Grammar

ENGLISH
NOTES
For class 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th
SALIENT FEATURES
 SLO BASED MCQS IN GRAMMAR AND COMPREHENSSION
 DETAILED STUDY OF ALL PARTS OF SPEECH
 COMPLETE SENTENCE STRUCTURE
 ALL TENSES WITH VOICE AND NARRATION
 FICTION (DRAMA, PLAY, NOVEL.)
 POETIC DEVICES
 PRECIS WRITING
 CREATIVE WRITING
 IDIOMS
 PHRASAL VERBS
 TRANSITIONAL DEVICES
Compiled by | RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN | 03315536510

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SLO BASED MATERIAL NOTES FOR CLASS 9,10,11,12
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SR CHAPTER NAME TOPICS PAGE
1 PARTS OF SPEECH 1) Noun 2
2) Pronoun 4
3) Adjective 6
4) Verb 8
5) Adverb 12
6) Preposition 13
7) Conjunction 15
8) Interjection 17
9) Articles 18
2 SENTENCE 1) DEFINITION 20
2) TYPES 20
3) KINDS 21
4) CONDITIONLAS 21
3 SENTENCE 1) CLAUSES 23
2) PHRASES 24
4 CORRECTION RULES 100 RULES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 26

5 POETIC DEVICES DEFINITION WITH EXAMPLE 29
6 TENSES 1) TRANSLATION 33
2) VOICES 34
3) NARRATION (DIRECT AND INDIRECT 36
SPEECH)
7 FICTION AND A BREIF STUDY OF FICTION AND ITS GENERE 41
GENRES
8 COMPREHENSION SUMMARY OR PRÉCIS’ WRITING 47
PASSAGES FOR PRACTICE
9 CREATIVE WRITING 1) E-MAIL 51

2) FORMAL LETTER 51
3) APPLICATION 51
4) REPORT WRITING 52
5) CV WRITING 53
6) ESSAY WRITING 54
10 EXERCISE SLO BASED MCQs for GRAMMAR 54

11 IDIOMS AND 70
PHRASAL VERBS
12 TRANSITIONAL 80
DEVICES
From the compiler: For the convenient of the students from class 9 to 12 this work has been compiled according to the demand of SLO based paper.
All the relevant material has been put together and compiled so that students can easily study and understand. To err is human, if you find any
mistake or want to suggest something, do leave a message on the following contact or email address. RAO.SANWAL88@GMAIL.COM,
03315536510
ALL ARE ALLOWED TO SHARE WITH STUDENTS AS IT IS MOSTLY SELECTION .
RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

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CHAPTER #01: PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech are the classification of words categorized by their roles and functions within the structure of the
language. Parts of speech encompass everything a language has in itself. Can you imagine all the words of a language
can be sorted into these categories? They play different roles in the structure of a language.
In English, there are eight parts of speech:
 Noun
 Pronoun
 Verb
 Adjective
 Adverb
 Preposition
 Conjunction
 Interjection
Noun
Noun refers to people, places, things, ideas, concepts, etc.
Example: Michael is a good boy. Melbourne is the best city.
Pronoun
A pronoun is used to refer to a noun/noun phrase, or nouns/noun phrases; instead of the repeated use of the same
noun(s)/noun phrase(s).
Example: Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning.
Verb
Verb shows an action or an ongoing condition. It is considered as the heart of a sentence.
Example: Alex is going home. He loves his home.
Adjective
Adjective modifies or describes noun in a sentence.
Example: Alex loves his beautiful daughters. His daughters also love their caring father.
Adverb
Adverbs modify or describe adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. It answers the questions When? Where? How? or How
much?
Example: He is running fast. She always reads attentively.
Preposition
Preposition gives context to nouns in relationship to other nouns or pronouns.
Example: I am going to France. France is in Europe.
Conjunction
A conjunction connects nouns, noun phrases, clauses or sentences together.
Example: Julie love chocolate and chips. She loves pasta, but she hates pizza.
Interjection
Interjections are brief and abrupt pauses in speech, usually used for expressing emotions.
Example: Oh! That feels terrible. Alas! They have lost the match.
NOUN
Nouns refer to persons, animals, places, things, ideas, or events, etc. Nouns encompass most of the words of a language.
Noun can be a/an -
o Person – a name for a person: - Max, Julie, Catherine, Michel, Bob, etc.
o Animal – a name for an animal: - dog, cat, cow, kangaroo, etc.
o Place – a name for a place: - London, Australia, Canada, Mumbai, etc.
o Thing – a name for a thing: - bat, ball, chair, door, house, computer, etc.
o Idea – A name for an idea: - devotion, superstition, happiness, excitement, etc.
Different Types of Noun:
 Proper Noun
 Common Noun
 Abstract Noun
 Concrete Noun
 Countable Noun
 Non-countable Noun
 Collective Noun
 Compound Noun
Proper Noun:
A proper noun is a name which refers only to a single person, place, or thing and there is no common name for it. In
written English, a proper noun always begins with capital letters.
Example: Melbourne (it refers to only one particular city), Steve (refers to a particular person),
Australia (there is no other country named Australia; this name is fixed for only one country).
Common Noun:
A common noun is a name for something which is common for many things, person, or places. It encompasses a
particular type of things, person, or places.
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Example: Country (it can refer to any country, nothing in particular), city (it can refer to any city like Melbourne,
Mumbai, Toronto, etc. but nothing in particular).
So, a common noun is a word that indicates a person, place, thing, etc. In general and a proper noun is a specific one of
those.
Abstract Noun:
An abstract noun is a word for something that cannot be seen but is there. It has no physical existence. Generally, it
refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions.
Example: Truth, lies, happiness, sorrow, time, friendship, humor, patriotism, etc.
Concrete Noun:
A concrete noun is the exact opposite of abstract noun. It refers to the things we see and have physical existence.
Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, water, money, sugar, etc.
Countable Noun:
The nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. Countable nouns can take an article: a, an, the.
Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, etc. (you can say 1 chair, 2 chairs, 3 chairs – so chairs are countable)
Non-countable Noun:
The nouns that cannot be counted are called non-countable nouns.
Example: Water, sugar, oil, salt, etc. (you cannot say “1 water, 2 water, 3 water” because water is not countable)
Abstract nouns and proper nouns are always non-countable nouns, but common nouns and concrete nouns can be
both count and non-count nouns.
Collective Noun:
A collective noun is a word for a group of things, people, or animals, etc.
Example: family, team, jury, cattle, etc.
Collective nouns can be both plural and singular. However, Americans prefer to use collective nouns as singular, but
both of the uses are correct in other parts of the world.
Compound Noun:
Sometimes two or three nouns appear together, or even with other parts of speech, and create idiomatic compound
nouns. Idiomatic means that those nouns behave as a unit and, to a lesser or greater degree, amount to more than the
sum of their parts.
Example: six-pack, five-year-old, and son-in-law, snowball, mailbox, etc.
More Types of Noun:
Singular Noun:
Singular Nouns are namely, singular in number. The base form of any noun is naturally singular and so that is the
Singular Noun.
Examples:
Duck, Bush, Man, Mouse, Child, Fish etc. are Singular Nouns.
Singular Noun in a sentence:
o I have a pet duck.
o That big bush is beside our house.
o He is the man of the house.
o Ron’s pet mouse is too vicious for such a little creature.
o Their child has a sound sense of situational adjustments.
o I’d like that small fish, please.
Plural Noun:
The plural forms of the Singular Nouns are Plural Nouns. These nouns determine more than one element.
Examples:
Belts, Boxes, Mice, Sheep, People etc. are examples of Plural Noun.
Plural Noun in a sentence:
o There are seven belts in the seat.
o Let’s unpack those boxes.
o Our house is scattered with a herd of mice.
o I’ve chased the sheep back into the shed.
o These people are getting on my nerves.
Regular Noun:
Regular Nouns do not change in spelling when changed into plural; only the regular plural suffixes -s or -es are attached
to it according to the grammar and spelling agreement.
Examples:
Singular Noun Plural Noun
Duck Ducks
Belt Belts
Box Boxes
Bush Bushes
Apple Apples

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Irregular Noun:
Irregular Nouns do not have plural suffixes added to them for their plural form and they monumentally change in
spelling.
Examples:
Singular Noun Plural Noun
Man Men
Ox Oxen
Fox Vixen
Goose Geese
Mouse Mice
Possessive Noun:
The noun that owns something or has something in its possession is the Possessive Noun. These nouns usually end with
an apostrophe before one “s” that determines the possession of the object(s) that follows.
Example:
o My cat’s litter needs changing very soon.
o Jacky’s wallet is stolen.
o Your pet’s feeder is missing.
Verbal Noun:
Verb + ing often act as the noun/subject of the sentence instead of posing as a verb and then they become a Verbal
Noun. Gerunds can be Verbal Nouns at times.
Example:
Verb Verbal Noun
Run Running
Smoke Smoking
Kill Killing
Treat Treating
o Smoking is injurious to health.
o Killing the runaway tiger is not a solution.
o Running for dear life is what thieves do.
Material Noun:
Substances made out of tangible materials are usually Material Nouns. These are Common Uncountable Nouns by
nature since they mostly determine a certain sector type of product.
Examples:
o I lack the common fascination with gold.
o Coal produces nonrenewable energy.
o Humans are 70% water.
Functions of Nouns
Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object of a verb; as an object of a preposition; and as an
adverb or adjective in sentences. Nouns can also show possession.
Subject: The Company is doing great. Roses are the flowers of love.
Direct object: I finally bought a new mobile.
Indirect object: Max gave Carol another chocolate.
Object of preposition: Roses are the flowers of love.
Adverb: The train leaves today.
Adjective: The office building faces the mall.
Possession: The lion’s cage is dangerous. My brother’s daughter is adorable.
PRONOUN
A pronoun is used in place of a specific noun mentioned earlier in a sentence so that you don’t have to keep
saying/writing that particular noun.
Example:
o Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning. (Here, you don’t have to mention ‘Michael’ again)
o The coach selected several key points. He wanted the team to memorize them. (‘He’ replaces ‘the coach’;
‘them’ replaces ‘several key points’)

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The word or phrase that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the previous example, original
noun ‘the coach’ is the antecedent and the pronoun ‘he’ is the referent because it refers back to the original noun. The
antecedent and the pronoun/s must agree in terms of number and gender.
Types of Pronoun:
 Subject Pronouns
 Object Pronouns
 Possessive Pronouns
 Reflexive Pronouns
 Intensive Pronouns
 Relative Pronouns
 Demonstrative Pronouns
 Interrogative Pronouns
Subject Pronouns
Subject pronouns work as the subject of the verb in a sentence. A subject pronoun normally replaces the subject/object
(a noun) of the previous sentence.
Example:
o Mike can’t attend the party. He has gone to his grandparents.
o Marta is a good storyteller. She told a ghost story that scared everyone.
o Julie made some cakes. They look tasty. (Here, the subject pronoun replaced the object of the previous
sentence)
Object Pronouns:
Object pronouns work as the object or indirect object in a sentence replacing the antecedent object. This form of the
pronoun is also used after prepositions.
Example:
o I’ll give you a present on your birthday. I have a great idea for you. (after preposition)
o Tell her that you’ll take the job.
o I have a gift for your boss. Give it to your boss. (Here, ‘it’works as an object)
Possessive Pronouns:
Possessive pronouns replace the nouns of the possessive adjectives: my, our, your, her, his, their. The possessive
pronouns are mine, ours, yours, hers, his, its, theirs. The pronoun ‘who’ also has a possessive form, whose.
Example:
o I thought my bag was lost, but the one Kesrick found was mine. (Here, ‘mine’ refers to ‘my bag’)
o Their vacation will start next week. Ours is tomorrow. (Here, ‘ours’ refers to ‘our vacation’)
o Those four suitcases are ours.
o Is this yours?
You have to take either her car or theirs. Hers is better than theirs. (Here, ‘her’ is possessive adjective and ‘hers’ and
‘theirs’ are possessive pronouns which replaced ‘her car’ and ‘their car’)
Reflexive Pronouns:
Reflexive pronoun redirects a sentence or a clause back to the subject, which is also the direct object of that sentence. A
reflexive pronoun comes when the subject performs its action upon itself. Here, ‘itself’ is a reflexive pronoun.
Example:
o Since she is her own boss, she gave herself a raise. (Here, ‘herself’ is the direct object of the clause and the
same person is the subject)
o She allowed herself more time to get ready.
o The computer restarts itself every night.
o We told ourselves that we were so lucky to be alive.
Intensive Pronouns:
Intensive pronouns add emphasis/importance but do not act as the object in the sentence. They can appear right after
the subject.
Example:
o I will do it myself. (Here, ‘myself’ is not an object)
o I myself saw the missing boat into the harbor.
o We intend to do all the work ourselves.
o You yourselves are responsible for this mess.
Relative Pronouns:
Relative pronouns introduce the relative clause. They are used to make clear what is being talked about in a sentence.
They describe something more about the subject or the object.
The relative pronouns are:
Subject Object Possession Uncertainty
Which Which Whose Whichever ---- (for things)
That That ---- (for both things and people)
Who Whom Whose Whoever/whomever/whosever ---- (for person)

Example:
o The car that was stolen was the one they loved most.

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o A person who loves nature is a good person.

o Our school, which was founded in 1995, is being renovated.
o I will accept whichever party dress you buy me on Valentine's Day.
o Whoever you are behind this great initiative, I want to thank you.
Demonstrative Pronouns:
Demonstrative pronouns normally indicate the closeness of or distance from the speaker, either literally or
symbolically. This, these, that, and those are the demonstrative pronouns. They also work as demonstrative adjectives
when they modify a noun. However, demonstrative pronouns do not modify anything rather replace the nouns/noun
phrases.
Sometimes neither, none and such are also used as demonstrative pronouns.
Example:
o That is a long way to go. (demonstrative pronoun)
o This is my car. (demonstrative pronoun)
o Hand me that cricket bat. (demonstrative adjective)
o Neither is permitted to enter the building.
o Such are ways of life.
Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns produce questions. They are what, which, who, whom, and whose.
Who, whom, and whose refer to questions related to a person or animal; what refers to an idea, object, or event;
and which can indicate either a person/s or a thing/s.
Example:
o What was the name of your dog?
o Which is your favorite movie?
o Who works for you?
o Whom do you prefer in this competition?
o There’s a new bike on the lawn. Whose is it?
ADJECTIVE
An adjective describes or modifies noun/s and pronoun/s in a sentence. It normally indicates quality, size, shape,
duration, feelings, contents, and more about a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives usually provide relevant information about the nouns/pronouns they modify/describe by answering the
questions: What kind? How many? Which one? How much? Adjectives enrich your writing by adding precision and
originality to it.
Example:
o The team has a dangerous batsman. (What kind?)
o I have ten candies in my pocket. (How many?)
o I loved that red car. (Which one?)
o I earn more money than he does. (How much?)
However, there are also many adjectives which do not fit into these questions. Adjectives are the most used parts of
speech in sentences. There are several types of adjectives according to their uses.
Types of Adjectives
 Descriptive Adjectives
 Quantitative Adjectives
 Proper Adjectives
 Demonstrative Adjectives
 Possessive Adjectives
 Interrogative Adjectives
 Indefinite Adjectives
 Articles
 Compound Adjectives
Descriptive Adjectives:
A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns. Most of the adjectives belong in this type. These
adjectives provide information and attribute to the nouns/pronouns they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives are
also called qualitative adjectives.
Participles are also included in this type of adjective when they modify a noun.
Examples:
o I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of the car)
o I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about the subject)
o The hungry cats are crying.
o I saw a flying Eagle.
Quantitative Adjectives:
A quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of the nouns/pronouns. This type belongs to the
question category of ‘how much’ and ‘how many’.
Examples:
o I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much)
o They have three children. (How many)
o You should have completed the whole task. (How much)

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Proper Adjectives:
Proper adjectives are the adjective form of proper nouns. When proper nouns modify or describe other
nouns/pronouns, they become proper adjectives. ‘Proper’ means ‘specific’ rather than ‘formal’ or ‘polite.’
A proper adjective allows us to summarize a concept in just one word. Instead of writing/saying ‘a food cooked in
Chinese recipe’ you can write/say ‘Chinese food’.
Proper adjectives are usually capitalized as proper nouns are.
Example:
o American cars are very strong.
o Chinese people are hard workers.
o I love KFC burgers.
o Marxist philosophers despise capitalism.
Demonstrative Adjectives:
A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone. Demonstrative adjectives include the words: this,
that, these, those.
A demonstrative pronoun works alone and does not precede a noun, but a demonstrative adjective always comes
before the word it modifies.
Examples:
o That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‘That’ refers to a singular noun far from the speaker)
o This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a singular noun close to the speaker)
o These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to a plural noun close to the speaker)
o Those flowers are heavenly. (‘Those’ refers to a plural noun far from the speaker)
Possessive Adjectives:
A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It suggests the belongingness of something to
someone/something.
Some of the most used possessive adjectives are my, his, her, our, their, your.
All these adjectives always come before a noun. Unlike possessive pronouns, these words demand a noun after them.
Examples:
o My car is parked outside.
o His cat is very cute.
o Our job is almost done.
o Her books are interesting.
Interrogative Adjectives:
An interrogative adjective asks a question. An interrogative adjective must be followed by a noun or a pronoun. The
interrogative adjectives are: which, what, whose. These words will not be considered as adjectives if a noun does not
follow right after them. ‘Whose’ also belongs to the possessive adjective type.
Examples:
o Which phone do you use?
o What game do you want to play?
o Whose car is this?
Indefinite Adjectives:
An indefinite adjective describes or modifies a noun unspecifically. They provide indefinite/unspecific information about
the noun. The common indefinite adjectives are few, many, much, most, all, any, each, every, either, nobody, several,
some, etc.
Examples:
o I gave some candy to her.
o I want a few moments alone.
o Several writers wrote about the recent incidents.
o Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow.
Articles
Articles also modify the nouns. So, articles are also adjectives. Articles determine the specification of nouns. ‘A’ and ‘an’
are used to refer to an unspecific noun, and ‘the’ is used to refer to a specific noun.
Examples:
o A cat is always afraid of water. (Here, the noun ‘cat’ refers to any cat, not specific.)
o The cat is afraid of me. (This cat is a specific cat.)
o An electronic product should always be handled with care.
Compound Adjectives:
When compound nouns/combined words modify other nouns, they become a compound adjective. This type of
adjective usually combines more than one word into a single lexical unit and modifies a noun. They are often separated
by a hyphen or joined together by a quotation mark.
Example:
o I have a broken-down sofa.
o I saw a six-foot-long snake.
o He gave me an “I’m gonna kill you now” look.
The Degree of Adjectives:
There are three degrees of adjectives: Positive, comparative, superlative.
These degrees are applicable only for the descriptive adjectives.
Examples:
Positive degree: He is a good boy.

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Comparative degree: He is better than any other boy.

Superlative: He is the best boy.
VERB
A verb is a word or a combination of words that indicates action or a state of being or condition. A verb is the part of
a sentence that tells us what the subject performs. Verbs are the hearts of English sentences.
Examples:
o Jacob walks in the morning. (A usual action)
o Mike is going to school. (A condition of action)
o Albert does not like to walk. (A negative action)
o Anna is a good girl. (A state of being)
Verbs are related to a lot of other factors like the subject, person, number, tense, mood, voice, etc.
Basic Forms of Verbs
There are six basic forms of verbs. These forms are as follows:
o Base form: Children play in the field.
o Infinitive: Tell them not to play
o Past tense: They played football yesterday.
o Past participle: I have eaten a burger.
o Present participle: I saw them playing with him today.
o Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise.
Different Types of Verbs
 Main/Base Verb
 Regular/Weak Verb
 Irregular/Strong Verb
 Transitive Verb
 Intransitive Verb
 Weak Verb
 Strong Verb
 Finite Verbs
 Non-finite Verbs
 Action Verbs
 Linking Verb
 Auxiliary Verbs
 Modal Verbs
 Reflexive Verb
 Ergative Verb
 Phrasal Verb
 Lexical Verb
 Delexical Verb
 Stative/Being Verb
 Dynamic Verb
 Non-continuous Verb
 Participle
 Gerund
 Infinitive
Base Verb
The base verb is the form of a verb where it has no ending (-ing, -ed, -en) added to it. It is also called the Root Verb since
it is the very root form of a verb.
Examples:
o I go to school every day.
o You run a mile every morning.
o Do your homework.
Regular Verb
The Verbs that follow the most usual conjugations are considered Regular Verbs. It is regular since it abides by most if
not all of the regular grammar rules there are.
Examples:
o Rehan plays cricket.
o Tam called out my name.
o You really walked all the way back?
Irregular Verb
The Verbs that have irregularities in terms of following grammar rules are Irregular Verbs, in general.
Examples:
o Do the dishes.
o I hardly ever drink enough water in a day.
o She drove all the way back.
Transitive Verb
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The Main Verb that takes a direct object sitting right after it would be a Transitive Verb. They usually construct the most
straightforward of sentences.
Examples:
o She went to the fair.
o We do not like being called out loud in crowds.
o I love visiting my village home.
Intransitive Verb
The main Verb that does not take a direct object specified right afterward and rather there is an indirect one mentioned
somewhere along the line is called an Intransitive Verb. These verbs often make the corresponding sentences
incomplete.
Example:
o I laughed.
o John ran.
o A ghast of cold wind blew.
Weak Verb
Verbs that end with “-d” and “-t” in their Past Indefinite and Past Participle form are Weak Verbs. There is a tendency to
associate Weak Verbs with Regular Verbs but not all Weak Verbs are Regular Verbs in the English language.
Examples:
Present Indefinite Past Indefinite
Spend Spent
Walk Walked
Book Booked
Learn Learnt
Want Wanted
Strong Verb
Strong Verbs are those in which the vowels in the verb stem changes from “i” to “a” to “u” in the Present Indefinite to
Past Indefinite to Past Participle form of Verbs.
Examples:
Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Past Participle
Ring Rang Rung
Drink Drank Drunk
Cling Clang Clung
Swim Swam Swum
Sing Sang Sung
Finite Verbs
Finite verbs are the actual verbs that are called the roots of sentences. It is a form of a verb that is performed by or
refers to a subject and uses one of the twelve forms of tense and changes according to the number/person of the
subject.
Example:
o Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex – performed the action in the past. This information is evident only by the
verb ‘went’.)
o Robert plays hockey.
o He is playing for Australia.
o He is one of the best players. (Here, the verb ‘is’ directly refers to the subject itself.)
Non-finite Verbs
Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as verbs in the sentence rather they work as nouns, adjectives,
adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not change according to the number/person of the subject because these verbs, also
called verbals, do not have any direct relation to the subject. Sometimes they become the subject themselves.
The forms of non-finite verbs are – infinitive, gerund, and participle (participles become finite verbs when they take
auxiliary verbs.)
Example:
o Alex went abroad to play (Infinitives)
o Playing cricket is his only job. (Present participle)
o I have a broken bat. (Past participle)
o Walking is a good habit. (Gerund)
Action Verbs
Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs can make the listener/reader feel emotions,
see scenes more vividly and accurately.
Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb demands something/someone to be acted upon.
Example:
o I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be painted)
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o She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the question “what is she reading?” – the answer is the
object)
Intransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be followed by an adjective, adverb, preposition, or another part
of speech.
Example:
o She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since the action of ‘smiling’ does not fall upon
anything/anyone)
o I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)
o Note: {Subject + Intransitive verb} is sufficient to make a complete sentence but {Subject + Transitive verb} is not
sufficient because transitive verbs demand a direct object.
Linking Verb
A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In its simplest form, it connects the subject and the
complement — that is, the words that follow the linking verb. It creates a link between them instead of showing action.
Often, what is on each side of a linking verb is equivalent; the complement redefines or restates the subject.
Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’ verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were. However, there are some other verbs
that can work as linking verbs. Those verbs are:
Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow, look, prove, stay, taste, turn.
Some verbs in this list can also be action verbs. To figure out if they are linking verbs, you should try replacing them with
forms of the “be verbs”. If the changed sentence makes sense, that verb is a linking verb.
Example:
o She appears ready for the game. (She is ready for the game.)
o The food seemed delicious. (The food was delicious.)
o You look happy. (You are happy.)
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. An auxiliary verb extends the main verb by helping to show time, tense, and
possibility. The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs, have, and do.
They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect tenses.
Linking verbs work as main verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main verbs.
Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express negation, to provide emphasis, and more.
Example:
o Alex is going to school.
o They are walking in the park.
o I have seen a movie.
o Do you drink tea?
o Don’t waste your time.
o Please, do submit your assignments.
Modal Verbs
A modal verb is a kind of auxiliary verb. It assists the main verb to indicate possibility, potentiality, ability, permission,
expectation, and obligation.
The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to, shall, should, will, would.
Example:
o I may want to talk to you again.
o They must play their best game to win.
o She should call him.
o I will go there.
Reflexive Verb
When the Subject and the Object are the same and the Verb reflects on the Subject, that is the Reflexive Verb. These
Verbs are often used with Reflexive Pronouns like - myself, himself, herself, itself etc.
Examples:
o He has done it himself.
o I'll watch it myself.
Ergative Verb
Ergative Verbs can be used as Transitive and Intransitive Verb. They are also called Labile Verb in English.
Examples:
Intransitive Verbs Transitive Verbs
The door opens. I opened the door.
The bell rang. She rang the bell.
The light is fused. They fused the lights.
The whistle blew. Tom blew the whistle.
Phrasal Verb
An idiomatic phrase consisting of a Verb and another element, most likely an Adverb or a Preposition is called a Phrasal
Verb.
Examples:
o She broke down in tears.
o Don't look down upon the poor.
o I'll see to it.
Lexical Verb

