
Calculating resultant force:

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1 Type Advantages Disadvantages

K inetic energy = × M ass × Velocity2
2
​

Nuclear fission:
Produces a lot of
1 uranium atoms split Produces
K.E. = mv2 energy with very
2 by shooting radioactive waste
​

little resources
neutrons at them
Graviational P otential Energy = M ass
Wind: windmills are
×Gravity × Height
moved by the No CO2/
Few areas of the
G.P.E. = mgh breeze. They Greenhouse gasses
world suitable.
generate electricity produced
Example of conversion of energy: A book on a shelf has from kinetic energy.
g.p.e , if it falls of the shelf it will have k.e Solar cells/
Due to the processes through which energy transfers take photovoltaic cells:
place not being 100% efficient, energy is lost to the made of materials Variable amount of
surrounding and therefore energy gets more spread out that deliver No CO2 produced sunshine in some
(dissipated) electrical current countries
Efficiency: how much useful work is done with energy when it absorbs
supplied light

Efficiency = U sef ul Energy Output

× 100 Solar panels:
Energy input
absorbs energy and
​

U sef ul Power Output

Efficiency = Power input ​× 100 use it to heat water

1.11. Energy Resources 1.12. Work and Power

Renewable sources are not exhaustible
Work is done whenever a force makes something move.
Non-renewable sources of energy are exhaustible
W = ΔE
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Fuel: burnt to make Harmful wastes: The unit for work is the Joule (J).
thermal energy, Cheap, Plentiful, (Greenhouse/ 1 joule of work = force of 1 Newton moves an object by 1
makes steam, turns Low-tech pollutant gas, meter
turbine Radiation)
Work done (J) = Force (N) × Distance (m)
Wave energy:
generators driven W = FD
No greenhouse
by up and down Difficult to build
gases produced
motion of waves at Power is the rate of work
sea. The unit for power is Watts (W)
Tidal energy: dam 1W = 1J/s
built where river Work Done (J)
meets sea, lake fills Expensive Power (W) =
No greenhouse Time Taken (s)
​

when tides comes Can’t be built

gases produced
in & empties when everywhere
tide goes out; water 1.13. Pressure
flow runs generator
Pressure is the force per unit area.
Hydroelectric: river
Low impact on
& rain fill up lake Force (N)
environment Few areas of the Pressure (Pa ) =
behind dam, water Area (m2 )
Energy produced at world suitable
​

released, turns
constant rate
turbine ∴ generator F
P=
Geothermal: water A
​

Deep drilling
pumped down to
No CO2 produced difficult and Unit: Pascals (Pa) = N/m2
hot rocks rising as
expensive In Liquids
steam
Pressure (Pa ) = Density(kg/m3 ) × Gravity(m/s2 )

P = hρg

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Therefore, as the depth of a fluid increases, the pressure Solid Liquid Gas
caused by the whole liquid increases. Almost no
Measuring Pressure: Manometer Strong forces of Weaker attractive
intermolecular
Measures the pressure difference attraction between forces than solids-
forces- large
The height difference shows the excess pressure in particles- particles medium distances
distances between
addition to the atmospheric pressure. close to each other. between particels
particles
No fixed pattern,
Fixed pattern Particles far apart,
liquids take shape
(lattice) and move quickly
of their container
Atoms vibrate but
Collide with each
can’t change Particles slide past
other and bounce in
position ∴ fixed each other.
all directions
volume and shape

The more the kinetic energy in a gas, the faster it’s

particles move and therefore the gas is at a higher
temperature.
Measuring Pressure: Barometer The pressure gases exert on a container is due to the
Tube with vacuum at the top and mercury filling the particles colliding on the container walls.
rest. The greater the kinetic energy in gasses the faster they
Pressure of the air pushes down on reservoir, forcing move and the more often they collide on the container’s
mercury up the tube. walls.
Measure height of mercury Therefore, the volume is constant, then increasing the
~760 mm of mercury is 1 atm. temperature will increase the pressure.
Thus, if there is a change in momentum of the particles,
the kinetic energy decreases, decreasing the collisions on
the container walls and thus the pressure.