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Lexical Verb is the main or principal verb of a sentence which typically takes the major responsibility of a Verb that
represents the action of the Noun or Pronoun.
Examples:
o He ran to his father.
o I laughed out loud.
o Rina tried her best.
DE-Lexical Verb
Delexical Verbs lack importance when it comes to meaning since these Verbs hardly have meanings of their own when
used individually. The meaning is taken out of the Verbs and put into the Noun. Take, have, make, give etc. are Delexical
Verbs.
Examples:
o He took a shower.
o I had a cold drink.
o She made some arrangements.
Stative Verb
The Verbs that describe the state of being are called Stative or Being Verbs.
Examples:
o I need some boxes.
o You belong to the pomp and power.
o He smells danger.
o They remember what happened that day.
Dynamic Verb
The Verbs that entail continuous or progressive action of the Subject are called Dynamic or Fientive Verbs. They express
the Subject’s state of being on the move.
Examples:
o He’s running fast.
o Keep hitting the ball hard.
o The dog goes for a walk every afternoon.
Non-continuous Verb
The Verbs that are usually never used in their continuous forms are called Non-continuous Verbs.
Examples:
I like to swim. I'm liking to swim.
I love to do the chords. I'm loving to do the chords.
He does not hate you. He's hating you.
She just feels a bit dizzy, no need to worry.She's just feeling a bit dizzy.
Intensive Verb
The Verbs that focus intensely on just the Subject are called Intensive Verbs. Intensive Verbs are also called Linking or
Copular Verbs.
Examples:
o You seem happy.
o It appears to be just perfect.
o She looks stunning.
o He's become rather irritable.
Extensive Verb
All the Verbs that do not focus intensively on just the Subject (as the Intensive Verbs) of the sentence are Extensive
Verbs.
Examples:
o He loves her.
o She runs too fast.
o Ron sells fish.
Participle
A participle is a Verb form where they retain some of the characteristics and functions of both Verbs and adopt those of
the Adjectives.
Examples:
Present Participle (Verb + -ing)
o Have I become a laughing stock?
o Cycling is a well-rounded exercise.
Past Participle
o I have taken a hint.
o Have you given it enough thought?
Perfect Participle (Having + Past Participle)
o Having said that, I was quite worried.
o Having stepped out of my comfort zone, I saw a whole new world.
Gerund

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The Verbs having -ing endings that function like Nouns in sentences are called Gerunds.
Examples:
o Smoking is injurious to health.
o Walking is good for health.
o I love swimming.
Infinitive
The 'to + Verb' forms where the Verbs are at their base or stem forms while they function as Nouns, Adjectives or
Adverbs instead of Verbs.
Examples:
o I wanted to help you out.
o Are you trying to go there?
o I just love to flaunt my new Ferarri.
ADVERB
An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. It tells when, where, and how an
action is performed or indicates the quality or degree of the action.
Many adverbs end in -ly but some words which end in -ly (such as friendly) are not adverbs. Many words can be both
adverbs and adjectives according to their activity in the sentence.
Example:
o Robin is always hungry for success.
o I love her very much.
o He is running fast.
o Alex works hard.
o He wrote that willingly.
Adverb Clauses and Adverb Phrases are clauses and phrases that modify the verbs, adjectives or other adverbs in the
sentence.
Example:
o He ran toward the bus until he was tired. (Adverb Clause)
o He came carrying his box with two hands. (Adverb Phrase)
o We were panicked without any reason. (Adverb Phrase)
Types of Adverbs:
 Conjunctive Adverbs
 Sentence Adverbs
 Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)
 Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
 Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)
 Adverbs of Manner (How?)
Conjunctive Adverbs:
A conjunctive adverb connects phrases or independent clauses. It provides transitions between ideas and shows
relationships.
Conjunctive adverbs are also called connectors.
Example:
o It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final match has not been canceled.
o We are still confused, however, if the umpires will come.
o Last season there was a great drought; consequently, we could not grow crops.
Sentence Adverbs:
A sentence adverb starts the sentence and modifies the whole sentence.
Example:
o Hopefully, we will win the match.
o Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy.
o Certainly, I did not think of coming here.
Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)
Adverbs of time/frequency indicate time or frequency of the action in the sentence. They answer the question
‘when/how frequently is the action performed?’.
Always, never, often, eventually, now, frequently, occasionally, once, forever, seldom, before, Sunday, Monday, 10 AM,
12 PM, etc. are common adverbs of time/frequency.
Example:
o I went to school a little late yesterday.
o He always gets a good result.
o I will leave Monday.
o He smokes occasionally.
Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
Adverbs of place/direction that indicate place/direction of the action in the sentence. They answer the question ‘ where
is the action performed?’.
Across, over, under, in, out, through, backward, there, around, here, sideways, upstairs, in the park, in the field, in that
place, etc. are some common adverbs of place/direction.

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Example:
o I went through the jungle.
o He plays in the field.
o Alex is going to school.
o He is staying at my home.
Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)
Adverbs that express the importance/degree/level of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of degree. They
answer the question ‘how much is the action performed?’.
Completely, nearly, entirely, less, mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively, much, etc. are common adverbs of
degree.
Example:
o She completely forgot about her anniversary.
o I read the newspaper thoroughly.
o I am so excited about the new job.
o Robin hardly studies
Adverbs of Manner (How?)
Adverbs that express the manner/approach/process of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of manner. They
answer the question ‘how is the action performed?’.
Beautifully, equally, thankfully, carefully, handily, quickly, coldly, hotly, resentfully, earnestly, nicely, tirelessly, etc. are
common adverbs of manner. These adverbs usually end in ly.
Example:
o Let's divide the prizes equally.
o Please, handle the camera carefully.
o Mike is walking slowly.
o He is running fast.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the other words of a sentence. They explain
relationships of sequence, space, and logic between the object of the sentence and the rest of the sentence. They help
us understand order, time connections, and positions.
Example:
o I am going to Canada.
o Alex threw a stone into the pond.
o The present is inside the box.
o They have gone out of the town.
There are a few interesting linguistic facts about prepositions.
First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to the language. We use a fixed set of
prepositions.
Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural, possessive, inflection, or anything else.
Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses. So, it is easy to be confused about it.
Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with two or more words are called phrasal
prepositions.
There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions:
because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care of, in spite of, on the side of, etc.
Types of Preposition
Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which are common in every type of preposition
as they function in a versatile way.
 Simple Preposition
 Double Preposition
 Compound Preposition
 Participle Preposition
 Disguised Preposition
 Detached Preposition
 Prepositions of Time
 Prepositions of Place and Direction
 Prepositions of Agents or Things
 Phrasal Prepositions
Simple Preposition
These are among the most common type of prepositions. The prepositions used to express the relationship the Nouns
and Pronouns of a sentence have with the rest of the words in it are called Simple Prepositions. They are often used to
join two clauses in terms of Complex Sentence and Compound Sentence.
Examples:
Most Popular Prepositions
And but at to on in

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For of up off from out
With during down below beside over
By near behind inside among along

Double Preposition
Two Simple Prepositions joining together to form one which connects the Noun(s) or Pronoun(s) to the rest the words in
a sentence.
Examples:
o Are you out of your mind?
o I was allowed the inside of the temple.
o She’s sandwiched in between two of her cousins.
Compound Preposition
Compound Prepositions are composed of prepositions as well as other words. Compound Prepositions are easily
confused with Double Prepositions since they both require other prepositions or words to help with acting like a
preposition.
Examples:
o According to my calculations, this color should work just fine.
o I started for home, with a view to celebrating Eid with my family.
o On behalf of our family, my father attended the family reunion.
Participle Preposition
Present Participles (-ing) and Past Participles (-ed and -en) that are used as Prepositions instead of Verbs, are called
Participle Prepositions. These are participles as well as prepositions.
Examples:
Present Participle Prepositions Past Participles Prepositions
Assuming Respected
Barring Given
Considering Gone
During Barred
Notwithstanding Provided
Regarding Taken
Participle Prepositions Used in Sentences:
o Barred from the entrance, he threw a fit.
o I was happy given the fact that I got great marks.
o Assuming the possibility of rain, she carried an umbrella.
Disguised Preposition
These prepositions are usually disguised as some other element in the English language. Often these prepositions are
disguised as "a" and "o" in sentences.
Examples:
o I wake up at 5 o'clock. (Of the clock)
o Keep striding ahead. (on the head)
o Pope went ashore. (onshore)
o Rimi visits the riverbank once a day. (in a day)
Detached Preposition
A preposition that has been detached and sent to the very end of the sentence is called Detached Preposition. These
prepositions are detached from the interrogative or relative pronouns and adverbs but get detached for the sake of the
integrity of sentences.
Examples:
o Where are you coming from?
o Is that the neighborhood you are headed to?
o I won't tolerate being screamed at.
Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common preposition of time.
Example:
o He started working at 10 AM.
o The company called meeting on 25 October.
o There is a holiday in December.
o He has been ill since Monday.
Prepositions of Place and Direction
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Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in front of, behind, above, over, under,
below, etc. are the most common prepositions of place/direction.
Example:
o He is at home.
o He came from England.
o The police broke into the house.
o I live across the river.
Prepositions of Agents or Things
Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns and other parts of the sentence.
Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or things.
Example:
o This article is about smartphones.
o Most of the guests have already left.
o I will always be here for you.
o He is playing with his brothers.
Phrasal Prepositions
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of two or more words that function as a
preposition.
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in
reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal
prepositions.
Example:
o They along with their children went to Atlanta.
o According to the new rules, you are not right.
o In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
o I’m going out of the city.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for constructing sentences. Conjunctions make a link
between/among words or groups of words to other parts of the sentence and show a relationship between/among
them.
Example:
o Alex and Robin are playing together.
o Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him.
o I play cricket, and Robin plays football.
o When he was sick, I went to see him.
Types of Conjunctions
 Coordinating Conjunctions
 Correlative Conjunctions
 Subordinating Conjunctions
 Compound Conjunction
 Adverbial Conjunction
Coordinating Conjunctions
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases, or independent clauses, which are parallel in
structure. There are seven coordinating conjunctions which are by far the most common conjunctions: and, but, for,
nor, or, so, yet.
It's easier to memorize the seven Coordinating Conjunctions with the acronym - FANBOYS.
For - I was meaning to leave soon, for I was getting late to the next class.
And - Freya left quickly and I was worried about her.
Nor - They weren’t up for athletics nor was I.
But - We were running late but it wasn’t possible to get out of here anytime soon.
Or - Is it okay or should I go for the last laugh?
Yet - It was early in the morning yet we were all ready to go home.
So - He was panicking so we were cautious.
Example:
o We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
o Do you want ice cream or would some chocolates be more preferable?
o Go away and never come back.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to show a contrast or to compare the equal
parts of a sentence. The words of correlative conjunctions have a special connection between them.
The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor, both - and, not - but, whether - or etc.
Example:
o Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
o I want both ice cream and cereal
o He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.

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o Rina is both the CEO and Managing Director of the company.

o She didn’t know whether to call in or wait her turn.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparallel sentence structure. These elements are usually a
dependent clause and an independent clause.
The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though, which, as much as, inasmuch as, unless,
while, because, provided, until, who/whom, before, since, what, whoever and whomever.
Time Comparison Condition
After, Before, As soon as Than, Rather than, Whether If, If only, Unless
Until, Whenever, Now, Now that, Whereas Provided, Provided that
When, Now when, Once, Till Supposing, Assuming
While, As long as Assuming that
Reason Relativity Opinion
As, Because, Since, Inasmuch as That, What, Whatever, Which, Though, Although,
In order to, In order that Whichever, Who, Whoever, Even though, As though, As if,
So that, Why, Lest Whom How
Whomever, Whose
Example:
o Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
o Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
o When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
o Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.
Compound Conjunction
These are conjunctions that have two or three parts. Each and every part of these does not have to be conjunctions
themselves. The parts become inseparable in the sense that they tend to pop up next to one another more often and
not.
Examples:
o We love to go skinny dipping as well as busking in the sun.
o He acted as if it were his first time under the sun.
o I made a deal to see them provided that I was assured police protection.
o I hurried out of the room so that I didn’t have to listen to her anymore.
Adverbial Conjunction
They help bring together two complete thoughts like some of the other Conjunctions while also
being Adverbs themselves. They are also called Conjunctive Adverbs.
List of Adverbial Conjunctions
To compare To contrast Time To emphasize
Similarly But Lately Undoubtedly

Like However Since Definitely
As Instead Now Certainly
Likewise Rather Meanwhile Of course
In spite of Before Indeed
To summarize To exemplify Effect Sequence
Briefly For example Accordingly First

Merely For instance Consequently Next
Quickly Namely Hence Finally
In conclusion Typically Therefore Furthermore
In summary Representatively Then In addition
Moreover
Examples:
o I was looking for a tea stall; additionally, I needed a salon for a complete makeover.
o Tim was banking on his skills as a salesman. Meanwhile, he should have researched the clients.
o I shouted my discomfort out, that is, I didn’t like the stares I was getting.
o Mila was on her way back home, therefore, the world she left behind her didn’t bother her as much.
Punctuations with Conjunctions
 Two independent clauses in a sentence must be separated by a comma and that goes for no matter what
conjunction is used. If the clauses attached by the conjunction can stand as complete sentences, a comma must
be used between them.
Examples:

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o I'm doing fine, but I have my own struggles.

o You were running the marathon, and I was cheering you on.
o My father was unsure of the result, though he was keeping it together.
 While using the Subordinating Conjunctions to attach Dependent and Independent Clauses in a sentence, there
are two ways to construct these complex sentences and one of them requires a comma separating the two
clauses. The comma becomes an integral part of the sentence when the Subordinating Conjunctions are placed
at the start of the sentence.
Examples:
o (Comma) If you are going for gold, I'll come with you.
o (No comma) I'll come with you if you are going for gold.
o (Comma) Though we are running late, we can help you install your home theatre.
o (No comma) We can help you install your home theatre though we are running late.
 In the case of Adverbial Conjunctions joining two independent clauses, the most common punctuation practice
is to use a semicolon before It and a comma after that while the two complete thoughts are situated on either
side. Some opt for two commas on both sides of the conjunction and there is another practice to separate the
two clauses with a period while the capitalized conjunction starts the next sentence followed by a comma.
Examples:
o Sam was worried about the rain; therefore, she didn’t do her laundry today.
o I was there with her 24/7. Moreover, I kept a close eye on her every move.
o Matt was agitated, however, the rest of us were trying to convince him to stay.
INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a kind of exclamation inserted into regular speech. Actually, it is a brief and abrupt pause in speech for
expressing emotions.
They are unique and have some interesting features:
o Interjections don’t have a grammatical function in sentence construction.
o They usually cannot be modified or inflected.
o They do not have to have a relation to the other parts of the sentence.
o They are highly context-sensitive.
In spoken language, interjections are the words we instantly use to show our reaction to something which influences our
emotion. They are the initial reaction and sometimes do not even make sense. However, for formal speech or writing,
using interjections is not appropriate.
Types of Interjections
 Primary Interjection
 Secondary Interjection
 Mild Interjection
 Strong Interjection
 Volitive Interjection
 Emotive Interjection
 Cognitive Interjection
There are basically two types of it and they are -
1. Primary Interjection
The words that are exclusively interjections and cannot be classified as any other Parts of Speech are called Primary
Interjections.
Examples:
List of Primary Interjections
Phew Wow Oh Blah
Huh Aw God Oops
Hurray Yuck Gee Ugh
Ouch Alas Geez Meh
o Oops, My bad.
o Wow! You had time to join us.
o Alas! I couldn’t be there on time.
2. Secondary Interjection
The Nouns, Adjectives, and other Parts of Speech that act as interjections on occasions are called Secondary
Interjections.
Examples:
o Indeed, I was waiting for your premonitions.

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o Goodness! How did you go through all these books in a day?

o Holy cow! You're the last person I expected.
Based on the severity of the expressions, Interjections are categorized into two types -
1. Mild Interjection
The relatively mild expression of feelings and emotions is usually called Mild Interjections. These types are typically
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Examples:
o Oh, I was looking for you.
o Well, it wasn't very easy.
o Hmm, I'm doing well.
2. Strong Interjection
The strong outbursts of expression are determined as Strong Interjections. These types are typically separated from the
rest of the sentence by exclamation marks.
Examples:
o Yay! I finally passed.
o Bingo! Found it.
o Ouch! That hurt.
Based on the kind of emotions conveyed, Interjections are divided into three categories -
1. Volitive Interjection
Commands, requests, and wishes are usually expressed with Volitive Interjections. In the speech, "I want" expressions
are replaced with Volitive Interjections.
"Enough" expresses the wish to stop listening to someone and maybe put forward a contesting statement. "Shoo" tends
to express the speaker's wish to drive someone away.
Examples:
o Shh (I want you to be quiet) - Shh! We have to keep it quiet.
o Ahem (I request your attention) - Ahem! I was looking at another problem.
o Psst (I want to attract attention in secrecy) - Psst! I've started working out.
2. Emotive Interjection
The words to express sudden spur of emotions like surprise, delight, sorrow, disgust and fear are Emotive
Interjections. These types usually replace the "I feel" expressions in speech.
"Eww" means to convey - "I feel disgusted" and "Phew" means to express - "I feel relieved".
Examples:
o Ugh (I feel disgusted) - Ugh! What is that filthy smell?
o Ouch (I feel hurt) - Ouch! These ants sting.
o Yippee (I feel elated) - Yippee! We ended the year victorious.
3. Cognitive Interjection
Words that are born off cognition and used as exclamations are called Cognitive Interjections. These types are used to
convey the feelings and emotions that people come across and understand through experience.
Examples:
o Well, I'll try harder.
o Bravo! What a performance!
o Gosh, you're so fast.
Interjections mainly have four roles:
Rule 1: Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and feeling with emphasis. There are also many taboo words
that are usually used in everyday conversation but not in formal aspects. These words fall into the category of
interjections.
Example:
o Wow! That’s an amazing scene.
o Aw, I did not want him to come.
o What? You never told me that!
Rule 2: Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a thought or hold someone’s attention for a moment. These are
just sounds, not words because these sounds do not make any sense.
Example:
o Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back.
o I want to, uh, ask you out on a date.
Rule 3: Some interjections express only yes or no.
Example:
o Yes! I will most definitely do it.
o Nah, we are not going.
Rule 4: Some are used to get someone’s attention.
Example:
o Yo, Alex! Get in the car!
o Hey! Will you give me that ball?
o Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone?
ARTICLES

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There is no doubt that articles are adjectives since they modify the nouns after them. But articles have some special
significance as determiners. Articles determine the standard of nouns.
There are two types of articles:
1. Definite Article - the
The makes the noun something particular and definite.
Example:
o Give me the ball.
(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a particular ball about which the speaker and the listener both are
aware. There is no possibility of the ball to be anything else rather than the speaker and the listener idea of that
particular ball.)
2. Indefinite Article - a & an
A & an - make the noun something general and indefinite.
Example:
o Give me a ball.
(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a random ball about which the listener is not particularly aware of,
and s/he might ask ‘which/what kind of ball you want?’.)
o Give me an egg. (It can be any kind of egg – the possibility is open.)
Rules of Using Articles with Examples
Definite article or Indefinite article, each of the articles has different uses in different situations.
Using Indefinite Article: a & an
Rule 1:A common noun in the singular number always requires an article before it. But a plural common noun does not
require an article always. A plural common noun can have the article ‘the’ if we want to particularize that noun.
Example:
o I saw a snake. (Refers to a random snake)
o I saw snakes in a zoo. (No article is required)
o I have seen the snake again. (Refers to the snake I have already seen earlier)
o I have seen the snakes again before leaving the zoo. (Refers to the particular snakes of the zoo which I saw
earlier.)
Rule 2:The choice between the two indefinite articles – a & an – is determined by sound. Words beginning with
consonant sounds precede ‘a’ and words beginning with vowel sounds precede ‘an’. There are some special cases also.
For instance,
o a university, a union, a useful book, etc.
o a one-dollar note, a one-man army, etc.
o an MA, a BA, an LLB, a BSC, etc.
Rule 3: A or an - sometimes makes a Proper Noun a Common Noun. Proper nouns generally do not take any articles, but
when a proper noun needs to be used as a common noun, you must bring a or an - for it.
Example:
o He thinks he is a Shakespeare. (Here, ‘Shakespeare’ does not refer to the actual person but someone like him.)
o He seems to be an Australian. (‘Australia’ is a proper noun but ‘Australian’ is a commo n noun because there is
only one Australia but a million of Australians.)
Rule 4: Sometimes indefinite articles are used to refer the number ‘one’/’each’/’per’.
Example:
o I earned a thousand dollar in that job. (One thousand dollar)
o I have a car. (One car)
o It goes 50 miles an hour. (Per Hour)
Rule 5: Indefinite articles often precede descriptive adjectives.
Example:
o He is a good boy.
o What a nice car!
Rule 6: ‘A’ sometimes comes before determiners, for example, a few, a little, a lot of, a most, etc. but in the case
of many, a or an - comes after.
Example:
o I have a few friends coming over.
o There is a little milk in the jar.
o Many a fan welcomed
Using Definite Article: the
Rule 1: ‘The’ is used to indicate a particular person(s) or thing(s) in the case of common nouns. Proper nouns generally
do not take an article.
Example:
o The man is running. (A particular man)
o I saw the boy stealing.
o Where is the pen I gave you last year?
o I gave him a ball, but he lost the ball. (‘a ball’ became ‘the ball’ in the second clause because that ball was not
a random ball anymore.)
Rule 2: Sometimes ‘the’ is used to generalize a group/whole class.
Example:
o The dog is a faithful animal. (Refers to the whole species of dog.)
o The English are industrious. (Refers to the people of England as a nation)

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o The honest are respected. (The + adjectives = plural noun)

o The poor are not always dishonest. (The + adjectives = plural noun)
Rule 3: To particularize a non-count noun ‘the’ is required before it.
Example:
o The water of the Arctic Ocean is freezing.
o Please return the money I lent you last year.
Rule 4: ‘The’ is mandatory before a thing which is only one of a kind in the universe.
Example:
o The moon is shining tonight.
o The earth is moving around the sun.
Use of ‘the’ before geographical places:
Rule 5: Using ‘the’ with geographical nouns generally depends on the size and plurality of the things those nouns refer
to. ‘The’ is generally used everywhere except some cases. So, it’s better to know those exceptions first.
‘The’ must not precede:
o Names of continents: Asia, Europe, Australia, Africa, South America, North America, Antarctica.
o Names of countries: Australia, Bolivia, England, France, Spain, etc.
o Names of states, cities, or towns: Los Angeles, Alaska, Sydney, London,
o Names of streets: George street, Albion Street, New town street,
o Names of singular lakes and bays: Lake Carey, Lake Eyre, Lake Hillier, Shark Bay,
o Names of single mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Solitary, Mount Bindo, Mount Fuji, etc.
o Names of single islands: Easter Island, Bare Island, Bird Island, Fatima Island,
o Names of languages: Spanish, Russian, English, (When ‘the’ precedes these nouns, they refer to the
population of those languages.)
o Names of sports: cricket, football, basketball,
o Names of discipline/subject of studies: biology, history, computer science, mathematics,
Note: ‘The’ is a widely used article in English. Except for the list mentioned above and proper nouns, ‘the’ is used before
almost all the nouns which mean something definite/particular. The above list has some opposite factors also. Those
factors are explained in the following list:
‘The’ must precede:
o Names of oceans, gulfs, seas, and rivers: the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Coral Sea, the Timor Sea, the Persian
Gulf, the Nile, the Murray River, the Darling River, etc.
o Names of countries with united states or islands: the United States of America (the USA), the UK, the UAE, the
Philippines, etc.
o Names of great lakes: the Great Lakes, the African Great Lakes
o Names of mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, etc.
o Names of a group of Islands: the West Indies, the Andamans, etc.
CHAPTER #02: sentence types & kinds

Sentence: Definition & Types
A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-stop, or
a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea by giving a
statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming.
Example:
He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice weather! (exclaiming).
Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the subject of a sentence can be hidden, but
the verb must be visible and present in the sentence. Verb is called the heart of a sentence.
Example:
Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)
“[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a thought in the form of
a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when written.” –
More Examples of Sentences
In other words, a complete English sentence must have three characteristics:
o First, in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e., a full stop) [.], a note
of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?], or a note of exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark) [!].
o Second, it must express a complete thought, not fragmented.
o Third, it must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb comprising an independent clause.
(An independent clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)
TYPES OF SENTENCES
Structurally, sentences are of four types:

 Simple sentence
 Compound sentence
 Complex sentence, and
 Compound-complex sentence.

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1. Simple sentence
A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is independent, and it cannot take another clause.
Example:
I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)
2. Compound sentence
A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent clauses. Some
specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join together these clauses.
Example:
I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two independent clauses – two verbs)
3. Complex sentence
A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an independent clause and the
other/others must be (a) dependent clause (es). There are also some particular connectors for the clauses of a complex
sentence to be connected.
Example:
I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a connector and an independent
clause. The other way around is also possible.)
4. Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of the features of compound and complex
sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Example:
I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a doctor. (Here, one dependent
clause is followed by a complex connector and two independent clauses with a compound conjunction between them.)
KINDS OF SENTENCE
Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types:
 Declarative sentence
 Imperative sentence
 Interrogative sentence, and
 Exclamatory sentence
Declarative sentence:
An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an opinion/feeling, or makes a statement, or describes
things. In other words, it declares something. This type of sentence ends with a period (i.e., a full-stop).
Examples:
o I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement)
o I am very happy today. (a feeling)
Imperative sentence:
We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command. Imperative sentences usually end with a period
(i.e., a full stop), but under certain circumstances, it can end with a note of exclamation (i.e., exclamation mark).
Examples:
o Please sit down.
o I need you to sit down now!
Interrogative sentence:
An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end with a note of interrogation (i.e., question
mark)
Examples:
o When are you going to submit your assignment?
o Do you know him?
Exclamatory sentence. An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be of
happiness, wonder, sorrow, anger, etc.
Examples:
o What a day it was!
o I cannot believe he would do that!
CONDITIONALS
Normally conditional sentences are called conditionals. These sentences usually contain the
conjunction IF. Sometimes they are called 'if clauses'.
Types of Conditionals
There are mainly two types of conditionals:
 The Real Conditionals and
 The Unreal Conditionals
The real conditionals
The real conditionals express factual or habitual conditions which have the possibility to occur in the future or generally
occur in the present.
Example:
o I’ll go if you give me the ball.
o If I feel better, I’ll certainly play.
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o If you do well in the exams, I’ll buy you a gift.

Structures of the Real Conditionals:
For Future Conditions
If + subject + simple present tense + subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form. . .

Subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form. . . + if + subject + simple present tense
Example:
If I have the money, I will buy a new phone.
o I can make you cry if you keep doing that.
o If he goes there, he may get robbed.
o If you go outside, you must wear heavy clothes.
For Habitual Conditions
If + subject + simple present tense + subject + simple present tense. . .

Subject + simple present tense + if + subject + simple present tense. .
Example:
o If I have the money, I always buy the necessary things.
o If Alex gets a break, he usually calls me.
o He works hard if the payment is good.
For Commands
If + subject + simple present tense + command form (simple present) . . . . .

Command form (simple present). . . . . + if + subject + simple present tense.
Example:
o If you have the money, use it wisely.
o Please call me if you get a chance.
The unreal conditionals

The unreal conditionals express hypothetical conditions which have no possibility to occur in the past, present or future
but describe what could/might have occurred supposedly.
Example:
o If I were rich, I would travel my whole life.
o If I had a car, I could go anywhere.
o If we had not missed the train, we would have reached the city.
Structures of Unreal Conditionals:
For Present/Future Conditions
If + subject + simple past tense + subject + would/could/might + verb in base form. . .

subject + would/could/might + verb in base form + if + subject + simple past tense
Example:
o If I had the money, I would buy a new phone.
o If I were the president, I would not support war policies.
o If he were not ill, he could come with us.
o If I could play tomorrow, I would definitely win the match.
For Past Conditions
If + subject + past perfect tense + subject + would/could/might + have+ verb in past participle form
Subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past participle form + if + subject + simple past tense
Example:
o If I had played well, we would have won the match.
o I could have caught you if you had been a little closer.
o If he had written well, I could have given him a better mark.
Note: There is another structure of unreal conditional which does not use the conjunction if. Had replaces if and
creates a conditional sentence.
Had + subject + verb in past participle + subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past participle

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Example:
o Had I reached earlier, I could have caught the train.
o Had she found the watch, she would have told me.
CHAPTER #03: cluases & phrases

CLAUSES
What is a Clause
A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. It contains only one subject and one
verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent and distinguishable.
A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a complex or
compound sentence.” – Merriam-Webster
Example:
o I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)
Types of Clauses
 Independent Clause
 Dependent Clause
o Adjective Clause
o Noun Clause
o Adverbial Clause
 Principal Clause
 Coordinate Clause
 Non-finite Clause
Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
o He is a wise man.
o I like him.
o Can you do it?
o Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
o I read the whole story.
o I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses)
o He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the Lords” is an
independent clause.)
o Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)
Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called a subordinate clause. These
help the independent clauses complete the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a complete sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete the sentence. In each
of the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns, subordinating
conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
o When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
o I know the man who stole the watch.
o He bought a car which was too expensive.
o I know that he cannot do it.
o He does not know where he was born.
o If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
o He is a very talented player though he is out of form.
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –
1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective Clauses have similar qualities as Adjectives that are of
modifying Nouns and hence the name, Adjective Clause. These are also called Relative Clauses and they usually sit right
after the Nouns they modify.
Examples:
o I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
o Finn is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
o You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead the class out.
2. Noun Clause
Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses. These often start with
“how,” “that,” other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and Whom), if, whether etc.
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Examples:
o I like what I hear.
o You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.
o He knows how things work around here.
3. Adverbial Clause
By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power to modify
Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.
Examples:
o Alice did the dishes till her legs gave up.
o Tina ran to the point of panting vehemently.
o I went through the book at a lightning speed.
Principal Clause
These have a Subject (Noun/Pronoun), Finite Verb and an Object and make full sentences that can stand alone or act as
the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence. Independent and Principal Clauses are functionally the same but
named from different perspectives.
Examples:
o I know that boy.
o He can jog every morning.
o Robin fishes like a pro.
Coordinate Clause
Two or more similarly important Independent Clauses joined by Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but etc.) in terms of
Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses.
Examples:
o I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.
o You prefer flying but she always wants to take a bus.
o We are going to visit Terry or he is coming over.
Non-finite Clause
They contain a Participle or an Infinitive Verb that makes the Subject and Verb evident even though hidden. In terms of a
Participle, the Participial Phrase takes place of the Subject or Object of the sentence.
Examples:
o He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.
o She is the first person (who is) to enter the office.
o Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.
PHRASES
What is Phrase?
Phrases and clauses are the most important elements of English grammar. Phrase and clause cover everything a
sentence has. Clauses are the center of sentences and phrases strengthen the sentences to become meaningful. If the
clauses are the pillars of a building, the phrases are the bricks. A phrase usually is always present within a clause, but a
phrase cannot have a clause in it.
The basic difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause must have a finite verb and a phrase must not.
A phrase, therefore, is a group of words which has no finite verb in it and acts to complete the sentence for making it
meaningful.
“A phrase is a small group of words that form a meaningful unit within a clause.”-Oxford Dictionary
“In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a constituent in
the syntax of a sentence, a single unit within the grammatical hierarchy.”- Osborne, Timothy, Michael Putnam,
and Thomas Gross (2011)
Types of Phrases
The phrases are generally of several types.
 Noun Phrase
 Adjective Phrase
 Adverbial Phrase
 Prepositional Phrase
 Conjunctional Phrase
 Interjectional Phrase
 Absolute Phrase
 Appositive Phrase
 Participle Phrase
 Gerund Phrase
 Infinitive Phrase
Noun Phrase
It is usually assembled centering a single noun and works as a subject, an object or a complement in the sentence.
Example:
o I like to swing the bat hard when I am at the crease. (An object)
o Reading novels is a good habit. (A subject)
o The probability of happening that match is not much. (A subject)
o We are sorry for her departure.

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Adjective Phrase
It is comprised of an adjective and works as a single adjective in the sentence.
Example:
o Alex is a well-behaved man.
o He is a man of friendly nature.
o Julie is a woman of gorgeous style.
o She leads a very interesting life.
o A lot of people do not sleep at night.
Adverbial Phrase
It modifies the verb or the adjective and works as an adverb in the sentence.
Example:
o The horse runs at a good speed.
o I was in a hurry then.
o I ran as fast as possible.
o He works very slowly.
Prepositional Phrase
It always begins with a preposition and connects nouns.
Example:
o He sacrificed his life for the sake of his country.
o In the end, we all have to die.
o He is on the way.
o By working aimlessly, you will not get success.
o In spite of working hard, he was insulted by his boss.
Note: Prepositional phrases include all other types of phrases.
Conjunctional Phrase
A conjunctional phrase works as a conjunction in the sentence.
Example:
o As soon as you got in, he went out.
o We have to work hard so that we can win the next match.
o I will attend the ceremony provided that you come.
o John started working early in order that he could finish early.
Interjectional Phrase
Interjections that have more than one word are called interjectional phrases.
Example:
o What a pity! He is dead.
o What a pleasure! I won the first prize.
o Oh please! Don’t say that again.
Absolute Phrase
The phrases containing Noun or Pronoun accompanied by a participle and necessary modifiers if any are stated as
Absolute Phrases. They modify indefinite classes and are also called Nominative Phrases.
Examples:
o Weather permitting, I will join the party.
o God willing, he’ll pass the test this time.
o The hot Summer sun having set, we left for the movie
Appositive Phrase
An appositive is a Noun or Pronoun often accompanied by modifiers that sit beside another Noun or Pronoun to
describe it. An Appositive Phrase is a set of words containing an Appositive and it follows or precedes the Noun or
Pronoun it identifies or explains.
Examples:
o My school friend, Brooks always bunked classes.
o His colleague, Mr. Robinson likes his tea.
o Jeremy, the police officer on duty, wrote the speeding ticket.
Participle Phrase
It is made of a participle, its modifier(s) and/or the objects that complete the sense of the sentence.
Examples:
o Walking fast, I keep looking left and right.
o Climbing the stairs, she waved at us.
o I looked back, starting the engine.
Gerund Phrase
These contain a Gerund, its modifier(s) and the other necessary elements. They function as Nouns just like Gerunds
themselves and that means they can be Subjects and Objects of the sentences.
Examples:
o Eating plenty of grapes in one sitting is a bad idea.
o Doing the dishes gives me cold allergies.
o I hate hurrying right before the deadline.
Infinitive Phrase
These are comprised of infinitive verbs (To + base verb) along with their modifiers and/or complements.
Examples:

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o We love to cook together.

o He likes to solve math problems too much.
o Hanna walks fast to be there on time.
CHAPTER #04: correction rules
100 golden rules of English Grammar for error detection and sentence improvement
A. SUBJECT - VERB AGREEMENT
1. Two or more Singular Subjects connected by and usually take a Verb in the Plural.
For example, Incorrect- Hari and Ram is here. Correct- Hari and Ram are here.
2. If two Singular Nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Verb must be Singular. Incorrect- The Secretary and Principal
are coming. Correct- The Secretary and Principal is coming. (Here the same person is .Secretary as well as Principal)
3. If the Singular Subjects are preceded by each or every, the Verb is usually singular.
For example, Incorrect- Every boy and girl were ready. Correct- Every boy and girl was ready.
4. Two or more Singular Subjects connected by or, nor, either or, neither.... nor take a Verb in the Singular.
For example, Incorrect- Neither he nor I were there. Correct- Neither he nor I was there.
5. When the Subjects joined by 'or/nor are of different numbers, the Verb must be Plural, and the Plural Subject must be
placed next to the Verb.
For example, lncorrect- Neither the Assistant Masters nor the Headmaster was present. Correct- Neither the Headmaster
nor the Assistant Masters were present. '
6. When the Subjects joined by or, nor are of different persons, the Verb agrees in person with the one nearest to it. For
example, Incorrect- Either he or I is mistaken. Correct- Either he or I, am mistaken.
7. A Collective Noun takes a Singular Verb when the collection is thought of as a whole, a Plural Verb when the individuals
of which it is composed are thought of. For example, Correct- The Council has chosen the President. Correct- The military
were called out.
8. Some Nouns which are singular in form but plural in meaning, take a Plural Verb. For example, Incorrect- Mathematics
are a branch of study in every school. Correct- Mathematics is a branch of study in every school.
9. Words joined to a Singular Subject by with, together with, in addition to, or, as well as etc. are parenthetical, and
therefore do not affect the number of the Verb. For example, Incorrect- The Chief, with all his men, were massacred. •
Correct-The chief, with all his men, was massacred.
10. When the Subject of the Verb is Relative Pronoun care should be taken to see that the Verb agrees in Number and
Person with the Antecedent of the relative. For example, Incorrect- I, who is your friend, will guard your interests. Correct-
I, who am your friend will guard your interests.
B. USES OF PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES
11. Ask, advise, allow, command, force, forbid, invite, encourage, compel, beg, order•, imagine, instruct, permit, persuade,
tell, require, remind, teach, etc. are followed by Object + To +V2 For example, Incorrect- He advised to do it by me.
Correct- He advised me to do it. But if these are used in Passive Voice, then they are followed by To +V, For example,
Correct- She was permitted to go with him.
12. Know is followed by how/ where/when/why and Infinitive. For example, Incorrect- I know to write a letter. Correct- I
know how to write a letter.
13. After let, bid, behold, watch, see, feel, make etc. we use Bare Infinitive and not To-infinitive. For example, Incorrect- I
heard him to speak on several subjects. Correct- I heard him speak on several subjects.
14. Bare Infinitive is used after Modal Auxiliaries (can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, dare not, need
not). For example, Incorrect- You need not to work hard. Correct- You need not work hard.
15. Had better, had rather, had as soon ... as ..., had sooner etc. are followed by Bare Infinitive. For example, Incorrect- He
had better to go now. Correct- He had better go now.
16. Conjunction than is also followed by Bare Infinitive. For example, Incorrect- He had better read than to write. Correct-
He had better read than write.
17. When but is used as a Preposition and preceded by any form of the Verb do, then but is followed with Bare Infinitive.
Incorrect- He did nothing but to wander. Correct- He did nothing but wander.
18. Every Participle must have a Subject of Reference. For example, Incorrect- Being a rainy-day Vijay decided to stay at
home. Correct- It being a rainy-day Vijay decided to stay at home.
19. For completed action Having + Va is used in Active Voice, whereas Having + been + Va or Being + Va is used in Passive
Voice. After should not be used in such a sentence. For example, Incorrect- After the leader having been killed, the
followers ran away. Correct- The leader having been killed, the followers ran away.
20. Participles like considering, judging, referring, concerning, regarding, viewing, broadly speaking etc. do not take any
Subject of Reference. For example, Correct - Considering the case, I took the decision. Here I is not a Subject of Reference
of considering. So, there is no Subject of Reference for 'considering, still the sentence is correct.
C. USES OF VERBS
21. When there are two Subjects in a sentence and they are not in the same Number, then we must have to use separate
Auxiliaries (is, are, am, was, were, have, has) for both of them. For example, Incorrect- Three- killed and one were injured.
Correct- Three were killed and one was injured.
22. A single Verb should be made to serve two Subjects, only when the form of Verb is same for both the subjects.
Incorrect- I am seventeen years old and my sister fourteen. Correct- I am seventeen years old and my sister is fourteen.