BROWNIAN MOTION

Gas molecules move randomly. This is because of

repeated random collisions with other gas molecules,
which constantly change the direction they move in.
Small molecules move much faster and have higher
energy than larger molecules. They can effectively move
large molecules due to repeated random bombardment-
this can be seen by larger smoke particles moving.
2. Thermal Physics Therefore, the random motion of particles in a suspension
is evidence for the kinetic molecular model of matter.

2.1. Simple Kinetic Molecular Model of

Matter

2.2. Evaporation
It is the escape of more energetic particles from the
Solid Liquid Gas
surface of a liquid.
Fixed volume but If more energetic particles escape, the liquid contains few
No fixed shape or
Fixed shape and changes shape
volume, gases fill high energy particles and more low energy particles so
volume depending on its
up containers the average temperature decreases.
container

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In the above graph, the number of particles with higher

kinetic energies has gone down.’ Temperature can be measured by observing a physical
Therefore a body in contact with an evaporating liquid property that changes with temperature. Examples
with subsequently cool. include alcohol and mercury - used in thermometers.
Fixed points are definite temperatures at which
Evaporation can be accelerated by: something happens and are used to calibrate a
Increasing temperature: more particles have energy thermometer. For example, melting and boiling point of
to escape water
Increasing surface area: more molecules are close to Sensitivity: Change in length or volume per degree
the surface Range: The values which can be measured using the
Reduce humidity level in air (draught): if the air is less thermometer
humid, fewer particles are condensing. Linearity: Uniform changes in the physical property with a
change in temperature over the measured temperature
2.3. Pressure Changes in Gases values.
Responsiveness: How long it takes for the thermometer to
Pressure is inversely proportional to the volume given a react to a change in temperature
constant temperature. Calibrating a thermometer:
If the volume increases and the temperature stays Place thermometer in melting ice, this is 0 °C.
constant, the particles hit the surface less often, thus Place thermometer in boiling water, this is 100 °C.
decreasing the pressure. Liquid-in-glass thermometer:

P 1 V1 = P 2 V2
​ ​ ​ ​

PV = constant
The constant is valid at a fixed mass of gas at a constant
temperature.
As the temperature increases of a fixed mass of gas, the
pressure increases as the average kinetic energy
increases… Refer card 'Simple Kinetic Molecular Model of As temperature rises or falls, the liquid (mercury or
Matter' for more detail. alcohol) expands or contracts.
Amount of expansion can be matched to temperature on
2.4. Thermal properties and a scale.
To increase sensitivity:
temperature Thinner capillary
Less dense liquid
Solids, liquids and gasses expand when they are heated Bigger bulb
as atoms vibrate more and this causes them to become Depending on the melting and boiling point of the liquid
further apart, taking up a greater volume. being used, the range is defined.
Due to differences in molecular structure of the different The linearity depends on the liquid being used
states of matter, expansion is greatest in gases, less so in
liquids and lowest in solids Thermocouple thermometer:
Applications and consequences of thermal expansion:
Overhead cables have to be slack so that on cold days,
when they contract, they don’t snap or detach.
Gaps have to be left in bridge to allow for expansion
Bimetal thermostat: when temperature gets too high,
bimetal strip bends, to make contacts separate until
temperature falls enough, then metal strip will
become straight again and contacts touch, to maintain The probe contains 2 different metals joined to form 2
a steady temperature junctions.

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The temperature difference causes a tiny voltage which E

Lf / Lv =
makes a current flow. m
​ ​ ​

A greater temp. difference gives a greater current.

The difference between boiling and evaporation is that:
Thermocouple thermometers are used for high
Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature and throughout
temperatures which change rapidly and have a large
the liquid
range (-200C° to 1100°C)
Evaporation occurs at any temperature and only on
the surface
2.5. Thermal Capacity Condensation is when a gas turns back into a liquid.
When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy. They
The rise in temperature of a body is an increase in the move more and more slowly. When they bump into each
internal energy of that body. The average kinetic energy other, they do not have enough energy to bounce away
of a gas particle is directly proportional to the again so they stay close together, and a liquid forms.
temperature. When of that gas particle. particles move When a liquid cools, the particles slow down even more.
faster due to greater kinetic energy, they collide more Eventually they stop moving except for vibrations and a
often, which is felt by heat solid forms.
This relationship is shown by the thermal capacity of a
Specific Heat capacity (c) is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a certain
2.7. Thermal Properties
substance by 1o C. Conduction is the flow of heat through matter from places
Q of higher temperature to places of lower temperature
c = mΔT
without movement of the matter as a whole
​

Thermal Capacity (Q) is the amount of energy required to

raise the temperature of an object by 1oC.