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23. Two auxiliaries can be used with one principal Verb, only when the form of the principal Verb is appropriate to both
the auxiliaries. ‘Incorrect- He never has, and never will take such strong measures. Correct- He never has taken, and never
will take such strong measures.
24. When there is only one auxiliary to two principal Verbs it should be correctly associated with the both. Incorrect- Ten
candidates have passed one failed. Correct- Ten candidates have passed, one has failed.
25. A Past Tense in the main clause should be followed by a Past Tense in the subordinate clause. Incorrect- He succeeded
because he works hard. Correct- He succeeded because he worked hard.
26. A Past Tense in main clause may be followed by a Present Tense in the subordinate clause when the subordinate clause
expresses a universal truth. Incorrect- Our teacher said that the earth moved round the sun. Correct- Our teacher said
that the earth moves round the sun.
27. When the subordinate clause comes after 'lest', the auxiliary Verb 'should ‘must be used, whatever be the Tense of
the Verb in the main clause. Incorrect- We start early lest we shall miss the train. Correct- We start early lest we should
miss the train.
28. An Adverb or Adverbial phrase should not be placed between 'to' and verbal part of, the infinitive. (This is called the
split infinitive). Incorrect- I hoped to immediately reply to your letter: Correct- I hoped to reply immediately to your letter.
29. An infinitive should be in the present tense unless it represents' an action prior to that of the governing Verb. Incorrect-
I should have liked to have gone-there. Correct- I should have liked to go there.
30. Gerund if preceded by a Pronoun that Pronoun must be in Possessive case. Incorrect - He emphasized me going there.
Correct- He emphasized my going there.
31. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an action that began in the past time and is still. Going at the time
of speaking~ it is used with, Adverbials of time introduced by 'since', 'for' and 'how long. Incorrect- How long are you
working in this office? Correct- How long have you been working in this office?
32. A Verb when preceded by a Preposition must be the Gerund. Incorrect- They were punished for come late. Correct-
They were punished for, coming late.
33. The Future Indefinite Tense is not used in the clauses of time, place and condition. Here the Present Indefinite Tense
is used. Incorrect- I shall wait for you till you will finish your work. Correct- I shall wait for you, till you finish your work.
34. The Present Perfect Tense is not used with the Adverbs of past time like yesterday, in 1990 etc. Here Past Indefinite
Tense is used. Incorrect~ I have bought a cycle yesterday. Correct-I bought a cycle yesterday. The Past Perfect Tense is
used to represent the earlier of the two past actions. Incorrect- When I reached the station, the train already left. Correct-
When I reached the station, the train had already left.
35. Modal Auxiliaries are not used together. But two Auxiliaries can be connected by a Conjunction. For example, Incorrect-
He should must do it. Correct- He should and must do it.
36. When need or dare is followed by not, it turns into modal auxiliary. In that situation, it takes Bare Infinitive 'and we
cannot use needs not or dares not. For example, Incorrect- He needs not do it. Correct- He need not do it.
D: USES OF ADJECTIVES
37. Adjectives of quantity show how much of a thing is meant. Adjectives of quantity (some; much, little, enough, all, no,
any, great, half, sufficient, whole) are used for Uncountable Nuns only. For example, Incorrect-I ate a few rice. Correct- I
ate some rice.
38. Numeral Adjectives are used for Countable Noun only and they show how many persons or things are meant or in
what order a person or thing stands, For example, Incorrect- I have taught you little things. Correct- I have taught you a
few things.
39. When cardinal and ordinal are used together ordinal precedes the cardinal. For example, Incorrect- The four first boys
will be given the chance. Correct- The first four boys will be given the chance.
40. Later, latest refer to time, latter and last refer to position. For example, Incorrect- I reached at 10 am. But he was latter
than I expected. Correct- I reached at 10 am. But he was later than I expected,
41. Farther means more distant or advanced; further means additional. For example, Incorrect- He insisted on farther
improvement. Correct- He insisted on further improvement.
42. Each is used in speaking of two or more things, every is used only in speaking of more than two. For example, Incorrect-
Every of the two boys will get a prize. Correct- Each of the two boys will get a prize.
43. To express quantity or degree some is used in affirmative sentences, any in negative or interrogative sentences. For
example, Incorrect- Have you bought some mangoes? Correct- Have you bought any mangoes?
44. In comparing two things, the Comparative should be used, The Superlative should not be used. Incorrect- Which is
the best of the two? Correct- Which is the better of the two?
45. When two qualities of the same person or thing are compared, the Comparative in-er is not used. 'More' is used for
this purpose. Incorrect- He is wiser than brave. Correct- He is more wise than brave.
46. When comparison is made by means of a comparative, the thing compared should be excluded from the class of things
with which it is compared by using 'other' or some such word. Incorrect- He is cleverer than any boy in the class. Correct-
He is cleverer than any other boy in the class.
47. When comparison is made by means of a superlative, the thing com-pared should include the class of things with
which it is compared. Incorrect- He is the strongest of all other men. Correct- He is the strongest of all men.
48. When two persons or things are compared, it is important that the same parts of things should be compared. Incorrect-
The population of Bombay is greater than Delhi. Correct- The population of Bombay is greater than that of Delhi.
49. Double comparatives and superlatives should not be used. 1. Incorrect- He is the most cleverest boy in the class.
Correct- He is the cleverest boy in the class. 2. Incorrect- He is more wiser than his brother. Correct- He 'is wiser than his
brother.
50. The comparative Adjectives superior inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, posterior prefer, etc., should be followed
by 'to' instead of 'than'. Incorrect- He is senior than me. Correct- He is senior to me. Adjectives like 'unique', ideal, perfect,

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complete, universal, entire, extreme, chief, Full Square and round, which do not admit different degrees of comparison
should not be compared. Incorrect- It is the most unique thing. Correct- It is a unique thing.
52. All the Adjectives which refer to the same Noun should be in the same degree of comparison. Incorrect- He is the
wisest and honest worker in the office. Correct- He is the wisest and most honest worker in the office.
53. 'Elder' and 'eldest' should be used for persons only, strictly speaking, they are used for the members of the same family
only. 'Older' and 'oldest' are used for both persons and things. Incorrect- He is my older brother. Correct- He is my elder
brother.
E. USES OF ADVERBS
54. To modify a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb, we use an Adverb. Incorrect- She writes very careful. Correct- She
writes very carefully. Carefully is an Adjective which cannot modify the Adverb very, therefore carefully (Adverb) must
be used in place of Adjective careful.
55. Too means more than required and it is used with Unpleasant Adjective. So, we cannot use too glad, too happy, too
pleasant, too healthy. For example, Incorrect- I am too glad to meet you. Correct- I am very glad to meet you.
56. A sentence which is based on ''Too...... To" format, we cannot replace to with so that. If we replace to with so that, too
also must be replaced with cannot. For example, Incorrect- He is too weak so that he cannot walk. Correct- He is too
weak to walk. Correct- He is so weak that he cannot walk.
57. Much too is followed by Unpleasant Adjective, whereas too much is followed by Noun. Much too + Unpleasant
Adjective. Too much + Noun. For example, Incorrect- His failure is too much painful for me. Correct- His failure is much
too painful for me. Incorrect- His wife's rude behavior gives him much too pain. Correct- His wife's rude behavior gives
him too much pain.
58. Quite and all are not used together. For example, Incorrect- He is quite all right. Correct- He is quite right. Or He is all
right
59. A/An + fairly + Adjective + Noun or Rather + A + Adjective For example, (i) a fairly good book (ii) rather a difficult
problem. But we cannot use Pleasant Adjective with rather and Unpleasant Adjective with fairly. For example, Incorrect-
It was a rather good book. Correct- It was a fairly good book.
60. Enough, when used as an Adverb, is preceded by a positive degree Adjective or Adverb. For example, Incorrect- He is
greater enough to pardon you. Correct- He is great enough to pardon you. '
61. Two negatives cancel each other. Hence two negatives should not be used in the same sentence unless we make an
affirmation. Incorrect-I have not got none. Correct- I have not got any.
62. 'At present' means 'at the present time', 'presently' means 'shortly'. These should not be confused. 1. Incorrect-
Nothing more can be done presently. Correct- Nothing more can be done at present. 2. Incorrect- He will come back at
present. Correct- He will come back presently.
63. 'Hard' means 'diligently', strenuously', 'Hardly' means 'scarcely at all’. These two Adverbial forms of 'hard' must not be
confused. 1. Incorrect- He tried hardly to win the race. Correct- He tried hard to win the race. 2. Incorrect- She has eaten
hard anything today. Correct- She has eaten hardly anything today.
64. 'Much' is used before past participles and Adjectives or Adverbs of comparative degree. 'Very' is used before the
present participles and Adjectives and Adverbs of positive degree. 1. Incorrect- The news is much surprising. Correct- The
news is very surprising. 2. Incorrect-I was very surprised at hearing the news. Correct- I was much surprised at hearing
the news.
65. Hardly is an Adverb which means rarely. Whereas hard is an Adjective which means tough, rigid. For example,
Incorrect- It is a hardly job. Correct- It is a hard job.
66. Ago is always used with Past Indefinite Tense. So, if ago is used in a sentence, that sentence must be in the Past
Indefinite Tense. For example, Incorrect- He has come a month ago. Correct- He came a month ago.
67. At present means at this moment and it is used with •Present Tense, whereas presently and shortly are used for future'
action and generally' used with Future Indefinite Tense. For example, Incorrect- Presently he is in the room. Correct- At
present he is in the room.
68. Early means "just after the beginning of anything" and soon means just after a point of time. For example, Roses
blossomed early this spring.
69. The sentence which starts with seldom, never, hardly. rarely or scarcely takes an inverse structure, Le., Verb + Subject
- Structure. For example, Incorrect- Seldom I had seen such a beautiful sight. Correct- Seldom had I seen such a beautiful
sight.
70. Inversion is also used in a sentence which starts with here/there/ away/out/up/indoor or outdoor and Main Verb, or
Aux + Main Verb is used before the Subject. For example, Incorrect- Away Sita went Correct- Away went Sita.
F: USES OF CONJUNCTIONS
71. Two Conjunctions should not be used in the same sentence. Incorrect- Although she was tired, but she still went on
working. Correct- Although she was tired, she still went on working.
72. 'Both' should be followed by 'and'. It should be used in the positive sense. IN the negative sense, 'neither' 'nor• should
be used in place of 'both'. Incorrect- Both Ravi as well as Raja were present there. Correct- Both Ravi and Raja were
present there.
73. 'Either ... or', 'neither... nor: 'both and', 'not only but also' should be followed by the same parts of speech. Incorrect-
He not only lost his ticket, but also his luggage. Correct- He lost not only his ticket but also his luggage.
74. 'Neither' should be followed, by 'nor', 'either' should be followed by 'or’. Both these should not be confused. Incorrect-
He washed neither his hands nor his face. Correct- He washed neither his hands nor his face.
75. 'No sooner' should be followed by 'than', not by 'but' or 'then'. Incorrect- No sooner do I finish this book then I shall
begin another. Correct- No sooner do I finish the book, than I shall begin another.
76. 'Hardly' and 'scarcely' should be followed by 'when' or 'before', but not by 'than' or 'that'. Incorrect- Hardly did I reach
the station, than the train left it. Correct- Hardly did I reach the station when the train left it.

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77. 'That' should not be used before a sentence in Direct Speech and before Interrogative Adverbs and Pronouns in the
Indirect Speech. 1. Incorrect- He said that, "I shall go there." Correct- He said, "I shall go there". 2. Incorrect- He asked
me that who I was. Correct- He asked me who was.
G. USES OF PREPOSITION
78. Objective case (of Noun or• Pronoun) is used after Preposition. For example, Incorrect- I do not depend on he.
Correct- I do not depend on him.
79. The Prepositions used after two words must be made clear if these two words are connected by and or. For example,
Incorrect- She is conscious and engaged in her work. Correct- She is conscious of and engaged in her work.
80. If a Principal Verb is used after about, after, at, before. For, from, in, on. to, that Verb must be in ing (V4) form. For
example, Incorrect- You prevented me from do it. Correct- You prevented me from doing it. .
81. On, in, at, are not used before today, tomorrow, yesterday, the following day, the next day etc. For example, Incorrect-
He will go there on to-morrow. Correct- He will go there tomorrow.
82. No Preposition is used before the word home. At home is a phrase which bears a different meaning. For example,
Incorrect- Bring a T.V. set at home. Correct- Bring a T.V. se$ home.
83. After Transitive Verbs, like discuss, describe, reach, order, tell, demand, attack, resemble, ridicule, etc. we directly use
the object and no Preposition is used after the Verb. For example: Incorrect- The poet describes about the beauty of
naturel in this poem. Correct- The poet describes the beauty of nature in this poem.
84. Say/suggest/propose/speak/reply/explain/talk/listen/write is followed by to-Preposition if there is a person in the
form of object. For example, 1. Incorrect- He did not reply me. Correct- He did not reply to me. 2. Incorrect- He did not
write to a letter. Correct- He did not write a letter.
H. USES OF PRONOUNS
85. When a Pronoun is used as the complement of the Verb 'to be', it should be in the nominative case. Incorrect- If I were
him, I would not do it. Correct- If I were he, I would not do it.
86. When the Pronoun is used as the object of a Verb or of a Preposition, it should be in the objective case. 1. Incorrect-
Let you and I do it. Correct- Let you and me do it. 2. Incorrect- These presents are for you and I. Correct- These presents
are for you and me.
87. Emphatic Pronouns cannot stand alone as Subjects~ Incorrect- Himself did it. Correct- He himself did it. 88. The
Indefinite Pronoun 'one' should be used throughout if used at all. Incorrect- One must not boast of his own success.
Correct- One must not boast of one's own success.
89. 'Either' or 'neither' is used only in speaking of two persons or things; 'any’, ‘no one' and 'none' is used in speaking of
more than two. 1. Incorrect- Anyone of these two roads leads to the railway station. Correct- Either of these two roads
leads to the railway station. 2. Incorrect- Neither of these three boys did his homework. Correct- No one of these three
boys did his homework.
90. 'Each other' is used in speaking of two persons or things; 'one another' issued in speaking of more than two. Incorrect-
The two brothers loved one another. Correct- The two brothers loved each other.
91. A Noun or Pronoun governing a Gerund should be put in the possessive case. Incorrect- Please excuse me being late.
Correct- Please excuse my being late.
92. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number and gender. Incorrect- Each of these boys has done their
homework. Correct- Each of these boys has done his homework.
93. When two or more Singular Nouns are joined by 'and', the Pronoun used for them must be in Plural. Incorrect- Both
Raju and Ravi have done his homework. Correct- Both Raju and Ravi have done their homework.
94. When two or more Singular Nouns joined by 'and' refer to the same person or thing, a Pronoun used for them must
be in the singular. Incorrect- The collector and District Magistrate is not negligent in their duty. Correct- The collector and
District Magistrate is not negligent in his duty.
95. When two or more singular nouns joined by 'or' or 'nor', 'either ... or’, ‘neither. Nor', the Pronoun used for them should
be in the singular. Incorrect- Neither Ravi nor Raju has done their homework. Correct- Neither Ravi nor Raju has done his
homework.
96. When two or more singular Pronouns of different persons come together, the Pronoun of second person singular (you)
comes first, the pronoun of the first person singular (I) comes last and the pronoun of the third person singular (he)
comes in between. Incorrect- I, You and he must work together. Correct- You, he and I must work together.
97. When two or more plural Pro-nouns of different persons come together first person plural (we) comes first, then
second person plural (you) and last of all third person plural (they). Incorrect- You, they and we must work together.
Correct- We, you and they must work together.
98. The Relative Pronoun who is in subjective case, whereas whom is in objective case. Therefore, for who there must be
a Finite Verb in the sentence. Or otherwise, when whom (Object) is used in the sentence and there is more Finite Verb's
than the number of Subjects in the sentence, then whom should be changed into who (Subject). For example, Incorrect-
The doctor whom came here was Ram's brother. Correct- The doctor who came here was Ram's brother.
99. With Superlative Degree Adjective, only, none, all etc., as Relative Pronoun we use that and not which or who. For
example, Incorrect- All which glitters is not gold. Correct- All that glitters is not gold.
100. After let, if a Pronoun is used, that Pronoun must be in the Objective Case. For example, Incorrect- Let he go there.
Correct- Let him go there.
CHAPTER #05: poetic devices

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Poetic Devices with Examples

There are different types of Poetic Devices which can be incorporated in a poem to make it more meaningful and filled
with imagery. The major forms of poetic devices are based on:
 To add sounds of words
 To enhance the meaning of words
 To arrange the words in a certain order or sequence
 To create imagery through words
English Poetic Devices Used to Create Rhythm/Sound
1) Onomatopoeia: In simple words, onomatopoeia can be termed as the creation of a word describing its sound.
Some of the popular examples of words sounding similar to their meanings are roar, clap, moo, etc. It is one of the
popular poetic devices used in children rhymes to give them a rhythmic and easy to remember structure similar to a
jingle. Examples: Splash, Murmur, Bang, Whoosh, Buzz
2) Alliteration: One of the most used poetic devices, Alliteration is a phonetic structure and repeated usage of
sound or letter used in the first syllable of a word. It is considered as the oldest poetic tool that is generally used for two
or more words in a poem. Most of the poets take alliteration into account while framing a particular poem as it adds
charm and effectiveness. Sometimes, alliteration perfectly fits in tongue twisters. Examples: “She sells seashells by the
sea-shore.”
3) Rhyme: Being the most important poetic devices, these are widely used while framing poems. They play a
decisive role in adding more charm and mood in the poem. It is a tool that brings music to the poem in a proper
rhythmic structure. Examples: Night-Bright, Skin-Grin, Frog-Log
4) Assonance: In a literary landscape, when two or more words that are close to each other repeats the same
vowel sounds then such English poetic devices are known as Assonance. However, they commence with different
consonant sounds. Examples: “The crumbling thunder of seas” (Robert Louis Stevenson); “Strips of tinfoil winking like
people” (Sylvia Plath)
5) Consonance: Falling under the list of poetic devices, Consonance is used in both prose and poetry. It can be
understood as the repetition of sounds that are produced by the consonants in a phrase or a sentence. It is quite
contrary to assonance’s repetition of vowel sounds. Sometimes, the usage of this word gives a rhythmic mood in a write
up. Examples: Toss the glass, boss; Dawn goes down; Don’t creep and beep while grandpa falls asleep
6) Euphony: Euphony is the repetitive use of mellow, melodic tones that are enjoyable to read or listen to. Soft
consonant sounds like m, n, w, r, and f as well as consonants that vibrate, such s, sh, and th, are used to create this.
Examples: “So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.” (Shakespeare)
7) Repetition: In order to put extreme emphasis on our writing style, we use the repetition technique. Through
such poetic devices in English, the words or phrases are repeated in sentences. It is used in poetry as well as the prose
sections. Examples: Robert Frost’s Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening
“The woods are lovely dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.”
8) Cacophony: Cacophony is the use of unappealing, repulsive, or harsh noises (mostly consonants) to evoke chaos,
disorder, or dread. Examples: “Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! The frumious
Bandersnatch!” (Lewis Carroll)
9) Rhythm: The flow of words throughout each meter and stanza creates rhythm and highlights particular
elements of the poem. Examples: “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” (Shakespeare)
10) Allusion: By this term, we can understand it is a phrase or a word that is meant to call something without
mentioning it clearly. Allusion, which is yet another popularly used poetic device in English, is an ambiguous statement
or phrase that leaves a reader in oblivion. Examples: Then leaf subsides to leaf.
So Eden sank to grief,
So dawn goes down to day.
Nothing gold can stay. (Robert Frost)
English Poetic Devices Used to Change the Meaning of Words
11) Irony: In the literary landscape, words are often framed in such a way that their original meaning gets changed. As a
popular English poetic device, it is actually a figure of speech that helps us understand the difference between
reality and appearance.
Examples: Stevie Smith’s Not Waving But Drowning
“Nobody heard him, the dead man,
But still he lay moaning:
I was much further out than you thought
And not waving but drowning.”
12) Allegory: An allegory is a narrative or description in which certain abstractions or concepts are represented by
certain events, behaviours, characters, locations, or objects.
Examples: The Tortoise and the Hare – Aesop’s Fables
13) Euphemism: Euphemism is the act of replacing a term that can offend or imply something unpleasant with one
that is less hurtful or pleasing. These kind of phrases are known as euphemisms. In writing or speaking, euphemisms are
frequently employed in place of harsher or more direct language.
Examples: “If I pass during some nocturnal blackness, mothy and warm,
When the hedgehog travels furtively over the lawn,
One may say, “He strove that such innocent creatures should come to no harm,
But he could do little for them; and now he is gone. – Thomas Hardy

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14) Ambiguity: Ambiguity happens when a statement’s structure or substance leaves room for alternative
interpretations and obscures its intended meaning.
Examples: “O Rose thou art sick.
The invisible worm,
That flies in the night
In the howling storm: Has found out thy bed
Of crimson joy;
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy” (William Blake’s The Rose)
15) Personification: Amongst all the poetic devices, personification is a simple one to understand. As the name
suggests, you need to personify inanimate objects or plants or animals or any other living beings with human qualities
thus transforming your poetry into lively and filled with imagery and description.
Example: She sweeps with many-colored brooms,
And leaves the shreds behind;
Oh, housewife in the evening west,
Come back, and dust the pond! (Emily Dickinson)
16) Analogy: An analogy is a literary device that establishes a relationship between two concepts based on
similarities or connections. Establishing this connection makes the new topic simpler to understand by introducing it
through a relatable contrast.
Example: “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other word would smell as sweet.
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called” (William Shakespeare)
17) Denotation: The denotation of a term refers to its neutral, objective meaning. No matter the language or aspect
of speech, every word that has a definition in a dictionary also has a denotation.
Example: “When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.” (William Wordsworth)
18) Cliche: A scenario or term that is overused to the extent that it is deemed unoriginal is referred to as a cliché
(klee-SHAY). Any element of a literary story, including a specific phrase, scene, genre, or character, might be considered
a cliché. The word carries a bad reputation since sloppy writing is frequently connected with clichés.
Example: A heart full of sorrow
19) Connotation: Connotation is the use of a word to imply an unique association from its denotative, or literal,
meaning.
Example: “She’s all states, and all princes, I” (John Donne)
20) Contrast: A writer will often use contrast as a rhetorical tactic to highlight the contrasts between two persons,
places, or objects. The simplest definition of contrast is the antithesis of two things, highlighting and clarifying their
differences.
Example: “My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun;
Coral is far more red than her lips’ red;
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.” (William Shakespeare)
21) Apostrophe: It addresses the subject that is not present in the work. In this case, the object is absent or
inanimate. Here are some of the examples of apostrophes.
Example: “Busy old fool, unruly Sun,
Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains, call on
us?” (John Donne)
22) Metaphor: As a figure of speech is a poetic device, a metaphor is used in order to draw a comparison between
unrelated things in an implicit or hidden way. Or, this is used when a poet tries to resemble two opposite things or
objects on the basis of some common characteristics.
Example: “An elephant, a ponderous house
A melon strolling on two tendrils.” (Sylvia Plath)
23) Pun: Puns are among the most frequently used figures of speech in daily conversation. They may be great
conversation starters since they make you sound clever and occasionally even humorous.
Example: “Apocalypse soon
Coming our way
Ground zero at noon
Halve a nice day.” (Edmund Conti)
24) Hyperbole: A hyperbole is a figure of speech that consists of an exaggeration. It is the usage of exaggerated
terms in order to emphasise or heighten the effect of something.
Example: “And I will love thee still, my dear,
Till a’ the seas gang dry.
Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear,
And the rocks melt wi’ the sun:” (Robert Burns)
25) Simile: A simile is a figure of speech that compares two things that are different from each other but have
similar qualities. These are generally formed through the usage of the words ‘as’ or ‘like’.
Example: “Is love a tender thing? It is too rough, too rude, too boisterous, and it pricks like thorn.” (Shakespeare)

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26) Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech when one term or phrase is used in place of another with which it is
closely related. It is also a rhetorical technique used to describe something indirectly by making references to objects
around. Example: “O, for a draught of vintage!” (John Keats) [Here Vintage is a metonymy for Wine]
27) Oxymoron: This figure of speech, which should not be confused with ironies and paradoxes, links two opposing
ideas at once. This indicates that two opposing concepts are utilized inside a single sentence to create levity in an
oxymoron figure of speech.
Example: “Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health,
Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!
This love feel I, that feel no love in this.” (Shakespeare)
28) Paradox: These figures of speech, like ironies, emphasise something by discussing the exact opposite of it. A
paradox, on the other hand, differs from an irony in that it does not make the contrast as evident.
Example: “To be natural is such a very difficult pose to keep up.” (Oscar Wilde)
29) Synecdoche: Synecdoche is defined in English as a literary device where a term for a minor aspect of anything
may be used to represent the main idea or vice versa. The likelihood is that you frequently employ synecdoche in your
daily life, despite the fact that it may seem perplexing.
Example: “‘Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard,
A serpent stung me; so the whole ear of Denmark
Is by a forged process of my death
Rankly abused: but know, thou noble youth,
The serpent that did sting thy father’s life
Now wears his crown.” (Shakespeare)
30) Symbolism: Poets employ symbolism to communicate underlying ideas. There are several levels of meaning
associated with symbols, including places, things, and actions. The literal meaning of the poem is deepened by
symbolism. Example: I am of one element,
Levity my matter,
Like enough a withered leaf
For the winds to scatter. (The Arch poet)
English Poetic Devices for Arranging the Words
31) Rhyme Scheme: The sequence of sounds that repeats at the conclusion of a line or stanza is known as a rhyme
scheme. Line by line, stanza by stanza, or throughout the entire poem, rhyme schemes might alter.
Example: “The sun is shining bright
This is a lovely sight”
32) Stanza: A stanza is a method of splitting and grouping lines in a poem, separating one group of lines from other
groups of lines by line spacing or indentation.
Example: As I behold the beautiful sunrise
It is like seeing a lovely surprise.
33) Kenning: A two-word sentence that uses metaphors to describe an item is known as a kenning. A riddle made up
of a few lines of kennings that describe someone or something in perplexing detail is known as a kenning poem. It is
sometimes referred to as a “compressed metaphor,” which refers to meanings expressed in a limited number of words.
Example: a two-word phrase “whale-road” represents the sea.
34) Verse Line: Writing technique Single-line poetry is referred to as verse. A stanza or other poetic components
may also be mentioned while using this phrase.
Example: I’ll buy you a diamond ring my friend if it makes you feel alright
I’ll get you anything my friend if it makes you feel alright
Cos I don’t care too much for money, and money can’t buy me love
35) Blank Verse & Free Verse: Blank verse is written in strict iambic pentameter, but has no rhyme scheme and Free
verse contains no rhyme and no meter.
Example: This Is Just to Say by William Carlos Williams.
36) Snippet: A snippet is a brief segment of anything.
Example: where you only hear a short amount of information is example of snippet.
37) Ballad: A ballad is a type of narrative poem written in a sequence of four-line stanzas as a literary device.
Example: La Belle Dame sans Merci by John Keats
38) Epitaph: An epitaph is described as an inscription or written remembrance of a person on a gravestone or in a
work of literature.
Example: “The Best Is Yet To Come.”—Frank Sinatra
39) Haiku: Japanese poetry known as haiku is composed of only a few brief, unrhymed lines. These lines can be
expressed in a variety of short poems. The most typical haiku structure, however, consists of three lines of five, seven,
and five syllables each. A haiku poetry often focuses on a single, intense feeling or picture.
Example: “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Bashō
40) Limerick: limerick, a common kind of quick, funny poem that is usually inappropriate and nonsensical. It is
composed of five lines that rhyme with each other in the pattern aabba. The primary metre is anapestic, with two
metrical feet in the third and fourth lines and three feet in the other lines.
Example: There was a young woman named Bright,
Whose speed was much faster than light.
She set out one day,
In a relative way,
And returned on the previous night.
41) Ode: An ode is a brief, lyrical poetry that frequently praises something.

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Example: “Ode on a Grecian Urn” by John Keats

42) Rondeau: The rondeau, so named because it uses the term “round” in French, is distinguished by its two rhyme
sounds and rentrement, or refrain, which repeats throughout.
Example: Geoffrey Chaucer’s “Now welcome, summer” at the close of The Parlement of Fowls
43) Sestina: A poem composed in a highly particular, intricate form is called a sestina. The poem is in the French
sestina style, with six stanzas of six lines each and a final triplet of three lines.
Example: Elizabeth Bishop’s “A Miracle for Breakfast” was published in 1972.
44) Triolet: The first line of Triolet is repeated as the fourth and seventh lines, while the second line is repeated as
the eighth line. Triolet has just two rhymes.
Example: Hardy’s poem, “How Great My Grief,”
45) Villanelle: The first and third lines of the first stanza are repeated alternately in the subsequent stanzas of this
French poetic form, which has five three-line stanzas and a concluding quatrain.
Example: Dylan Thomas’s poem “Do not go gentle into that good night”.
English Poetic Devices for Adding Imagery
46) Synthesia: Synesthesia is a figure of speech in which terminology from one sense are used to describe another.
Since similes are a simple method to connect two previously disparate pictures, examples of synesthesia frequently take
this form.
Example: “The silence was as thick as a forest.”
47) Imagery: In a literary or poetic context, imagery refers to the author’s use of vivid language and description to
enhance the reader’s comprehension of the work by appealing to their senses.
Example: The autumn leaves are a blanket on the ground.
48) Tone or Mood: The basic definition for “tone” is created by the reader’s perception of the cumulative moods
and mental or emotional states of the narrator, characters, and writer. This is the technical definition of “tone”: The
general mood that a work of literature radiates.
Example:
“Shall I compare thee to a
Summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and
More temperate.”
CHAPTER #06: tenses
THE PRESENT TENSE

The Present Indefinite Tense :The Present Indefinite tense is used to express general statement and to describe acts that
are habitual or usual.
1. It rains in winter
2. They work hard all day.
3. The sun sets in the west.
The Present Continuous Tense :The Present Continuous tense describes an action that is taking place at the time of
speaking.
1. It is raining.
2. The boys are doing their home task.
3. I am playing cricket.
The Present Continuous tense is also used to announce a future event which is already arranged.
1. She is leaving for London tomorrow.
2. They are coming to dinner on Sunday.
3. He is coming back next week.
The Present Perfect Tense :The Present Perfect tense is used to indicate an action that is completed by a given time or to
connect a completed action with the present.
1. She has sent him back.
2. They have lived in this house.
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense :The present perfect continuous tense is used to indicate an action that began in
the past and is still continuing.
1. He has been playing the guitar since 4 o’ clock.
2. I have been waiting here for two hours.
THE PAST TENSE
The Past Indefinite Tense :The Past Indefinite tense is used to indicate a single act or a action in the past.
1. He bought this car from Lahore.
2. I saw a lion in the zoo.
3. Quaid-e-Azam worked very hard.
The Past Continuous Tense :The Past Continuous tense represents an action which was going on at some point in the past
tense.
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1. He was playing hockey.

2. The enemies were fighting.
3. I was walking down the street when it began to rain.
The Past Perfect Tense :The Past Perfect tense is used to describe an action completed at some point in the past.
1. The match had started when I reached.
2. The Minister had left when the people reached.
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense :The Past Perfect Continuous tense is used to describe an action which had been going
on for some time and finished at some definite time in the past.
1. He had been building a house for several months.
2. It had been raining for two hours.
3. He had been trying to meet me in the office.
THE FUTURE TENSE
The Future Indefinite Tense :The Future Indefinite tense is used to describe a single act that is still to take place.
1. It will snow again.
2. They will clean the room.
3. The fog will persist for many days.
The Future Continuous Tense :The Future Continuous tense is used to describe an action as going on at some point in
future time.
1. She will be taking her lesson in music in the morning.
2. They will be playing football in the afternoon.
3. We shall be running on the road.
The Future Perfect Tense :The Future Perfect tense is used to describe an action that will be finished by a certain future
date.
1. She will have stopped taking this medicine by March next.
2. I shall have finished my work till your return.
3. We shall have left for Moscow before you come.
The Future Perfect Continuous Tense :The Future Perfect Continuous tense is used to describe an action which has been
going on continuously and has yet to be completed in the future.
1. By October next I shall have been teaching at this college for twenty years.
2. They girl will have been singing a song for an hour.
3. The gardener will have been plucking flowers since morning.
ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE
There are two voices when its subject does something.
Active Voice: A verb is in the active voice when its subject does something.
1. Ahmed(subject) helps Aliya(object).
2. The girl(subject) makes the painting(object).
Passive Voice: A verb is in the passive voice when something is done to its subject.
1. Aliya is helped by Ahmad.
2. The painting is made by the girl.
We see that the following changes take place when a sentence is changed from the active into passive voice.
General Rules:
a. The subject becomes the object and the object becomes the subject.
b. The principal verb is changed into past participle (if it is not already in that form) and is preceded by some form
of the verb be.
c. The preposition by is placed before the object.
d. Same tense will be followed by passive voice as falls in active voice.
e. If the active voice sentence is being started by ‘where, what or why then converting in passive voice, same words
will be used in the beginning and helping verb will be applied(if required).
f. If sentence of active voice is being started by ‘who’ then this word will be replaced by ‘by whom’ in passive voice.
Summarized 5 Basic Changes:
1. The Object of (A/V) changes into Subject of (P/V) and is placed in the beginning of the sentence. AND
The Subject of (A/V) changes into the Object (P/V) and is placed at the end of the sentence.
2. The 3rd form of the main verb, Past Participle, Verb lll is brought in.
3. Helping Verb is placed according to the Tenses of the sentences.
4. The Preposition By is placed before the new Object.
5. The Subject of A/V (if it happen to be a pronoun) will change into the following:
I ME
WE US
YOU YOU
HE HIM

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SHE HER
IT IT
THEY THEM
Sequence:
(A/V) I write an application. .
Subject Verb Object
(P/V) An application is written by me. .
New Subject H. Verb lll Preposition New Object.
PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
I like mangoes. Mangoes are liked by me.
My father loves me I am loved by my father.
We pluck flowers Flowers are plucked by us.
Do you like strawberry Is strawberry liked by you?
Does he eat apples Are apples eaten by him?
The peon rings the bell. The bell is rung by the peon.
I do not punish her. She is not punished by me.
Who boils eggs? By whom are eggs boiled?
Who laughs at me? By whom am I laughed at?
Who do you tease him? Why is he teased by you?
PRESENT COUNTINUOUS TENSE
You are cheating me. I am being cheated by you.
I am watching movie. Movie is being watched by me.
I am not writing a letter. A letter is not being written by me.
Are they reading books? Are books being read by them?
Is he playing cricket? Is cricket being played by him?
Why are you eating peanuts? Why are peanuts being eaten by you?
Why are you taking football? Why is football being taken by you?
Who is making a noise? By whom is a noise being made?
Who is creating trouble? By whom is trouble being created?
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
I have bought a car. A car has been bought by me.
She has sold house. House has been sold by her.
He has solved questions. Questions have been solved by him.
They have won the match. The match has been won by them.
He has written an application. An application has been written by him.
Has he killed the tiger? Has the tiger been killed by him?
Has he done duty? Has duty been done by him?
Why has she punished me? Why have I been punished by her?
Why have they stolen money? Why has money been stolen by them?
PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
He bought a bicycle. A bicycle was bought by him.
Aliya punished him. He was punished by Aliya.
Joseph took the thief to police station. The thief was taken to police station by Joseph.
I lent him my laptop. My laptop was lent to him by me.
She did not knock at the door. The door was not knocked at by her.
Ali did not teach them IETLS. They were not taught IELTS by Ali.
Did she ring the bell? Was the bell rung by her?
Did he eat food? Was food eaten by him?
Why did you help her? Why was she helped by you?
Why did the madam punish him? Why were they punished by the madam?
How did she solve the questions? How were the questions solved by her?
Who ate apples? By whom were apples eaten?
Why did you not return my laptop? Why was my laptop not returned by you?
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
She was playing tennis. Tennis was being played by her.
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He was reading Holy Quran. Holy Quran was being read by him.
The mason was making the wall. The wall was being made by the mason.
They were not writing assignment. Assignment was not being written by them.
Was she driving a car? Was a car being driven by her?
Why was the teacher punishing them? Why were they being punished by the teacher?
Who was knocking at the door? By whom was the door being knocked at?
PAST PERFECT TENSE
She had made tea. Tea had been made by her.
She had already made tea. Tea had already been made by her.
He had changed his computer. His computer had been changed by him.
They had gained nothing. Nothing had been gained by them.
Had the doctor tested your ears? Had your ears been tested by the doctor?
Who had seen killer? By whom had the killer been seen?
Who had done duty? By whom had duty been done?
FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE
He will sell a farm. A farm will be sold by him.
You will not beat him. He will not be beaten by you.
We shall not sing songs. Songs will not be sung by us.
Shall we win match? Will match be won by us?
What will you take? What will be taken by you?
Who will help him? By whom will he be helped?
When will they start study? When will the study be started by them?
Future PERFECT TENSE
She will have taken tea. Tea will have been taken by her.
I shall have written a letter. A letter will have been written by me.
Ali will have finished the work. The work will have been finished by Ali.
We should not have told a lie. A lie should not have been told by us.
I shall not have written an application. An application will not have been written by me.
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
When a Verb in an Active Voice indicated an order (command), a request (prayer) and an advice (suggestion / proposal)
the Verb LET is employed to convert it into passive voice.
Do it. Let it be done.
Open the door. Let the door be opened.
Write a letter. Let a letter be written.
Polish my shoes. Let my shoes be polished.
Do it for me. Let it be done for me.
Please do not disturb him. Let him not disturbed, please.
Help your friends. Let your friends be helped.
Do not laugh at the beggars. Let the beggars not be laughed at.
Note: Following tenses cannot be converted into Passive Voice.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense. Past Perfect Continuous Tense.
Future Continuous Tense. Future Perfect Continuous Tense.
Narration
There are two ways to narrate any statement to any person.
(i) Direct Speech (ii) Indirect Speech
Narration means description and “narrate” means to describe.
Direct Speech: In direct speech, we repeat the actual words of the speaker or writer within inverted commas.
Indirect Speech: In the indirect speech, we report along with little bit change at own ends what the speaker or writer has
said.
In mention below example, following apportion has been made.
He Said, “I write a letter.”
Reporting Speech Reported Speech
So, outside part of any commas is Reporting Speech and inside part of commas in same sentence will be categorized as
Reported Speech.
General Rules Of Conversion:
Changes which can be made:
C-1: There are five changes can be made to convert direct into indirect speech.
(1) Change of “Said to”.
(2)Eliminate “Commas”.
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(3)Change of “Pronoun”.
(4)Change of “Tenses”
(5)Change in “Certain Words”.
What is Pronoun: The Pronoun is word that replace to any noun. For example;
I, we, you, they, he, she, it, me, us, then, him, her, this, that etc.
Ali has a watch. He likes it very much.(underline are pronouns)
C-2:Said will change into
Told; Informed; Announced; Declared; Ordered; Blessed; Forbade; Requested; Asked; Prayed; Advised; urged; Disclosed;
Insisted; Suggested; Assure; Complain; Enquire; commanded; Protested; Cried; Apologized; Denied; Queried; Demanded;
Warned; wished; Exclaimed with Joy – sorrow – wonder.
C-3:Inverted commas will be removed and replaced by that/to/if. (depending upon the reported speech in inverted
commas).
C-4:The Pronoun of reported speech in inverted commas will change accordingly to pronoun of reporting speech.
C-5: The word denoting nearness in time or place are change into words denoting distance in direct speech; as,
Now will change into then; These into those; come into go; here into there; thus into so; hither into thither; hence into
thence; hence forth into thence forth; today into that day; yesterday into the previous day or the day before; ago into
before; last night into the previous night; just now into just then; at present into for the time being.
Please gather descriptive detail about change in tenses.(summarized report).
Present Indefinite INTO Past Indefinite
Present Continuous INTO Past Continuous
Present Perfect INTO Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous INTO Past Perfect Continuous
Past Indefinite INTO Past Perfect
Past Continuous INTO Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect & Past Perfect Continuous No Change
All Future Tenses INTO Would
C-6: Good night, Good bye or Farewell are not change. In such sentences, good night, good bye or farewell is written even
after “Said,”. Secondly, “that” is not used in such sentences yet “to” is written & then concern person’s name ore relation
is written to whom “Salam or good bye” has been done.
(i) He said, “Good night father.”
He said good night to father.
C-7: Sir or Madam is replaced by “Respectfully”. Respectfully is always written before ‘that’.
(i) He said, “Madam, this is not easy”.
He said respectfully that that was not easy.
(ii) She said to the teacher, “These books are our, sir.”
She said to the teacher respectfully that those books were theirs.
C-8: Those words which are expressing the feelings of someone for another then sentence will sustain as it is. In simply,
no change will be made. (Minor Change is an exceptional case).
(i) She said, “Fool, you are wasting your time.”
She called him fool and said that he was wasting his time.
C-9: If there is not object in first part of sentence then no change will be made.
Segment A -- Rules Regarding Tenses:

R-1: If the Reporting Speech is in any of the Present Tense then there will be No Change in Tense of Reported Speech.
(i) She says, “I write an application.” (Present Indefinite)
She says that she writes an application.
(ii) She says, “I am writing an application.” (Present Continuous)
She says that she is writing an application.
(iii) She says, “I have written an application.” (Present Perfect)
She says that she has written an application.
(iv) She says, “I have been writing an application.” (Present Perfect Continuous)
She says that she has been writing an application.
Study Case:
(i) He says, “Alia is not feeling well.”
He says that Alia is not feeling well.
(ii) She says, “I am not happy here.”
She says that she is not happy there.
(iii) The station master says, “The train is late today.”
The station master announces that the train is late that day.
R-2: If the Reporting Speech is in Any of the Past Tenses then Change will be made.
(i) She said, “ I write a letter.”
She said that she wrote a letter.
(ii) She said, “I am writing a letter.”
She said that she was writing a letter.
(iii) She said, “I have written a letter.”
She said that he had written a letter.
(iv) She said, “I have been writing a letter.”

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She said that she had been writing a letter.

(v) She said, “I wrote a letter.”
She said that she had written a letter.
(vi) She said, “I was writing a letter.”
(vii) She said, “I had written a letter.”
She said that had been writing a letter.
(viii) She said, “ I had been writing a letter.”
(ix) She said, “I shall write a letter.”
She said that she would write a letter.
(x) She said, “I shall be writing a letter.”
She said that she would be writing a letter.
(xi) She said, “I shall have written a letter.”
She said that she would have written a letter.
(xii) She said, “I shall have been writing a letter.”
She said that she would have been writing a letter.
R-3: If the Reporting Speech is in Any of the Future Tense then there will be No Change in Tense of Reported Speech.
(i) You will say, “my uncle is very kind to me.”
You will tell that your uncle is very kind to you.
(ii) He will say to his teacher, “I respect you.”
He will tell to her teacher that he respect him.
(iii) Tutor will say to my mother, “your daughter doesn’t work hard.”
Tutor will complain to my mother that her daughter doesn’t work hard.
(iv) My father will say to children, “Don’t disturb me.”
My father will forbid the children to disturb him.
(v) You will be saying to him, “You ought to learn some tricks.”
You will be advising to him that he ought to learn some tricks.
Segment B -- Rules Regarding Manners:
A: Universal Truth:
If the Reported Speech states, describes or expresses a Universal Truth than their will be No Change in Tense except the
tense of Reporting Speech.
(i) The teacher said, “Union is strength.”
The teacher said that union is strength.
(ii) The teacher said, “truth fears nothing.”
The teacher told to the child that truth fears nothing.
(iii) Samira said, “God helps those who help themselves.”
Samira said that God help those who help themselves.
B: Imperative Sentences:
If the Reported Speech is an imperative sentence then that is replace by to.
Points to be remembered:
(a) “To” is imposed by eliminating Commas. Always put 1st form after of verb after ‘to’.
(b) Kindly or Please etc is removed in those sentences which lies request manners.
(i) He said to me, “Please give me favor.”

He requested to me to give him favor.
(c) By removing “do not” in negative sentence, ‘not to’ is used to joint both portion of sentence.
(i) She said to me, “Do not tell a lie.”
She advised me not to tell a lie.
(d) If the one part of the tense is negative & second part is positive then “not to” is applies in negative portion and
“to” in positive portion respectively.
(i) She said to me, “work hard and do not waste time.”
She ordered me to work hard and not to waste time.
(ii) He said to me, “do not make a noise and keep quite.”
He ordered me not to make noise and to keep quite.
(e) If sentence begins with “If” or “when” then by changing its sequence in indirect speech, ‘if’ or ‘when’ portion
moves to ends and “1st form of verb” portion firstly.
(i) He said to me, “when you go to market, buy a new book for me.”
He requested me to buy a new book for him when I go to market.
Case Study:
(i) I said to my friend, “Please lend me your book for a few days.”
I requested to my friend to lend me his book for a few days.
(ii) The commander said to his soldiers, “try your best.”
The commander ordered his soldiers to try their best.
(iii) The guest officer said to me, “please sit down.”
The guest officer requested to me to sit down.
(iv) The father said to his son, “Do not go to the playground.”

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The father forbade his son to go to the playground.