Q = mc

IMPORTANT: The Q’s in both equations are NOT the same, In non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its
however the c’s are. atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the
adjacent atoms.
In metals – conduction happens in the previous way and in
2.6. Melting and Boiling a quicker way –electrons are free to move, they travel
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on
Melting is when a solid turns into a liquid. the vibrations Good conductors are used whenever heat
The temperature increases thus kinetic energy in solid is required to travel quickly through something
increases and particles vibrate more rapidly. Bad conductors (insulators) are used to reduce the
When melting starts there is no increase in temperature amount of heat lost to the surroundings
of the substance because thermal energy supplied is Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from places
being used to break bonds between particles of the solid of higher temperature in places of lower temperature by
thus making it into a liquid. movement of the fluid itself.
The latent heat of fusion is the amount of energy needed As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which are
to melt 1Kg of a substance warmer become less dense and rise.
The melting point is the temp. at which a substance They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating a
liquefy cycle called convection current.
Boiling is when a liquid turns into a gas As particles circulate they transfer energy to other
The temperature increases thus kinetic energy in liquid particles. If a cooling object is above a fluid it will create a
increases and particles vibrate more rapidly. convection current as well.
When boiling starts, there is no increase in temperature
of the substance because the thermal energy supplied is
being used to break bonds between particles of the liquid
thus making it into a gas.
The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of energy
needed to boil 1Kg of a substance
The boiling point is the temp. at which a substance boils

Specific latent heat of fusion vaporization =

Energy Transferred
Mass
​

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Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the
means of electromagnetic waves. It does not require a compression of a longitudinal wave
medium. Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to the
objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation is corresponding point on the next wave in length
part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Amplitude: maximum displacement of a wave from its
undisturbed point.

Matt Black White Silver

Emitter Best → Worst
Reflector Worst → Best Transverse Waves
Absorber Best → Worst Travelling waves in which oscillation is perpendicular
to direction of travel
An emitter sends out thermal radiation. Has crests and troughs
A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad For example, light, water waves and vibrating string
absorber.
An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat up
more quickly and a reflector will not heat up quickly.
The amount of radiation also depends on the surface
temperature and surface area of a body.
Consequences of energy transfer include:
Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it
conducts heat
Convection currents create sea breezes. During the
day the land is warmer and acts as heat source.
During the night the sea acts as the heat source.
A black saucepan cools better than a white one, white
houses stay cooler than dark ones.

Longitudinal Waves
3. Properties of Waves, Travelling waves in which oscillation is parallel to
direction of travel.
Including Light and Sound Has compressions and rarefactions
For example, sound waves

3.1. General Wave Properties

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
Examples of wave motion include:
Water Waves
Ropes
Springs Speed (m/s) = F requncy(Hz) × Wavelength(m)
Frequency: the number of waves passing any point per
second measured in hertz (Hz)
V = Fλ

1 Refraction:
Frequency = Speed and wave length is reduced but frequency stays
Period
​

the same and the wave changes direction

Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds

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Mechanical waves slow down when they pass from a

denser to a rarer material and vice versa
Note: Electromagnetic waves like light increase in
speed from an optically denser to a rarer medium.
When wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards
normal (i > r)
When wave is sped up, it is refracted away from
normal (i < r)
Deep water is denser than shallow water
Deep water to shallow water: speed decreases, 3.2. Reflection of Light
wavelength decreases, and frequency remains
constant Plane (flat) mirrors produce a reflection.
Rays from an object reflect off the mirror into our eyes,
but we see them behind the mirror.
The image has these properties:
Image is the same size as the object
Image is the same distance from the mirror as object
A line joining corresponding points of the image and
object meet the mirror at a right angle
Shallow water to deep water: speed increases wavelength Image is virtual: no rays actually pass through the
increases, and frequency remains constant image and the image cannot be formed on a screen