(v) She said to me, “Do not waste your time in idle talk.”
She advised me not to waste my time in idle talk.
C: Interrogative Sentences:
If the Reported Speech is an interrogative sentence, which has Yes/No for an Answer, then use whether or if in replace of
that.
It is classified in two sub-categories given below.
(A) Simple Interrogative: Which begins with auxiliary verb e.g is, am, are, can, could, has, have, had, was, will etc. In
addition, which Answers can be given in Yes or No.
Changes:
(i) “Said to” is replaced by “asked” or “inquired”.
(ii) “If” or “whether” is imposed by eliminating Commas.
(iii) Interrogative sense of sentence will convert into simple. It means, auxiliary verb falls after subject and full stop is
marked at the end of sentence instead of question mark.
Some Coded Examples given below. Please see it.
(i) She said to me, “Are you busy?”
She asked me whether I was busy.
(ii) She said, “Is your sister coming today?”
She asked if my sister was coming that day.
(B) Double Interrogative: These sentences begins with “where, what, when, why, how” and furthermore, entire
sentence is required for responding.
Changes:
(i) “Said to” is converted into “asked “ or “inquired”.
(ii) Nothing will be applied by removing commas.
(iii) Interrogative nature reverts by assertive clause. It means after questionnaire, firstly subject and then auxiliary
verb is applies respectively. Sentence is closed by Full stop instead of question mark.
Some Coded Examples given below. Please see it.
(i) She said to me, “why are you laughing?”
She asked me why I was laughing.
(ii) Uncle said to me, “How old are you?”
Uncle inquired me how old I was.
(iii) I said to Jennifer, “have you finished your assignment?”
I asked Jennifer if he had finished his work. OR
I asked Jennifer whether he had finished his work.
(iv) She said to them, “when will you go to Moscow?”
She asked them when they would go to Moscow.
Two Major Points which can’t be Ignored:
(A) :If there is any interrogative sentence proceed by “Do” or “Does” then in indirect speech, both are eliminated and
2nd form of verb is used after subject.
(i) She said, “Does she write an application?”
She asked whether she wrote an application.
(B) If there is any interrogative sentence proceed by “Did” then in indirect speech, ‘had’ is applied by removing ‘did’
rd
and 3 form is used regarding.
(i) He said to me, “Did you pluck flowers from garden?”
He inquired me whether I had plucked flowers from garden.
Case Study:
(i) He said, “Do you have any share in this company?”
He asked whether I had any share in that company.
(ii) She said, “Aren’t you ashamed of yourself?”
She asked whether I was not ashamed of myself.
(iii) The father said, “How did you fail in your examination?”
The father asked how I had failed in my examination.
(iv) The Principal said, “Whose is this book?”
The Principal inquired whose that book was.
(v) My father said to me, “Are you going to AJK?”
My father asked me whether I was going to AJK.
(vi) Alia said to her mother, “Have you seen my red shirt?”
Alia asked her mother whether she had seen her red shirt.
(vii) He will say to her.” Are you looking for me?”
He will ask her whether she was looking for him.
(viii) The wife said to her husband, “Are you tired?”
The wife asked her husband whether he was tired.
D: Assertive Sentences:
A sentence which has been assert or stated to inform about any happening/un happening. 2ndly, in which 2nd part begins
with Subject e-g ‘I, we, you, they, He, She etc.
(i) She said to me, “I am waiting for you.”
She told me that she was waiting for me.
Changes:

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(i) “Say or Said” falls in its actual condition or revert to ‘tell or told’ (condition apply)
(ii) ‘that’ is written by removing Inverted Commas.
(iii) ‘to’ is strictly prohibition to use after ‘tell’ or ‘told’.
Examples;
(i) Ali says, “You are my best friend.”
Ali says that I am his best friend.
(ii) Old man said to me, “You are a clever girl.”
Old man said to me that I was a clever girl.
E: Optative Sentences:
If the Reporting Speech is a wish or prayer then may will be changed into might. The identification of these sentences is
that the internal part of Inverted Commas begins with “I wish, would that, may”.
(i) She said, “may you live long!”
She prayed that I might live long.
(ii) He said, “Would that I had succeeded.”
He wished that he had succeeded.
Case Study:
(i) The beggar said to me, “may God bless you.”
The beggar prayed for me that God might bless me.
(ii) She said, “may you fail in examination.”
She cursed that he might fail in examination.
(iii) He said to me, “may your business flourish.”
He prayed for me that my business might flourish.
(iv) He said to me, “I wish you a very happy Eid Mubarak.”
He wished me a very happy Eid Mubarak.
(v) Uncle said to me, “when I was about to enter the examination hall, good luck.”
Uncle wished me good luck when I was about to enter the examination hall.
F: Exclamatory Sentences:
When the Reported Speech is an exclamation then the emotion of exclamation must be mentioned.
In such sentences, internal part starts with ‘what, how, well done, Alas, Hurrah.
(i) He said, “Hurrah! we won the match.”
He exclaimed with joy they had won the match.
(ii) He said, “Alas! My son has failed.”
He exclaimed with sorrow that his son had failed.
Changes:
(i) Expression of sorrow INTO exclaimed with sorrow
(ii) Expression of happiness INTO exclaimed with joy
(iii) Expression of wonder/surprise INTO exclaimed with wonder
(iv) Expression like “Well done”, “bravo”, “Hurrah”, “Ah”, “Alas”, “Oh”, etc are removed.
(v) ‘How’ and ‘What’ are replaced by ‘very’.
(vi) Commas are replaced by ‘that’.
Case Study:
(i) The principal said, Hurrah! Our result has been excellent.”
The principal exclaimed with joy that their result had been excellent.
(ii) “What a stupid boy you are!” Said my neighbor.
My neighbor exclaimed with wonder that I was a very stupid boy.
(iii) He said to himself, “What a fool I am.”
He exclaimed with sorrow to himself that he was a great fool.
(iv) He said, “How well she sings.”
He exclaimed with wonder that she sang very well.
(v) The Captain shouted, “Hurrah! We have won the grand finale.”
The Captain exclaimed with joy that they had won the grand finale.
G: Uses of LET:
‘Let’ is used in two terms;
(A) For Proposal, Advised or Suggestion.
(B) For Request.
Let us take a brief look on both terms in detail.
(A): In Term of Proposal, Advised or Suggestion:
In such sentences;
(a) “Said” is replaced by ‘Proposal, advise or suggest’.
(b) ‘Commas’ will be replaced by ‘that’ as well ‘we’ or ‘they’ instead of ‘us’.
(c) “Should” is inserted after object.(but before verb)
(d) If object falls also in sentence then ‘said’ is exchange into ‘proposed’ or ‘suggested to’.
Example:
(i) I said, “let us go for a walk.”
I proposed that we should go for a walk.
(ii) The officer said, “Let AKRAM do it.”
The officer suggested that AKRAM do it.
(B): In Term of Request:

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When the objective condition of pronoun (it, me, him, her etc.) or any noun is used instead of ‘us’ after ‘let’ then it means
term is in request manner.
Changes:
(a) “Said” is replaced by ‘requested’.
(b) ‘Commas’ will be replaced by ‘to’.
Examples:
(i) She said, “let me go home.”
She requested to let her go home.
(ii) He said, “let me do my work.”
He requested to let him do his work.
(iii) He said, “Let me leave.”
He requested to let him leave.
G: Uses of Must:
(A) :If must appears in the Reported Speech then it will change into ‘had to.’
Example:
(i) She said to me, “I must go now.”
She told me that she had to go then.
(ii) The C.E.O said to his P.A, “It must be done at once.”
The C.E.O ordered to his P.A that it had to be done at once.
(B): Must remain Unchanged when it expresses general obligation.
Example:
(i) He said, “Students must respect their teachers.”
He said that students must respect their teachers.
(ii) My wife said to me, “Children must obey their parents.”
My wife told me that children must obey their parents.
(C): It expresses deduction. Please see example given below;
(i) He said, “It must be very cold in your house.”
He said that it must be cold in my house.
CHAPTER #07: fiction and genres

Literary genres are categories of literature that are generally determined by technique, length, tone, and content. When
we list literary genres in broader terms, they can be more abstract, flexible, and loosely defined. However, as we get more
specific and into subcategories, the distinctions and rules of the genre become crystal clear. What are the different literary
genres? Though we may think there are several types of literary genres, there are actually only 3 genres of literature. You
may be wondering, what are the three genres of literature? Poetry, drama, and prose. That’s right. All the other genre
types fit into one of these three categories. Students will typically encounter these genres of literature in English for most
of what they read and write about in school. Therefore, they must be able to identify examples of genres in literature,
know their key characteristics, and list the genres of literature. Keep reading to learn more about the different literary
genres examples, along with ways for students and teachers to storyboard their forms of literature examples. In the genres
of literature chart below, each of the storyboards and examples can be copied and used in an assignment with your
students.
Literary Genres Examples
Here are some literary genres examples for you to check out. Different literary genres have various purposes. As you read
through these examples, notice how the techniques, lengths, tones, and contents change.
The genre of literature can be classified in many ways. In this section, we will take a closer look at 3 genres of literature:
poetry, drama, and prose. Understanding literary genres in English literature will not only enhance your students’ reading
experience but improve their writing skills too.
Types of Literary Genres
Poetry
Poetry is a genre of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language—such as phonaesthetics, sound
symbolism, and metre — to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the literal or mundane meaning. Poetry has a
very long history, dating back to prehistoric times with the creation of hunting chants and burial songs.
Poetry is considered by many to be the most intense literature genre. It allows a writer to express their deepest emotions
and thoughts in a very personal way. It relies heavily on figurative language, rhythm, and imagery to relay its message to
readers. Poetry is a type of writing that uses beautiful language to express deep thoughts and feelings. Poetry can help
you understand your emotions and thoughts better, and it also helps you learn how to write more expressively.
Sub-Genres of Poetry
 Songs and Ballads
 Lyric
 Epic
 Dramatic
 Narrative

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Drama
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is one of the kinds of literature which
includes epic poetry, lyric poetry, and novel. Aristotle’s Poetics defines drama as “a representation of an action that is
whole and complete and has a beginning, a middle, and an end.”
Drama is often performed on stage in front of a live audience, but it can also be presented in other forms, such as radio,
film, and television. It is usually written by a playwright, although it can be adapted from other sources, such as novels,
short stories, poems, or even real-life events. Or it can be read silently by individuals too. It contains dialogue, and actors
impersonate the characters. It is usually divided into acts or scenes and relies on props or imaginative dialogue to create
a visual experience for the audience. Drama is a good place to start, as they are usually pretty easy to understand at face
value and captivates the audience with cliffhangers and mind-capitulating events.
Sub-Genres of Drama
 Tragedy
 Comedy
 History
 Melodrama
 Musical

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Prose
The prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary
grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. The prose is typically
written in paragraphs, although there are some exceptions, such as in the case of drama or fiction.
Prose can be found in books, magazines, newspapers, online articles, blogs, etc. It is the most common form of writing.
Examples of famous works of prose include To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee & Charlotte's Web by E.B. White. The
prose is simple, straightforward language. It can be either fiction or nonfiction. The prose is typically divided into
paragraphs, and it uses regular grammar. It can be either serious or funny.
Fiction
Fiction is narrative writing that originates from the author’s imagination. It is designed to entertain, but it can also inspire,
inform, or persuade.
Sub-Genres of Fiction
o Novel
o Novella
o Short Story
o Myths and Legends
o Fables
o Historical Fiction

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Nonfiction
Nonfiction is writing that is based on true events, people, places, and facts. It is designed to inform, and sometimes to
entertain.
Sub-Genres of Nonfiction
o Autobiography
o Biography
o Essay
o Diaries and Journals
o Narrative Nonfiction

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What Are the Three Genres of Literature?

The main examples of genres in literature are poetry, drama, and prose. Poetry is a genre in literature that uses aesthetic
and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic ostensible meaning. Drama
is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. The prose is a form of language that has no
formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic
structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. Genres of literature in English then fall into subcategories, which make
up the three genres of literature.
Forms of literature examples are:
o Poetry: Ballads, Lyric, Epic, Dramatic, Narrative
o Drama: Tragedy, Comedy, History, Melodrama, Musical
o Prose: Fiction (Novel, Novella, Short Story), Nonfiction (Autobiography, Biography, Essay)
Genres of Literature Chart
Genre types subcategories can be explained as the following:
Type Definition
A ballad is a type of poem that tells a story. Ballads are often about love,
Ballad
loss, or murder.
Lyric A lyric is a type of poem that expresses the emotions or thoughts of the poet.
Epic An epic is a long, narrative poem that tells the story of a heroic figure.
Dramatic Dramatic poetry is a type of poetry that is meant to be performed.
Narrative A narrative poem is a type of poem that tells a story.
Tragedy A tragedy is a type of drama that ends in disaster for the main character.
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Comedy A comedy is a type of drama that ends happily or humorously.

History A history play is a type of drama that tells the story of a historical event.
Melodrama A melodrama is a type of drama that features exaggerated emotions and characters.
Musical A musical is a type of drama that features songs and dance numbers.
Novel A novel is a type of fiction that tells a long, complex story.
Novella A novella is a type of fiction that tells a shorter, simpler story than a novel.
Short Story A short story is a type of fiction that tells a brief, self-contained story.
Myth and A myth is a type of story that explains the origins of a culture or natural
Legend phenomenon. A legend is a type of story that tells the story of a heroic figure.
Fable A fable is a type of short story that features animals as the main characters.
Historical Fiction Historical fiction is a type of fiction set in the past and features historical events and people.
Autobiography An autobiography is a type of nonfiction that tells the story of the author’s life.
Biography A biography is a type of nonfiction that tells the story of someone else’s life.
Essay An essay is a type of nonfiction that expresses the author’s opinion on a topic.
Literature types and genres are essential to know to understand all the different types of written works available. Each
type has its own purpose and style. Whether you’re looking for a light read or something more heavy and informative,
there’s definitely a literary genre out there for you.
A Note About Speeches...
While not one of the primary genres of literature, speeches are important historical documents or moments and literature,
and they don’t always fit neatly into one of the three primary genre categories. A speech is a formal address given to an
audience. Speeches can be found in prose, drama, and poetry, and their primary goals are to persuade, inform,
demonstrate, or entertain a reader, an audience, or other characters. They can also be used in nonfiction or fiction,
depending on their purpose and use.

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CHAPTER #08: comprehenssion

PRÉCIS WRITING SAMPLES WITH ANSWERS SAMPLES
A précis is an intelligent summary of a long passage. The purpose of writing précis is to test your understanding of the
passage. Because Précis writing is a summary, it is always shorter than the main passage. Précis writing expresses only the
main theme as briefly as possible.
Important Tips:
 First, read the passage thoroughly to understand its meaning and retain its main points.
 If one reading does not enable you to understand its meaning, read it again.
 Don’t worry if you come across unfamiliar words.
 Try to figure out their meaning from the context.
Précis Writing Samples with Answers #1
Original Passage: Diet plays an important role in the prevention of many chronic diseases. Eating a balanced diet rich in
fruits, vegetables, whole grains and lean protein can help reduce the risk of conditions such as heart disease, diabetes and
certain cancers. On the other hand, a diet high in processed and unhealthy foods can increase the risk of these diseases.
It is important to be aware of the types of food we eat and tries to include nutrient-dense options in our diet. (124 words)
Title: The Role of Diet in Preventing Disease
Précis: Eating a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and lean protein can help reduce the risk of chronic
diseases, while a high-processed and unhealthy diet can increase the risk. It is important to be aware of the types of food
we eat and include nutrient-dense options. (48 words)
Original Passage: A man in the east left all worldly thoughts and went to a wood, where he built a hut and lived there. His
only clothing was a piece of cloth that he wore around his waist. But luckily, mice were plentiful in the wood; so he had to
keep a cat. Cats need milk; so he had to rear a cow. Cows needed tending, so a cowboy was hired.
The boy needed room to stay. So a house was built for him. A maid had to be employed to look after the house. A few
more houses had to be built to provide company for the maids, and people were invited to stay in them. Thus, a small
town sprung up in the lovely woods. (136 words)
Title – The Birth of a Town
Précis: Answer 1: A man in the east left all worldly thoughts and went to a wood, where he built a hut and lived there. He
had to keep mice, cats, cows, and a cowboy. A house was built for him, a maid was employed to look after him, and a few
more houses were built to provide company for the maids. Eventually, a small town sprung up in the woods. (68 words)
Précis: Answer 2: A man in the east left all worldly thoughts and built a hut in a wood, where he had to keep mice, cats,
cows, and a cowboy. A house was built for him, a maid was employed, and people were invited to stay. (43 Words)
Original Passage: All the great things that have been done on earth have not been done for gold. The Lord Jesus did not
come down and die on the cross for gold. The Spartans sought no reward when they fought and died at Thermopylae. The
wise Socrates demands no salary from his countrymen but lives all day poor and barefoot only to make them good and
noble. And even in our own time, there are heroes who do noble things but not for gold.
Our discoverers did not go out to enrich themselves when they set out on one terrible frozen sea after another: even the
women who went to labour in Oriental hospitals did not impoverish themselves that they might become rich in great
works. (136 words)
Title – Great Deeds Done For More than Gold
Précis: Answer 1: The great things that have been done on earth have not been done for gold, such as the Lord Jesus, the
Spartans, Socrates, the wise Socrates, the discoverers, and the women who went to labour in Oriental hospitals. (38 words)
Précis: Answer 2: The great things that have been done on earth have not been done for gold. Jesus did not come down
and die on the cross for gold, the Spartans sought no reward when they fought and died at Thermopylae, Socrates lived
poor and barefoot to make people good and noble, and our discoverers did not go out to enrich themselves. Even women
who went to labour in Oriental hospitals did not impoverish themselves to become rich in great works. (79 Words)
Original Passage: Nelson, in childhood, did not have a strong body. Yet he gave evidence of that stout heart and nobility
which have so distinguished him throughout his illustrious career. One day he strayed from his grandmother’s house with
a cow. Dinner time passed; He was missing and could not be found. The family’s apprehension became great, for they
feared that he might be taken away by the gypsies.
After much searching, he was found sitting huddled on the banks of a river which he could not cross. “I wonder, child,”
said the old woman, seeing her, “that hunger and fear did not drive you home”, fear! Grandmother,” answered the future
hero, “I was never afraid; what is it?” (137 words)
Title – Nelson’s Heroic Spirit
Précis: Nelson strayed from his grandmother’s house and was feared taken away by the gypsies. After much searching, he
was found huddled on the banks of a river. His grandmother asked him why he was never afraid, and he replied that
hunger and fear did not drive him home. (48 words)
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Original Passage: There is a strong connection between sleep and mental health. Getting enough sleep is essential to
maintaining good mental health and can help improve mood, cognitive functioning and overall well-being. On the other
hand, lack of sleep can increase the risk of developing mental health conditions such as irritability, difficulty concentrating,
depression and anxiety. Prioritizing sleep and establishing healthy sleep habits are important to support good mental
health. (141 words)
Title: The Connection between Sleep and Mental Health
Précis: Getting enough sleep is essential for maintaining good mental health and can help improve mood, cognitive
functioning and overall well-being. Lack of sleep can increase the risk of developing mental health conditions. Prioritizing
sleep and establishing healthy sleep habits are important to support good mental health. (46 words)
Original Passage: Exercise in nature is very beneficial for both physical and mental health. In addition to the general
benefits of exercise, such as improving cardiovascular health and increasing muscle strength, outdoor activities also
provide an opportunity to experience the beauty and tranquility of nature. It can increase feelings of well-being and reduce
stress and anxiety. It is important to embrace the benefits of outdoor exercise and incorporate it into your regular
routine. (141 words)
Title: The Benefits of Outdoor Exercise
Précis: Outdoor exercise has benefits for physical and mental health, including increasing well-being and reducing stress
and anxiety. It is important to include outdoor exercise in your routine. (56 words)
Original Passage: From the moment we are born, we cannot be alone; We stand in constant need of support from all
around us, body and soul and spirit; We need clothes that other men make; Houses, which other men build, food, which
other men produce; We earn our living by working for others, others earn their living by working for us.
As children we need our parents to be our comforters and take care of others: we cannot live a day without our peers;
We need teachers to educate: books and masters to teach us trades; And when we learn it and settle ourselves in life, we
need laws made by other men who died hundreds of years before we were born, to secure for us our rights and property,
to secure our comfort in our station; And we need friends to comfort us in our sorrows and share our joys. (161 words)
Title – We cannot live alone
Précis: We need support from all around us from the moment we are born. We need clothes, houses, food, and teachers
to educate us, laws to secure our rights and property, and friends to comfort us in our sorrows and share our joys. We
earn our living by working for others, and we need our parents to be our comforters and take care of others. (64 words)
Original Passage: One night a holy man, Abu Ben Adhem by name, suddenly woke up from a deep dream of peace and
saw in his moonlit room an angel writing something in a book of gold. He did not feel at all frightened. The peaceful face
of the angel made Abu bold and he said to the angel, “What are you writing?” The angel looked up and replied in a kind
and sweet tone, “I am taking down the names of those who love God.” “And is my name one among them?” Asked Abu.
But the angel replied,” No, it is not.” “I pray thee then,” said Abu, “To write me down as one who loves his fellowmen.”
The Angel wrote and vanished. The next night the angel came again with a great light which awaked Abu Ben Adhem: and
he showed Abu the names of those who had been blessed by the love of God. And behold! The name of Abu was at the
top of the list. (166 words)
Title – Abu Ben Adhem and the Angel / The Importance of Loving Your Fellowmen
Précis: Abu Ben Adhem woke up from a deep dream and saw an angel writing in a book of gold. He asked the angel to
write his name down as one who loves his fellowmen, and the next night the angel showed him the names of those blessed
by God, with his name at the top of the list. (58 words)
Original Passage: A plant-based diet, which focuses on foods derived from plants rather than animals, has many health
benefits. These foods are generally rich in nutrients such as fiber, vitamins and minerals and are associated with a reduced
risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and diabetes. Plant-based diets are more environmentally sustainable and
can lead to a lower carbon footprint. It’s important to consider incorporating more plant-based options into your diet for
both health and environmental benefits. (150 words)
Title: The Benefits of Plant-Based Eating
Précis: A plant-based diet has health and environmental benefits, including reduced risk of chronic disease and a lower
carbon footprint. It’s important to consider including more plant-based options in your diet. (61 words)
Original Passage: Having a strong support system has many benefits for mental health. Research has shown that people
with networks of supportive friends and family members are less likely to experience depression and anxiety and are more
likely to have a positive outlook on life. It is important to prioritize building and maintaining social connections, as they
can provide a sense of belonging and emotional support in times of need. (128 words)
Title: The Link between Social Support and Mental Health
Précis: A strong support system has mental health benefits, including a lower risk of depression and anxiety and a positive
outlook on life. Making and maintaining social connections is important. (62 words)