Reflection:
Waves bounce away from surface at same angle they Laws of reflection:
strike it Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection The incident ray reflected ray and normal are always
The incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie on the on the same plane (side of mirror)
same plane. Critical angle: angle at which refracted ray is parallel to
Speed, wavelength and frequency are unchanged by the surface of material.
reflection If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
there is no refracted ray, there is total internal reflection.
If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle the
incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and a weaker
reflected ray.

Speed of light in vacuum

Diffraction: Refractive Index =
Speed of light in a medium
​

Waves bend round the sides of an obstacle or spread

out as they pass through a gap. sin i
Refractive Index =
Wider gaps produce less diffraction. sin r
​

When the gap size is equal to the wavelength, 1

maximum diffraction occurs Critical angle = sin−1
n
​

3.3. Refraction of Light

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Refraction is the bending when light travels from one B) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus
medium to another due to the change in speed of the ray on the other side of the lens
of light. C) A ray through F’ will leave the lens parallel to the principal
axis

Virtual Image

When the object is closer to the optical centre than F’ is

Magnifying glass: when a convex lens is used like this - an

object is closer to a convex (converging) lens than the
Note: principal focus (like the diagram above), the rays never
The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray only if converge. Instead, they appear to come from a position
the sides of the glass are parallel) behind the lens. The image is upright and magnified, it is a
i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction virtual image.
Light put in at one end is totally internally reflected until it Images can be:
comes out the other end. Enlarged: The image is larger than the object.
Application: Optical Fibres Same size: The image is the same size as the object.
Used in communications: signals are coded and sent Diminished: The image is smaller than the object.
along the fiber as pulses of laser light Upright: The image is in the same vertical orientation
Used in medicine: an endoscope, an instrument used as the object.
by surgeons to look inside the body; contains a long
bundle of optic fibers.
3.5. Dispersion of Light
3.4. Thin Converging Lens Refraction by a prism:

Principal focus: the point where rays parallel to the When light is refracted by a prism, the incidence ray is not
principal axis converge with a converging lens. parallel to the emergent ray, since the prism’s sides are
Focal length: distance from principle focus and the optical not parallel.
center. If a beam of white light is passed through a prism it is
Principal axis: line that goes through optical center, and dispersed into a spectrum.
the 2 foci. White light is a mixture of colors, and the prism refracts
Optical center: the center of the lens each color by a different amount – red is deviated least &
Real: image can be caught on a screen violet most
Virtual: image cannot be caught on a screen Monochromatic light is that of a single frequency and
colour.
The visible spectrum of light is acronymed as ROYGBIV
Real Image

When object is further away from the optical centre than

F’ is

A) A ray through centre of the lens passes straight through

the lens.

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Sound is a mechanical wave.

Sound waves come from a vibrating source e.g.
loudspeaker
As the loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves forwards and
backwards, which squashes & stretches the air in front.
As a result, a series of compressions (squashes) and
rarefactions (stretches) travel out through the air, these
are sound waves
Humans can hear frequencies between 20 and 20 000Hz.
Properties:
Sound waves are longitudinal: they have
compressions and rarefactions and oscillate
backwards and forwards.
Sound waves need a medium to travel through as it
moves due to oscillating particles.
Ultrasound Waves: high frequency sound waves,
medically used to look at structures and organs inside the
human body, i.e. to form an image of a fetus in a
pregnancy

3.6. Electromagnetic Spectrum

ROMAN MEN INVENTED VERY UNUSUAL XRAY GUNS

All electromagnetic waves:

Travel at the speed of light: approximately 3 × Compression: High pressure section of a longitudinal
10 8 m/s. wave
They travel at around the same speed in air too. Rarefaction: Low pressure section of a longitudinal wave
Don’t need a medium to travel through (travel through
a vacuum)
Can transfer energy
Are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy
in some way
Are transverse waves
Applications:
Radio waves: radio and television communications
Microwaves: satellite television and telephones
Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
Infrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and
The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound
grills), remote controllers for televisions and intruder
If a sound is repeated 0.1 seconds or more after it is first
alarms
heard, the brain senses it again.
X-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer
Therefore, given the adequate distance, if sound reflects
cells) and security
off a surface, and comes back, an echo is produced.
Safety issue: is a mutagen, it cause cancer (mutations)
Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and color
Speed of sound in varrious media
(used in lasers)
Medium State Speed
Concrete Solid 5000 m/s
3.7. Sound
Pure Water Liquid 1400 m/s

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Speed of sound in varrious media Most efficient method: place magnet inside a solenoid
Air Gas 330 m/s connected to an alternating current (a.c.) supply.
Soft Iron vs. Steel
V in Gas <V in Liquid <V in solid
Soft iron Steel
- Remember to take into account that sound has gone there & Gets
backmagnetized faster but
Slow to be magnetized but
loses its magnetism as soon
retains acquired magnetism
4. Electricity and Magnetism as inducing magnet is
removed.
for a long time.

High susceptibility but low Low susceptibility but high

4.1. Simple phenomena of magnetism retentivity retentivity.
Use: core in the transformer Use: making magnets.
MAGNETS:
Permanent Magnet vs. Electromagnet
Magnets have a magnetic field around them
They 2 opposite poles (North and South) which exert
Permanent Magnet Electromagnet
forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and unlike poles
Design: hard magnetic Design: Uses a solenoid to
attract. This is caused by the interaction of magnetic
fields. material create magnetic field
Therefore, if magnets are facing each other with Use: For applications where
Use: for applications where
opposite poles, they will come together given a small magnetic field needs to be
magnetism is needed over
space between them turned on & off - scrap metal
long periods – fridge doors
They attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent moving
or temporary) magnetism in them.
Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material
4.2. Electric Charge
The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction
of the force on a positive charge at that point There are 2 types of charges: positive and negative.
Induced Magnetism: Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).
them; the material becomes a magnet as well. The presence of an electrostatic charge can be detected
The side of the material facing the magnet will using a leaf electroscope.
become the opposite pole as the magnet. If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are
induced.
Ferrous/Magnetic Non-ferrous/Non-magnetic
The metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or
materials materials
negative) and the metal stem and gold leaf get the
Iron Plastic other type of charge so they repel each other.
Nickel Wood
Cobalt Rubber

Methods of inducing magnetism:

A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized when

placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is usually weak.
It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with one
Electric field: region in which electric charge experiences
end of a magnet
a force.
Most effective method: place it in a solenoid and pass a
The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction
large, direct current (d.c.) through the coil.
of the force on a positive charge at that point
Methods of demagnetisation: Conductors: materials that let electrons pass through
If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are them. Metals are the best electrical conductors as they
thrown out of line and it becomes demagnetized. have free electrons. E.g. copper
Heating a magnet to a high temperature also Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their
demagnetize it. electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move, but
Stroking with another magnet to destroy the they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber
alignment of poles Simple Field Patterns:
Place magnet with poles opposite to that which is Parallel plates
induced by a d.c. current and insert into coil with d.c.
current

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Point charge

Induced charges:
Charging a body involves the addition or removal of
electrons.
A charge that “appears” on an uncharged object
because of a charged object nearby
For example if a positively charged rod is brought near
a small piece of aluminum foil, electrons in foil are
pulled towards rod, which leaves the bottom of the foil
with a net positive charge.
The attraction is stronger than repulsion because the
attracting charges are closer than the repelling ones.

+ve and -ve 4.3. Current

Current: a flow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is
connected in series
Current is a rate of flow of charge.
In metals, current is caused by a flow of electrons

C harge (C )
Current (A) =
T ime (s)
​

I = Q/t
Current follows path of least resistance
Conventional current flows in the direction opposite to
that which electrons flow in.
Red = Conventional Current
Green = flow of electrons

+ve and +ve

1 e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C
1C = 6.25 × 10 18 e

4.4. Electromotive Force (EMF)

The energy supplied by the source in driving a unit charge
around a circuit.