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Original Passage: We call beautiful anything that gives us pleasure and that depends on things outside of us. Perhaps most
people think the sea is beautiful only when it is blue. If one has been in Italy as a child and has grown up beside the grey
North Sea, he will think that grey seas are ugly: and nothing can be as beautiful as the blue Mediterranean.
But suppose a Scotsman who loves Scotland should go to Italy. He might find the blue sea too uninteresting after a while.
When he goes home and sees the grey sea again, he will see the sea as beautiful. We are made in different ways, and grey
can be as beautiful as blue, just as a baby’s cry can be sweeter to someone’s ears than the best notes of the greatest singer
of all time. Nothing is beautiful or ugly in itself, but thinking makes it so. (172 words)
Title – The Subjectivity of Beauty
Précis: Nothing in this world is beautiful or ugly. Things look beautiful or ugly according to our own idea of beauty. The
same thing may look different to people raised in different environments. Generally, most people consider beautiful a
thing that gives pleasure. But it depends on our perspective. (56 words)
Original Passage: Humans first appeared on earth a million and a half years ago. He was little more than an animal then.
Still, early humans had some advantages over animals. He had a large brain, an erect body with fast-moving hands. He
invented a language to communicate with his colleagues.
This ability to speak was of the highest value because it allowed men to share ideas and plan together: speech enabled
the transmission of ideas from generation to generation. These special advantages put humans far ahead of all other living
creatures. Since that distant time, when he first made his appearance, man has achieved a lot. (110 words)
Title – The Emergence of Humanity / From Animal to Human
Précis: Answer 1: Humans first appeared a million and a half years ago and had some advantages over animals, such as a
large brain, an erect body, and the ability to speak. This enabled them to share ideas and plan together, making them far
ahead of all other living creatures. Since then, they have achieved a lot. (54 words)
Précis: Answer 2: Humans first appeared a million and a half years ago, with a large brain, erect body, and language that
enabled them to share ideas and plan. (26 Words)
Original Passage: Exercise is a natural and effective way to reduce stress and improve mental health. Physical activity has
been shown to release endorphins, which are chemicals that act as natural pain relievers and mood lifters. In addition to
these mood-boosting effects, exercise can help distract from everyday stress and provide a sense of accomplishment. It’s
important to find an exercise routine that works for you and make it a regular part of your routine to support stress
reduction and mental health. (162 words)
Title: The Link between Exercise and Stress Reduction
Précis: Exercise reduces stress and improves mental health by releasing endorphins and providing a sense of
accomplishment. It’s important to find an exercise routine that works for you and make it a regular part of your routine.
(69 words)
Original Passage: Mindfulness is the practice of paying attention to the present moment without judgment. This simple
yet powerful practice has been shown to have many benefits for both physical and mental health. Regular mindfulness
practice can reduce stress and anxiety, improve sleep, and increase self-awareness and focus. Incorporating mindfulness
into daily life is important to reap the numerous benefits of this practice. (141 words)
Title: The Benefits of Mindfulness
Précis: Mindfulness is a powerful practice that can reduce stress and anxiety, improve sleep, and increase self-awareness
and focus. (18 words)
Original Passage: Charity is a universal duty, which is in every man’s power to be sometimes exercised since every
assistance given to another from a right motive is an act of charity; and is seldom in such infirmity that he cannot benefit
his neighbor in any case. He who cannot relieve the poor can instruct the ignorant, and he who cannot minister to the sick
can restore the wicked.
He who can give little help himself may undertake the duty of alms by inciting the greed of others and recommending
petitions that he cannot grant, to those who have more power to give. The widow who puts her mite into her treasury
and the poor man who brings a cup of cold water to the thirsty will not lose their reward. (143 words)
Title – Every Act of Assistance is Charity
Précis: Charity, a universal duty, must be practiced by all, and can be practiced easily by each according to his ability.
Besides money, any help in word or deed, such as nursing, teaching or reforming the wicked, is charity. Failure to do
something personally can affect others. (47 words)
Original Passage: There is a growing body of research that indicates that excessive social media use can have a negative
impact on mental health. Studies have shown that people who spend a lot of time on social media platforms may have an
increased risk of developing conditions such as depression, anxiety and low self-esteem.
It is important to be aware of social media use and take steps to limit time spent on these platforms to support good
mental health. (155 words)
Title: The Link between Social Media Use and Mental Health

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Précis: Excessive social media use can have negative effects on mental health, including increasing the risk of depression,
anxiety and low self-esteem. It is important to be aware of the use of social media and limit the time spent on these
platforms. (68 words)
Original Passage: Religion seems to me to be based primarily and mainly on fear. It is partly the terror of the unknown
and the desire to feel that you have a kind of big brother who will stand by you in all your troubles and conflicts. Fear is
the basis of the whole thing – fear of the mysterious, fear of failure, fear of death. Fear is the parent of cruelty and
therefore, it is not surprising that cruelty and religion go together.
For fear in this world is the foundation of these two things, that we now understand certain things, and can master them
with the help of science, which has forced its way step by step against Christianity: against the churches, and against all
the opposition of the old doctrines.
Science can help us overcome this terrible fear that mankind has lived in for generations. Science can no longer teach us
to look for allies in the sky but to look below at our own efforts to make this earth a habitable place. (186 words)
Title – The Role of Science Overcoming Fear
Précis: Religion is based on fear, fear of the unknown, fear of failure, and fear of death. Fear is the parent of cruelty, and
science can help us overcome this fear by teaching us to look for allies in the sky and look below at our own efforts to
make the earth a habitable place. (54 words)
Original Passage: Mankind in general is not sufficiently acquainted with the import of the word justice. It is generally
considered to include the performance of duties that society’s laws may mandate. This, I allow, is sometimes the import
of the word, and in this sense, justice is distinguished from equity. But justice is still broader and unites all the virtues that
can be shown. Justice may be defined as a virtue that urges us to give to every person what is his due.
In this extended sense of the word, it refers to the practice of every virtue that determines reason or should be expected
of society. Our duty to our Creator, to each other and to ourselves is fully answered if we give them what we owe them.
Thus, properly speaking, justice is the only virtue in which all the rest have their root. (150 words)
Title – The Importance of Justice
Précis: Justice, generally understood, means the fulfillment of duties sanctioned by society and in this sense, it differs from
equity. But justice in a broader sense refers to the virtue of giving everyone what they deserve. It includes one’s duty to
God and society and all other virtues. (47 words)
Original passage: Exercise is essential for maintaining physical health and can have many benefits for mental well-being
as well. Regular physical activity can help reduce the risk of developing chronic conditions such as obesity, type 2 diabetes
and heart disease. It can improve sleep, increase energy levels, and reduce stress and anxiety. Despite the many benefits
of exercise, many people struggle to make it a regular part of their routine.
One reason for this could be that they don’t know how to get started or don’t have access to resources like a gym or
personal trainer. However, there are many easy ways to incorporate exercise into daily life, such as walking or cycling,
participating in team sports or trying home workout videos. (246 words)
Title: The Importance and Benefits of Exercise
Précis: Exercise is essential for maintaining physical health and can have many benefits for mental well-being. It can help
reduce the risk of chronic conditions, improve sleep, increase energy levels, and reduce stress and anxiety. However, many
people struggle to make it a regular part of their routine. There are many easy ways to incorporate exercise into daily life,
such as walking or cycling, participating in team sports, or trying home workout videos. (72 words)
Original passage: Meditation is a practice that focuses the mind on a specific object, thought or activity to train attention
and awareness. It has been shown to have many benefits for physical and mental health, including reducing stress and
anxiety, improving sleep, and increasing feelings of calmness and relaxation.
Studies have also shown that meditation can have positive effects on the brain, including increasing grey matter density
in areas associated with learning and memory and decreasing grey matter density in the amygdala, an area of the brain
involved in processing stress. Fear Despite the many benefits of meditation, it can be intimidating for those who have
never tried it before.
However, there are many easy and accessible ways to get started, such as finding a guided meditation app or joining a
meditation group. (320 words)
Title: The Positive Effects of Meditation
Précis: Meditation has many benefits for physical and mental health, such as reducing stress and anxiety, improving sleep,
and increasing feelings of calmness and relaxation. It can be intimidating for those who have never tried it, but there are
easy and accessible ways to get started. (45 words)

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CHAPTER #09: CREATIVE WRITING

Q:01: Write an email to your father for the permission to participate in sports.
Answer:
From: Sender@gmail.com
To: Receiver@gmail.com
Subject: To seek permission to participate in sports
Dear father,
After presenting the best salutations and greetings in the world to the greatest father in the world, I want
to tell you that I am doing well in studies. Hope you have seen my results in monthly exams last month.
Father, annual 5 days vacations are near and I am missing home, but my college has announced Sports Gala
during the break. You know how much craze I have for football. Please, please, please!!!! Allow me stay
here and play football as captain. Please grant me permission.
I will be at home in moth after next. Pay my salaam to mother and sisters.
Yours affectionately,
XYZ
Dated: 24th August, 2023
Q:02: Write a letter to the principal of your college to take steps against students using drugs in college.
Answer:
Examination Hall,
College ABC.
Dated: 24th August, 2023
The Principal,
ABC college,
Islamabad.
Respected Sir,
Subject: ABOUT STUDENTS INDULGING IN DRUG ABUSE IN COLLEGE PREMISES

It is stated that being a loyal student of the college I own the reputed institute in every issue that matters,
and this responsibility urged me to inform you about the fattening demon here. Though we have very high
standard discipline, but some students however have found means to bring drugs in the building and
somehow manage to use. Number of students falling a prey to this is increasing. I have spotted couple of
students during break. I have also informed the CHIEF PROCTER, but these students have no fear.
You are kindly requested to take strict actions against them to save the future of innocent children and also
the repute of the prestigious institute. I shall be very grateful for this.
Sincerely yours,
XYZ.
Q:03: Write an application the principal for a week leave to attend marriage at village.
The Principal,
ABC college,
Islamabad.
Respected Sir,
Subject: ABOUT STUDENTS INDULGING IN DRUG ABUSE IN COLLEGE PREMISES

It is to state that my elder brother’s marriage has been scheduled in next week. All my family members are going to village
to attend the marriage. I will be unable to attend college during the whole week. You are therefore kindly requested to
grant me leave for a week i.e 25-09-2023 to 30-09-2023. Thanking in anticipation.
Yours obediently,
XYZ.
DATED: 20TH September, 2023

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Q:04: Suppose you are working as a price control officer. In view of the growing rates of the daily consumer items, the
authorities ask you to investigate and write a report on it. Your report should cover the following points.
A: Surprise visits to the markets
B: Causes of the price hike
C: Impacts on the low-income earners and the middle class
D: Suggestions as how to control it.
Answer:
Dated: 30th August,2023

To: The Director, The Punjab Food Authority, Lahore.
From: The Assistant Food Controller, Food Authority, Lahore.
Dear Sir,
Subject: Report about Inflation of the Daily Consumer Items.
Introduction:
I am Assistant Food Controller of the city. After receiving complaints on citizen portal about high rates of
daily consumer items, I have been given the task of investigating the reasons of the growing rates of the
daily consumer items. After my surprise visits to markets and investigating from different shopkeepers and
consumers, I am writing my report to highlight different aspects related to the growing prices of daily
consumer items.
Main report/ Findings:
During my surprise visit of markets, I came to know that the prices of necessary items are increasing on daily
and weekly basis as well depending upon the demand. I visited Chicken Shops, Coffee Shop, Restaurant, Fruit
Shop, Sasta Bazar, Cash And Carry, Mall And Sunday Bazar. High penalty along with imprisonment were
charged on those who were over-charging and had no rate lists displayed. There are many causes due to
which there is increase in inflation.
Firstly, some sections of the businessmen are intentionally over-charging the public to shift all the blame on
the present government. Secondly, the hoarders are smart enough to be caught by the officials of the food
department as they have some hidden places where they hoard consumer items. This criminal act causes
artificial shortage of the particular item in the open market and prices suddenly go higher. Thirdly, the severe
effects of international markets along with increase in dollar rate in respect to our currency caused sudden
rise in inflation. All these factors along with unemployment and illiteracy are making the life of poor people
miserable and pathetic.
Inflation Rate Increase In Month
6
5.6 3.5
4
4
2 4.6
0
1st week 2nd week3rd week 4th week 1st week 2nd week 3rd week 4th week
Conclusion:
The growing prices of the daily consumer items are hurting poor and average people’s life. Lack of interest
of the government officials and the inappropriate process of check and balance are great hindrances to stop
inflation in prices. Therefore, due to black marketing and hoarding goods, it is getting harder to stop the
growing prices of daily items.
Suggestion:
To address this problem seriously, government has to take steps so that low income people can spend
their lives comfortably and free of tension. I want to put forward the following suggestions to control price:
The government should relax taxes on necessary consumer items to benefit the public having meager
resources of income.
The government should empower the food department to catch some big fish which presently slip away
from the weak traps.
The government should take solid measures to increase production of the local products. This will boast up
the local industry and provide more job opportunities.
The government should strengthen the hands of the food department to take some strict actions against
those who are involved in hoarding and black marketing.
Signature,
XYZ

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Q:04: Write a cv for the post advertised in a newspaper.

ANSWER:
Name: ABC PHOTO
+92000000000
4X4
OBJECTIVE: a self-motivated individual seeking to work diligently in the field in an organization to help
achieve and meet its targets by promoting self-learning and grooming.
Personal Information:
FATHER’S NAME EFG

CNIC 11111-1111111-1
DOMICILE PUNJAB
NATIONALITY PAKISTANI
RELIGION ISLAM
MARITAL STATUS SINGLE
EMAIL ADDRESS EXAMINATIONHALL@GMAIL.COM
RESIDENTIAL ADDRESS HOUSE#000, SECTOR DEF, ISLAMABAD
QUALIFICATION:
DEGREE TITLE SUBJECTS BOARD/UNIVERSITY GRADE/GPA YEAR

MA ENGLISH NUML A 2012
BA POL.SCIENCE ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY OF PUNJAB A 2010
FA POL.SCIENCE ECONOMICS FBISE A 2008
MATRIC BIOLOGY FBISE A 2006
PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATION:
DEGREE TITLE INSTITUTE GRADE YEAR

B.ED AIOU A 2013
COMPUTER COURSE TECHNO.LTD A+ 2013
EXPERIENCE:
 2 YEARS AT ABC ORGANIZATION

 3 YEARS AT LMD COMPANY
 INTERNSHIP AT KEP INSTITUTE OF MANGAMENT.
SKILLS:
 COMMUNICATION IN DIFFERENT LOCAL LANGUAGES

 COMPUTER LITERATE
HOBBIES:
 REDAING BOOKS
 PLAYING CRICKET
 GARDENING
REFFERENCES:
DR. ABC PRO. LPG

XYZ ACADEMIA LFX PRIVATE LTD
+9250000000 +9200000000
Q:05: write an essay on the topic Pollution in 300-350 words

Answer:
Essay on Pollution
Outline

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What is pollution?...........Types of Pollution…………Causes of Pollution………… Effects of Pollution……..Our

responsibility……….Measures to control pollution…………Conclusion
Essay
Pollution is the forerunner of perdition - John Trapp

Pollution is one of the growing challenges facing the world today. Both developed and underdeveloped countries equally
share this problem. The developed countries, however, pay attention to prevent it, whereas the developing countries
altogether ignore it. By definition, pollution is the addition of contaminants in the natural environment. These harmful
contaminants disturb the natural balance and cause harmful changes in the lives of living beings particularly humans.
“Pollution should never be the prices of prosperity” - Al Gore. Due to excessive industrialization and the use of fossil fuels,
pollution is rapidly growing. Pollution will become a major threat to the survival of the human race if it is not countered
right now. Environmental scientists divide pollution into three basic types: air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.
Air pollution is largely caused by the presence of harmful and unhealthy gases in the air. Vehicles and factories release
large amounts of poisonous gases into the air. This pollutes the air and makes it harmful for humans to breathe. “Pollution-
if you don't kill it, it will kill you” – Anonymous. Since humans breathe air to extract oxygen, air pollution causes breathing
diseases.
Water pollution occurs when toxic waste is spilled into streams, rivers and oceans from industries using chemicals. Soil
pollution is caused by the addition of harmful chemicals into the soil like fertilizers and industrial waste. Soil pollution
removes the fertility of the soil and adds barrenness to it. As a result, the soil cannot grow crops. Large-scale deforestation
also causes soil pollution. Nearly all the factors causing pollution are rapidly growing and functioning.
There are many ways to avoid pollution. Planting the trees is necessary to cope with this challenge. “The more we pollute
the earth the less we deserve to live on earth.” - M.M Ildan. Restricting the use of fossil fuels in industries should also be
ensured. Factories should be regulated to not dump their toxic waste into lands and rivers. Awareness campaigns should
be initiated to seek the public's help in reducing this.
The environmental crisis should be recognized, addressed and resolved. The education system should teach students with
regards to this serious issue. New technologies are needed to be introduced to protect the environment against
pollution. Conclusively, pollution is a serious problem and needs to be solved by using the aforementioned methods by
governments and individuals.
CHAPTER #10: mcqS grammar

MCQS GRAMMAR EXERCISE WITH ANSWER
Relative/ Adjective clause

1. After seeing the city's wild side, it is worth exploring the wide array of local museums, most _____ charge $4.
A) of whom B) of whose C) of which D) of where E) in which
2. Petroleum is the outcome of a period during _____ herbage in the interstices of rocks is exposed to the chemical effects
of bacteria.
A) when B) whose C) which D) what E) where
3. Violence was found to be more likely in urban areas, in households _____ the wife considered earnings inadequate,
and _____ women earned more than 50 per cent of the income.
A) whom / whose B) where / where C) when / that D) that / when E) which / where
4. There is the Zeal Ham model contained in the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution under _____ president has
considerable discretionary authority.
A) which B) whose C) whom D) where E) that
5. None of the explanations they have made could excuse the way _____ the firm carried out its finance policy.
A) that B) whose C) when D) what E) why
6. Visas ______ required have to be obtained in advance of travel to the countries concerned.
A) which B) where C) who D) __ E) When
7. In cultures _____ patriarchy is accepted as the only proper family structure, boys and girls may be trapped in a pattern
of relationships and dependencies _____ can frustrate them both.
A) when / in which B) where / that C) whose / which D) which / which E) that / that
8. Many cultures maintain a traditional patriarchal system _____ men are the primary decision-makers in family and social
relationships.
A) in which B) when C) that D) whose E) why
9. The Scandinavian Peninsula is a geographic region in northern Europe, _____ principally of the mainland territories of
Norway and Sweden.
A) consists B) to consist C) having consisted D) to be consisted E) consisting
10. Endangered languages are the languages, _____ are on the brink of extinction, much like endangered species of plants
or animals.

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A) on which B) that C) in which D) whose E) which

11. In the settlement _____ extends to any label or other entity _____ practices are controlled by universal executives are
prohibited from buying advertisements.
A) when / why B) where / which C) that / where D) which / when E) that / that
12. A partnership between publishers and institutions will constitute a solid buttress _____ to tackle the cultural richness
in all its width and depth.
A) that B) with which C) why D) whom E) of which
13. Cardiovascular disease has a mortality rate, _____ in industrialized nations is usually the highest in the nation, yet the
underlying process has only recently been better understood.
A) which B) that C) where D) when E) of which
14. The kings' comings and goings did not affect the state or nation _____ they ruled.
A) where B) that C) when D) of which E) why
15. The love affair ____ the reassignment of the government’s well-known minister made a swift change in the cabinet.
A) having caused B) being caused C) caused D) causing E) causes
16. Their finding implies that in the Arctic at least, plants may be able to shift long distances to follow the climate conditions
_____ they are best adapted as those conditions move under the influence of human caused global warming, the
researchers and some independent experts said.
A) of which B) for which C) in which D) when E) that
17. Dickens, the information about ____ tomb isn’t certain, spent all his life far from crowd.
A) of which B) where C) whose D) that E) when
18. It was suggested that civilization is very much an immature experiment; the success _____ is by no means yet proven.
A) which B) of which C) in which D) what E) that
19. In the past decades, Turkey has had sixteen universities, half _____ were connected with each other with their
curriculums.
A) at which B) where C) of which D) whose E) of that
20. Culture is the ability to invent new behaviours ____ by the population group and _____ along to succeeding
generations.
A) are adopted / passed B) adopted / are passed C) have been adopted / have been passed D) having adopted / passing E)
adopted / passed
21. A bee has compound eyes; each _____ has 5000 tiny lenses.
A) which B) that of C) of which D) whose E) where
22. Men see their sexual roles only in terms of the extent _____ they are dominant or passive.
A) to which B) that C) whom D) why E) whose
23. According to some research, men’s minds are raised to the level of the women _____ they associate.
A) which B) of which C) whom D) what E) with whom
24. Sweden is a country the main exports _____ are chiefly football players and cold fronts.
A) that B) where C) of which D) whose E) why
25. We found a cat ____ by its owners when they moved away.
A) to have been abandoned B) to be abandoned C) having abandoned D) abandoning E) abandoned
Answer Key: 1: C 2: C 3: B 4: A 5: A 6: D 7: B 8: A 9: E 10: E 11: C 12: B 13: A 14: B 15: D 16: B 17: C 18: B 19: C 20: E 21: C 22:
A 23: E 24: C 25: E
Determiners, Articles, Quantifiers