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The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the surroundings

electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts. 1 Watt is 1J/s
When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower
because of the energy wastage inside the cell. Electrical power = V oltage (V ) × C urrent (A)
A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and
not supplying current.
P = VI
Electrical energy = V oltage (V ) × C urrent
4.5. Potential Difference (P.D)
E = VIt
Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as
voltage. 4.8. Series and Parallel Circuits
Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V) The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel). If The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so
a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each the total current is always greater than the current in one
coulomb of charge (J/C). branch
Combining resistors
Energy
Voltage = In Series: RT otal = R1 + R2
Charge
​ ​ ​ ​

1
In Parallel: RT otal ​
= 1
+ R1
​

E
R1
​ ​

2 ​

V= The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is

C
​

less than that of either resistor by itself and the

current in the two resistors in greater in the source
4.6. Resistance than in the individual resistors and is equal to the sum
of the currents in all the resistors connected in
Voltage V parallel.
Resistance (Ω ) = =
Current I
​ ​

Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:

Factors affecting resistance: If one lamp breaks, the other still works
Each lamp gets maximum PD
Length In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the
Ω∝L components combined
The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents in
encounter more resistance. the separate branches
Cross-sectional area
1
Ω∝ A ​
4.9. Circuit Diagrams
More electrons can flow per unit time, increasing the
current and therefore decreasing the resistance.
Cell
Material
Better conductor = less resistance
Current Voltage Character of an Ohmic Resistor and a
Battery of cells Or
Filament Lamp:

Power supply
a.c. power supply
Junction of conductors
Lamp
Fixed resistor
Thermistor
Ohm’s law states that voltage across a resistor is directly
Variable Resistor
proportional to the current through it. This is only true if
the temperature of the resistor or lamp remains constant Light dependent resistor
Heater
4.7. Electrical Energy Switch
Earth or Ground
Electrical energy is transferred from the battery or power
source to the circuit components then into the

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A variable potential divider (potentiometer) is the same as

the one above but using a variable resistor; it acts like a
potential divider, but you can change output voltage.
Input Transducers:
Thermistor: input sensor and a transducer. It is a
Electric Bell temperature-dependent resistor. At higher
temperature there is less resistance.
Buzzer

Microphone

Loudspeaker

Motor
Light dependent resistor (LDR): input sensor and a
Generator transducer. When light intensity increases, resistance
decreases.
Ammeter

Voltmeter

Galvanometer
Potential Divider

Relay Coil Relays:

A switch operated by an electromagnet
Transformer
Diode

Light- emitting diode

Fuse
Oscilloscope Normally closed relay: when coil not energized, switch is
AND gate closed, completing circuit

OR gate

NAND gate

NOR gate

NOT gate

Normally open relay: when coil energized, switch is

4.10. Action and Use of Circuit closed, completing circuit
Components
A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.

To find the voltage (at VOUT ) we use the following formula: Diodes:
A device that has an extremely high resistance in one
direction and a low resistance in the other, therefore it
effectively only allows current to flow in one direction

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Forward bias is when the diode is pointing in the Damp conditions: water can conduct a current, so if
direction of the conventional current and reverse bias electrical equipment is wet someone might get
is the opposite electrocuted
It can be used in a rectifier; turns AC current into DC Fuse:
current. A fuse protects a circuit.
Thin piece of wire which overheats and melts if
current is too high.
It is placed on the live wire before the switch.
This prevents overheating and catching fire.
A fuse will have a specific current value (e.g. 13
Amps.) so when choosing a suitable fuse, you must
use the one above minimum value but less than
maximum value

4.11. Digital Electronics

Analogue uses a whole range of continuous variations to
transmit a signal that include variations of high and low
states.
Digital signals use only 2 states, on and off.
Logic gates are processors that are circuits containing
transistors and other components. Their function is shown Circuit Breaker:
by the truth table below (3 columns from the right) An automatic switch which if current rises over a
specified value, the electromagnet pulls the contacts
apart, breaking the circuit.
The reset button is to rest everything.
It works like a fuse but is better because it can be
reset.

Benefits of Earthing a Metal Case:

Many electrical appliances, have metal cases, the
earth wire creates a safe route for current to flow
4.12. Dangers of Electricity through if the live wire touches the casing
Earth terminal connected to metal casing, so in such a
Hazards: case, the current goes through earth wire instead of
Damaged insulation: contact with the wire (live wire
causing an electric shock.
especially) due to gap in the insulation causes electric A strong current surges through earth wire because it
shock which can cause serious injury or shock. has very low resistance
Overheating of cables: when long extension leads are This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance
coiled up, they may overheat. The current warms the
wire, but the heat has less area to escape from a tight
bundle. This might cause a fire.

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The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:

moving the magnet faster
using a stronger magnet
increasing the number of turns in the coil
If the magnet is pulled away, the direction of the induced
EMF (and current) is reversed
Using South pole instead of North pole reverses direction
of induced EMF (and current)
If the magnet is held still, there is no EMF
An induced current always flows in a direction such that it
opposes the change which produced it.
When a magnet is moved towards a coil the pole of the
coil and magnet next to each other are the same.
When the magnet is moved away the poles are opposite
(opposite poles attract).
The pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the
direction in which the current is induced.
The direction of the current is given by the right-hand grip
4.13. Electromagnetic Effects rule:

Electromagnetic Induction: If a wire is passed across a

magnetic field/changing magnetic field, a small EMF is
induced and can be detected by a galvanometer.

The fingers point in the conventional current direction and

the thumb gives the North Pole.
The direction of an induced EMF opposes the change
causing it. 4.14. Applications
The induced EMF can be increased by: In a direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in a singular
moving the wire faster
direction.
using a stronger magnet In an alternating current (a.c) the direction of flow is
Increasing length of wire in magnetic field, e.g. looping reversed in regular time periods.
the wire through the field several times. A.C Generator:
The current and EMF direction can be reversed by: The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is
moving the wire in the opposite direction
rotated by turning the shaft; the slip rings are fixed to
turning the magnet round so that the field direction is the coil and rotate with it.
reversed The brushes are 2 contacts which rub against the slip
Fleming’s right-hand rule gives the current direction: rings and keep the coil connected to the outside part
of the circuit, usually made of carbon.
When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, so
an EMF is generated, which makes a current flow.
Each side of the coil travels upwards then downwards
then upwards etc. so the current flows backwards then
forwards then backwards etc. so it is an alternating
current.
Bar magnet pushed into coil

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A step-up transformer increases the voltage and a step-

down transformer decreases it.
Transformers used to make high voltage AC currents.
Since power lost in a resistor P = I 2 ×R , having a lower
current will decrease the power loss.
Since transmission cables are many kilometres long they
have a lot of resistance, so a transformer is used to
increase the voltage and decrease the current to decease
power lost.
The advantages of high-voltage transmission:
Less power lost
Thinner, light, and cheaper cables can be used since
current is reduced

The current is maximum when the coil is horizontal since

field lines are being cut at the fastest rate and 0 when the
coil is vertical, since it is cutting NO field lines.
The EMF can be increased by:
increasing the number of turns on the coil
increasing the area of the coil
4.16. Electromagnetic Effect of a
using a stronger magnet
rotating the coil faster Current
Magnetic field around a current carrying wire
4.15. Transformers
AC currents can be increased or decreased by using a
transformer.
Consists of a primary coil, a secondary coil and an iron
core.
The iron core gets magnetized by the incoming current
and this magnetism then creates a current in the leaving
wire.
The power is the same on both sides (assume= 100% Magnetic field around a current carrying solenoid
efficiency).
You can figure out number of coils and the voltage with:

Output voltage T urns on output coil

= ​ ​

I nput voltage T urns on input coil

VP NP
=
​ ​

​ ​

VS NS ​ ​

Increasing the strength of the field

V In × I In = V Out × I Out
​ ​ ​ ​

Increasing the current increases the strength of the field

Increasing the number of turns of a coil increases the
VP × IP = VS × IS
​ ​ ​ ​

strength increases the strength of the field.

Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic
(Under 100% efficiency)
field direction (right-hand rule).
When magnetic field is changed across the primary coil by The direction of a magnetic field line at a point is the
connecting it with A.C. an e.m.f. induces across the direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that
secondary coil. point
The iron core channels the alternating field through the Magnetic effect of current is used in a relay and a circuit
secondary coil, inducing an alternating e.m.f. across it. breaker.

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A DC motor runs on a direct current.

4.17. Force on a Current-Carrying
The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is free to
Conductor rotate between the poles of the magnet.
The commutator (split-ring) is fixed to the coil and rotates
If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, it with it.
warps the field lines. When the coil overshoots the vertical, the commutator
The field lines from the magnet want to straighten out changes direction of the current through it, so the forces
naturally. change direction and keep the coil turning.
This causes a catapult like action on the wire creating a The brushes are two contacts which rub against the
force commutator and keep the coil connected to battery,
usually made of carbon
The max. turning effect is when the coil is horizontal.
There is no force when the coil is vertical, but it always
overshoots this position

Reversing rotation can be done

Turning effect increased by:
by:
Increasing the current Reversing the battery
If you reverse current, you will reverse direction of force
Using a stronger magnet -
If you reverse direction of field, you will reverse direction increasing the strength of Reversing the poles
of force.
the magnetic field
The direction of the force, current or magnetic field is
Increasing the number of
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule:
turns on the coil.

5. Atomic Physics
5.1. The Atom
Atoms consist of:
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons
(positively charged) and neutrons. These two types of
particles are called nucleons. They are bound together
by the strong nuclear force.
Electrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit
nucleus in shells
This is proved by Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment2
Proton number: number of protons in an atom
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in an atom
The following is the nuclide notation for atoms

4.18. D.C. Motor

Isotope:
Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
There are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-
isotopes.
Radio isotopes are unstable atoms, which break down
giving radiation
Uses:
Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays
When a current-carrying coil is in a magnetic field, it kill cancer cells using cobalt-60
experiences a turning effect.

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Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes e.g. Radium-226 nucleus → Radon-222 + helium-4 nucleus
(tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is
detected using a Geiger counter.
Archaeological use: carbon 14 – used for carbon Beta decay:
dating
A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an
antineutrino so an element with the same nucleon
5.2. Detection of Radioactivity
number but with a proton number 1 higher e.g.
Background radiation: small amount of radiation around
e.g. iodine-131 → xenon-131 + antineutrino + beta particle
us all time because of radioactive materials in the
environment. It mainly comes from natural sources such
as soil, rocks, air, building materials, food and drink – and
Gamma emission:
even space.
A Geiger-Müller (GM) tube can be used to detects α, β Gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass
and γ radiation number or atomic number; they just emit energy
Some isotopes do not change in mass or atomic number
5.3. Type of Radioactive Emissions however they emit energy as their particles rearrange
themselves to become more stable
Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space & time
5.5. Half Life
Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)
Helium nucleus One high Electro- Half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half the
Nature (2 protons and speed magnetic nuclei present in any given sample to decay.
neutrons) electron radiation Some nuclei are more stable than others.
Charge +2 -1 none Remember to factor background radiation in half-life
Stopped by Only reduced calculations involving tables and decay curves
Penetration Stopped by paper
aluminum by lead
Effect from Very 5.6. Safety Precautions
Deflected Not deflected
fields deflected
Radioactive material is stored in a lead container
Ionizing
Very strong Weak Very weak Picked up with tongs, not bare hands
effect
1 9
Kept away from the body and not pointed at people
Speed 10 ​ v of light 10 ​ v of light v of light Left out of its container for as short a time as possible

Depending on their charge, they will be affected by

electric and magnetic fields.
5.7. Rutherford’s Experiment
Thin gold foil is bombarded with alpha particles, which are
5.4. Radioactive Decay positively charged.
Most passed straight through, but few were repelled so
Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (unstable arrangement strongly that they were bounced back or deflected at
of neutrons and protons) is altered to make a more stable large angles.
arrangement. Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely
The parent nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a empty space, with its positive charge and most of its mass
particle (decay products). concentrated in a tiny nucleus.
The nucleus changes when undergoing alpha or beta
decay

Alpha decay:

An element with a proton number 2 lower and nucleon

number 4 lower, and an alpha particle is made (2p + 2n)

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