1. This year's whiteout of a winter has prompted _____ global-warming naysayer to crow about buying Al Gore a snow
shovel.
A) some B) a lot of C) many a D) none E) little
2. _____ commercial or recreational salmon fishing will be allowed off the coast of Oregon this year due to the possible
extinction of the species.
A) Some B) One C) No D) None E) Each
3. With some families displaced for more than a decade, children born or raised in camps have _____ or ______ memory
of traditional farming life.
A) little / no B) no / any C) more / less D) few / fewer E) less / none
4. Istanbul is the biggest city in Turkey and one of the world's major cities, with around 6.7 million people in the city _____
and ______ four million in the area around it.
A) its own / other B) themselves / the other C) alone / others D) one another / the others E) itself / another
5. _____ product you buy should be a gateway to a personal sustainability practice.
A) None B) Everything C) Any D) Several E) Most
6. There were Rangers fans throwing bottles and cans at _____ because the game was not on.
A) themselves B) one another C) other D) each another E) the others
7. Officials say _____ affected county has now been reached and rescue efforts started.
A) each other B) both C) all D) either E) every
8. At no time should you endanger yourself or ______ take _____ unnecessary risks.
A) the others / every B) others / any C) one another / no D) each other / some E) the other / either
9. While consumers who obtain genuine products can improve their health, _____ who are deceived by clever advertising
may lose their health, their savings or _____.
A) those / both B) ones / neither C) all / none D) both / all E) none / either
10. Discount retailers such as Aldi and Lidl have been charging for bags for ______ years.
A) a great amount of B) a number of C) many a D) a lot E) too much
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11. For most of ______ who emigrated, the search for employment and a better life was almost certainly the principal
cause of ______ departure.
A) none / their B) ones / some C) all / any D) some / its E) those / their
12. Not ____ of the changes observed in nature are damaging to _____ creatures.
A) every / whole B) each / both C) either / neither D) none / all E) all / all
13. _____ attempt to explain why humans think and behave in the way that they do will inevitably be linked to one or
_____ branch of psychology.
A) Whole / others B) Each / each other C) Every / the other D) All / one another E) Any / another
14. Having different types of businesses in a neighborhood can increase _____ walking trips among residents.
A) a great amount of B) a vast amount of C) the number of D) several E) a number of
15. In neighborhoods where residents are willing to help _____, children are less likely to be overweight.
A) another B) one another C) each other D) the other E) themselves
16. Until the 1980s, about 2 in ______ 1,000 people were thought to be affected by the disease.
A) each B) other C) more D) no E) every
17. Our brain is made of many parts, ______ of which has a specific function.
A) every B) all C) each D) whole E) many
18. _____ number has an inherent power of analysis; it has also the power of synthesis because of the inner bond that
connects all _____ numbers to the unit.
A) Every / the other B) Each / other C) All / some D) No / any E) Whole / many
19. There were ____ adventurers who were willing to fight in _____ cause if the pay were good.
A) several / some B) many / none C) some / any D) a good deal of / few E) the number of / most
20. The scientists stripped the DNA from 19 human eggs and implanted in _____ a DNA-containing nucleus from _____
person's cell.
A) both / the other B) every / other C) each / another D) none / others E) neither / the others
21. When an electron meets an antielectron, _____ particles vanish.
A) none B) all C) both D) either E) every
22. Physical dating violence affects almost one in _____ 11 adolescents.
A) several B) other C) all D) every E) each
23. Police had no motive for the attack, and witnesses said they heard _____ demand for money or _____ else.
A) no / anything B) any / something C) some / anyone D) every / nothing E) a / anything
24. Under law, the manufacturers don't have to declare _____ ingredients.
A) whole B) all C) every D) each E) few
25. She put forward two proposals, ______ of which didn’t make any sense to the participants in the summit.
A) a good number B) all C) neither D) none E) either
Answer Key: 1: C 2: C 3: A 4: E 5: C 6: B 7: E 8: B 9: A 10: B 11: E 12: E 13: E 14: C 15: B 16: E 17: C 18: B 19: C 20: C 21: C 22:
D 23: A 24: B 25: E
Summarizing A Paragraph MCQ Exercise

1. Whenever I need something, the first place I go to is Dawson's store. There they sell just about everything. You can buy
clothes there, things for the house and for the garden, and also sports equipment. They stock a wide variety of goods.
Everything is of good quality, and prices are reasonable.
A) Most people can't afford to go to Dawson’s. B) You can't find everything you need in Dawson's. C) In my opinion,
Dawson's is an excellent store and not too expensive. D) Dawson's is famous for its goods but prices are high. E) The rich
and the famous all shop at Dawson's.
2. People who have never been in an airplane usually think that flying must be fun. Perhaps it is the first time you
fly. But few people who have flown a lot really enjoy flying. Most of the time you are in the air, there is nothing to
see but clouds, and waiting around in an airport is the most boring experience.
A) Flying is not as interesting as people who haven't flown think. B) A lot of people won't fly because they think it is
dangerous. C) Airports are very boring places, D) Travelling by air is one of the least popular ways of travelling. E)
Everybody likes flying, and shopping at airports is great fun.
3. In recent years, there has been a great increase in population. As a result of this, many countries are facing serious
difficulties. These include food shortages, housing problems, unemployment, pollution and similar social and
economic difficulties.
A) Some countries have more social and economic problems than others. B) The rapid growth in population has caused
very many problems. C) The increase in population has been to the benefit of some countries. D) Rich countries should
help poor countries. E) Economic problems are not related to the increase in population.
4. Ender is pleased that his company is sending him to the new factory near Zonguldak. The pay will be better and
the work more interesting. Also, several of his friends live there and he likes the climate.
A) Ender's company has many reasons for opening a new factory in Zonguldak. B) Ender is happy to be going to Zonguldak
for various reasons. C) Ender is looking forward to making new friends in Zonguldak. D) It is not easy to find interesting,
well-paid work in Zonguldak. E) Ender has never had such a good job as his present one in Zonguldak.
5. Susan arrived at the library a few minutes before 12 o'clock. Jane had her coat on and was waiting for her friend
on the steps of the library. So they left together, crossed the street and went to their favorite restaurant.
A) Susan and Jane both work in the same library and always have lunch together. B) Jane was surprised to see Susan at
the library and invited her to lunch. C) Susan and Jane met at the library as arranged and then had lunch together. D) Jane
and Susan have lunch together once a week. E) Jane put on her coat while she was waiting for her friend.

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6. I don't know any French myself, and so I don't know whether Jane's French is good or not. But I do know that she
has spent the last two years in France. She was in Paris for 18 months and, she spent the remaining 6 months at
various places along the south coast. So she should know French well.
A) Jane has spent two whole years in France, partly in Paris, partly on the south coast. B) Jane's French ought to be good
as she has recently spent two years in France. C) If I had spent two years in France like Jane, I would have learned French
well. D) Jane's French is now very good indeed. E) Jane thoroughly enjoyed the two years she spent in France, but I don't
think her French is better than mine.
7. If Jane is willing to organize the picnic, I should let her. The last picnic she organized was a great success. Just now,
too, she has plenty of spare time, which most of us don't have. I don't think we’ll find anyone as good as her.
A) Jane always likes to do unusual things. B) Everybody can organize a picnic as efficiently as Jane can. C) Most of us don't
want Jane to organize the picnic. D) Jane has so much free time that she wants to organize a picnic. E) Jane seems to be
the best person to organize the picnic.
8. I know all the arguments about how important it is to advertise. I admit that the costs of advertising are quickly
recovered in better sales. Yet I still think advertising is harmful because of the bad effect it has on children.
A) Advertising helps sales, but children are badly affected by it. B) I am in favour of advertisements because children are
fond of them. C) It is important to advertise although children hate advertisements. D) A lot of people argue about whether
advertising really helps sales. E) Many people argue that advertisements are useful for children.
9. The story "Robinson Crusoe" was written by Daniel Defoe. This novel was based on the story of a real sailor who had
been abandoned on a small island. Although the sailor Alexander Selkirk's adventures are not the same as those of
Robinson Crusoe, there are some notable similarities.
A) Daniel Defoe wrote the story of Alexander Selkirk but called it "Robinson Crusoe." B) The abandoned sailor Alexander
Selkirk was a typical colonialist. C) The story: "Robinson Crusoe" by Daniel Defoe is a fictional account of the experiences
of Alexander Selkirk. D) Daniel Defoe wrote the story of the life of Alexander Selkirk and named it "Robinson Crusoe." E)
Being abandoned on a small island with a sailor named Alexander Selkirk gave Daniel Defoe the idea to write the story
'Robinson Crusoe."
Answer Key: 1: C 2: A 3: B 4: B 5: C 6: B 7: E 8: A 9: C
Summarizing A Paragraph MCQ Exercise

1. However much we may complain about the number of advertisements there are in a newspaper, the fact remains that
without advertisements there would be no newspapers. It's the advertisements that finance the newspapers and make it
possible for us to buy them cheaply.
A) The larger the circulation of a newspaper is, the greater is its need for good advertisements. B) Newspapers print so
many advertisements that there is not much space left for the real news. C) Nowadays all newspapers spend a great deal
of money on advertising. D) It is generally agreed that it is profitable for large companies to advertise regularly in the
newspapers. E) Advertisements are essential to newspapers; without them, they could not be produced economically.
2. Brian and Gordon are brothers. People meeting them for the first time usually think Gordon is much the nicest. He's
good looking, he's friendly and talks well. Later, they begin to notice he is rather spoilt. Then, they realize what a good
person Brian is.
A) Gordon and his brother are both very attractive people. B) I have always preferred Brian to his brother Gordon. C) Brian
has clearly spoiled his brother Gordon. D) Gordon makes a good first impression but his brother is a much better person.
E) Brian and Gordon are very different from each other: it is hard to believe they are brothers.
3. The average child is exceedingly curious. He investigates everything within reach, from electric plugs to piles of earth.
His favourite word is "why". The adult finds this period exhausting but he should not try to check the activities, unless they
are dangerous, as the child is establishing the habit of learning.
A) Curiosity in children should be encouraged as it creates a learning habit. B) Children are often extremely curious but
this is an unimportant stage and ends soon. C) Curiosity in children should not be encouraged as it is responsible for very
many accidents. D) His curiosity leads a child to investigate a lot of unimportant things. E) Children who lack curiosity will
not grow up any different from those who are extremely curious.
4. Janet was very enthusiastic about the concert. She praised the pianist, the singer and the choice of the programme; but
it was the violin concerto that she praised most of all.
A) Janet went to the concert because she wanted to hear the violin concerto. B) The piano is Jane's favourite instrument,
although she is fond of violin concertos. C) Jane thought the concert was wonderful and especially the violin concerto. D)
Except for the violin concerto, Jane didn't really enjoy the concert. E) Not much of Jane's favourite music was included in
the programme.
5. Everyone I've talked to recently admits that Mr Burton was not a very good manager. Now that Mr Carr is in charge of
the company, most people are expecting things to improve; he really is a natural leader and is liked and respected by
everyone.
A) It is generally agreed that Mr Carr will manage the company much better than Mr Burton did. B) Mr Carr didn't like the
way Mr Burton managed the company. C) Mr Burton was not popular, but under his management, everything ran
smoothly. D) Mr Carr may be a good manager, but nobody wanted Mr Burton to leave. E) Most people think Mr Carr will
introduce a few changes.
6. Most people don't realize that Paul and Mark are brothers. Paul is tall and fair and interested in all types of sport. Mark,
who is short and dark-haired, is studying Maths at the university. Maths is his only hobby too.
A) Brothers don't often have much in common. B) Though brothers, Paul and Mark are very different in appearance and
in interests. C) Paul isn’t nearly as clever as his brother Mark. D) Paul wishes his brother were a better sportsman. E) Paul
and Mark are brothers, but they disagree on various matters.
7. Kemal didn't even ask his father if he could go to Izmir with Erol for the weekend. He knew it would cost too much. But
he didn't want to mention it to Erol. So the next day, he said simply "Father won't let me."
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A) Kemal didn't want Erol to know that he was going to spend the weekend in Izmir. B) Kemal’s father didn't want Kemal
to go to Izmir with Erol. C) Erol asked his father if he could take Kemal to Izmir for the weekend. D) Kemal went to Izmir
for the weekend without asking his father if he could. E) Kemal didn't want Erol to know that he couldn't afford to go to
Izmir for the weekend.
8. John is only 16 years old. Everyone else on the team is either 17 or 18. Even so, he's a much-valued member of the
team. In fact, some people think he’s the best player the team has.
A) When John is 17 or 18, he will probably be the best player on the team. B) John joined the team when he was 16 but
most people are at least 17 years old. C) John is the youngest member of the team and also one of the best players. D)
John is one of the best players the team has had for 17 or 18 years. E) The 17 and 18-year-olds on the team are not valued
enough.
9. Murat walked slowly around the exhibition, looking at the pictures. None of them seemed very interesting. He felt very
disappointed. Then suddenly he saw the portrait of an old man. He stopped in front of it and looked at it for a long time.
It was a wonderful portrait.
A) While looking at the pictures at the exhibition, Murat met an interesting old man. B) Murat was delighted with the
exhibition, especially with some of the portraits. C) Except for one portrait, Murat thought the exhibition was very poor.
D) Murat is very interested in paintings, especially portraits of old people. E) At the exhibition, Murat was disappointed to
find that almost all the portraits were of old people.
Answer Key: 1: E 2: D 3: A 4: C 5: A 6: B 7: E 8: C 9: C
Phrasal Verbs and Idioms MCQ Exercise
1. I've been looking high and low for you. Where have you been?
A) everywhere B) around the town C) outside D) in the house E) for a long time
2. Little by little, they were able to compromise on the contract.
A) to a small degree B) gradually C) within limits D) shortly after E) time after time
3. All at once, the ghost appeared in front of her.
A) frightened B) one time C) for ever D) unfortunately E) suddenly
4. I'm leaving for good this time.
A) true B) completely C) forever D) unfortunately E) at last
5. The young man was very down to earth and trusted by everyone.
A) practical - realistic B) hard to work with C) happy and carefree D) troublesome E) hard working
6. I got cold feet just before I had to go on stage for my solo.
A) fought B) be frightened C) froze D) felt warm E) relaxed
7. The child looks after his mother, not his father.
A) followed B) saw to C) resembled D) stayed with E) continued
8. I had to give up working at home when the baby became two.
A) wait B) postpone C) resign D) stop E) forgive
9. The bomb went off at exactly 2:15.
A) ştopped B) destroyed C) was timed. D) started E) exploded
10. I've come down with a very bad cold.
A) become ill B) resumed C) seen to D) sat E) lied down
11. The teacher is going to go over my project with me.
A) return B) examine C) grade D) preform E) do
12. The new bird is getting on well with the other ones in the cage.
A) understanding B) managing with C) living with D) setting up E) nesting with
13. I just haven't been able to get round to telephoning my mother. Could you let her know I'll be late for dinner?
A) reach B) see that C) find time for D) look for E) preform
14. Look out! There’s an animal in that box.
A) take care B) see that C) put D) pick up E) look at
15. It is difficult to bring up a child.
A) cany B) educate C) provide for D) raise E) teach
16. Let’s cut across the backyard and jump over the fence.
A) hide in B) take a short cut C) mow through D) see about E) run through
17. He let me down yesterday. I shouldn’t have relied on him to that extent.
A) dropped me off B) visited C) drove D) forced E) disappointed
18. We set off for Ankara at 8:30 that morning.
A) started B) journeyed C) travelled D) went to E) came to
19. They set up a new programme to work with drug abusers.
A) established B) controlled C) thought of D) planned E) hoped for
20. The criminal wasn’t able to get away with the murder. A) steal B) escape punishment C) run off D) prove E) threaten
Answer Key: 1: A 2: B 3: E 4: C 5: A 6: B 7: C 8: D 9: E 10: A 11: B 12: A 13: C 14: A 15: D 16: B 17: E 18: A 19: A 20: B
Active-Passive Voice, Causatives
1. I’m afraid our accountants _____ for fraud - on the brighter side, our financial statements _____ the Times best-seller
fiction list.
A) are investigating / have made B) were investigated / has made C) are being investigated / have made D) are investigated
/ have been made E) have investigated / made
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2. Unless there _____ a dated object, such as a coin, within a layer, a technique _____ to determine an approximate
chronological date.
A) was / would be used B) is / must be used C) can be / has been used D) should be / must have been used E) had been /
could be used
3. The boxer _____ in the last round. It took a long time to bring him down.
A) is knocked out B) has been knocked out C) was knocked out D) should have been knocked out E) was being knocked
out
4. He _____ to learn that his proposal ______.
A) is delighted / will accept B) should be delighted / accepted C) was delighted / had been accepted D) delighted / accepted
E) was delighted / having accepted
5. It is believed that a criminal inquiry _____ out to give the age of the remains and the fact that any potential witnesses
to a possible crime would no longer be alive.
A) won’t carry B) wouldn't be carried C) shouldn't be carried D) wouldn’t carry E) couldn’t have carried
6. The shape of the world _____ into account if you really want to solve the problem.
A) took B) had to be taken C) has taken D) must take E) may be taken
7. Digital memories _____ all people to tell their life stories to their descendants in a compelling fashion that until now
_____ solely for the rich and famous.
A) could enable / has reserved B) can enable / has been reserved C) may be enabled / is reserved D) should enable / is
being reserved E) is enabled / reserves
8. Is it possible to find a country where the beauty, the history and the variety in the scenery _____ in such perfect
harmony?
A) were combined B) are combined C) combined D) combining E) to combine
9. According to the U.S. Climate Report, a copy of which _____ by the newspaper, the administration's climate policy
_____ in emissions growing 11 per cent in 2012 from 2002.
A) obtained / will result B) was obtained / will result C) was obtained / will be resulted D) is obtained / will result E) obtains
/ will be resulted
10. One of the most prescient of Bush's ideas was the suggestion that the Memex _____ to imitate the associative thinking
of the human mind, which he ______ in lively terms.
A) has designed / has described B) is designed / is described C) should design / was described D) should be designed /
described E) has been designed / describes 1
1. The machine ____ all tests set for it thus far and it _____ for detecting certain threats by our engineers.
A) is passed / has evaluated B) has been passed / has evaluated C) has been passed / has been evaluated D) passed / has
evaluated E) has passed / has been evaluated
12. In Freudian theory, neurosis ____ by certain complexes of repressed ideas, and the aim of treatment is to recover
these disturbing contents to consciousness.
A) was caused B) has caused C) is caused D) causes E) had been caused
13. Tetracycline antibiotics _____ to pregnant women; women who _____; or children under 12 years of age.
A) weren’t given / breastfeed B) haven’t given / have breastfed C) haven’t been given / breastfed D) aren’t giving / were
breastfeeding E) aren’t given / are breastfeeding
14. In Paris, he _____ by would-be immigrants to America who _____ that he could help them get there and furnish them
with land and jobs.
A) had been besieged / assumed B) was besieged / assumed C) was besieged / was assumed D) had besieged / had been
assumed E) is besieged / would assume
15. Responses ______ for the extent to which the behaviour _____ to the actor’s disposition.
A) were scored / was attributed B) had scored / was attributed C) scored / attributes D) score / will attribute E) were
scored / attributed
16. Hundreds of antiques which _____ to one of the sultans _____ by the end of this year.
A) were belonging / will be selling B) belonged / will have been sold C) are belonged / will be sold D) have been belonged
/ are going to be sold E) belonged / are going to sell
17. Gilgamesh was a man who wanted more power than mortals _____ and wanted his influence _____ forever.
A) allowed / be known B) to allow / to know C) were allowed / to be known D) allow / known E) were allowed / to known
18. School attendance ____ only for courses that _____ as credits towards a certificate, diploma or degree.
A) counted / should be used B) has been counted / have used C) is counted / could be used D) counts / might use E) used
to count / might be used
19. The Sumerians ____ approximately 3000 to 2500 B.C. in a region known as the “Fertile Crescent” located along the
Tigris River and _____ to be the world’s first civilization.
A) were emerged / considered B) emerged / were considered C) emerged / considered D) have emerged / have been
considered E) emerged / have considered
20. KIBS ______ to be one of the main of technological change and economic progress and _____ as "users, carriers and
sources of innovation".
A) might have believed / are described B) were believed / could describe C) are believed / described D) have believed /
would be described E) used to believe / could be described
21. The trial ____ in Manhattan, a borough where juries are less hospitable to plaintiffs than the Bronx.
A) was to be held B) will hold C) would have held D) will have held E) would hold
22. The buildings ____ back to the Aztecs, whose ceremonial centre _____ there before the Europeans built over it.
A) date / located B) dated / had located C) dated / was located D) date / had located E) date / was located
23. Most of the convalescents prefer ______ for at home while they _____ with their beloveds rather than in a health
centre.

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A) to care / are B) to have cared / were C) to have been cared / have been D) to be cared / are E) cared / were
24. A set of very strict measures ______ to prevent terrorism at least in order to _____ free in public.
A) has been taken / roam B) has taken / roam C) was taken / have roamed D) had taken / had roamed E) will have taken
/ roam
25. Reproductive health -including everything to do with contraception, and childbirth- _____ to be a woman's concern.
However, man _____ himself with such matters.
A) was considering / hasn’t concerned B) has been considered / isn't concerned C) is considered / doesn't concern D)
considers / isn’t concerning E) was considered / won’t concern
Answer Key: 1: C 2: B 3: C 4: C 5: B 6: E 7: B 8: B 9: B 10: D 11: E 12: C 13: E 14: B 15: A 16: B 17: C 18: C 19: B 20: C 21: A
22: E 23: D 24: A 25: C
Noun Clauses and Auxiliaries

1. When I went to collect my jacket from the drycleaner’s, the assistant said that he ____ it but ____ able to remove
the stain.
A) was cleaning / won’t have been B) had cleaned / hadn’t been C) would have cleaned / hasn’t been D) is cleaning /
wasn’t E) had been cleaning / isn’t
2. The boy confessed that he had stolen the bread, but pleaded that his sister and he ____ at the time.
A) will have starved B) are starving C) had been starving D) have starved E) will starve
3. Are you sure she was in when you ____ her but she ____ the phone?
A) will be phoning / won’t answer B) had phoned / isn’t answering C) are phoning / hasn’t answered D) phoned /
didn’t answer E) have phoned / doesn’t answer
4. We asked at the lost property counter whether a pink and blue bag ____, but the assistant told us that no one ____
in anything fitting our description.
A) was found / has been handed B) is being found / would have handed C) will have found / is going to hand D) had
been found / had handed E) might have found / will be handing
5. Mr Haughin phoned his wife to say that she ____ to cook anything for dinner that day as they ____ to his colleague’s.
A) doesn’t need / have been invited B) didn’t need / had been invited C) won’t need / are invited D) hasn’t needed /
were being invited E) wouldn’t need / will be invited
6. I was glad to hear that the factory ____ down after all as a new owner ____.
A) won’t have closed / had been finding B) shouldn’t have closed / has found C) doesn’t close / has been found D)
wasn’t closing / is found E) wouldn’t be closing / had been found
7. We feared that the roads ____ too busy on a national holiday, so we ____ not to go anywhere but stay at home.
A) will have been / decide B) are / could have decided C) would be / decided D) were / will decide E) had been / have
decided
8. The sales manager ____ the director that some customers ____ models on special offer in the sale already.
A) is informing / buy B) is informed / bought C) informed / had bought D) had informed / will be buying E) was informed
/ are buying
9. Because our last telephone bill was extremely high, my husband is always reminding me that I ____ until after six
before I ____ my friends.
A) have waited / called B) must wait / call C) waited / could call D) might wait / was calling E) wait / should call
10. I asked Nigel whether they were going somewhere for the holiday but he said, unfortunately, his wife ____ in the
accident and emergency department that week.
A) has worked B) is working C) would be working D) has been working E) will have worked
11. During our training last Friday, I realized that I ____ a lot if I ____ carefully because the lecturer really seemed to
know his subject.
A) must learn / was listening B) have learnt / will be listening C) could learn / listened D) had been learning / would
listen E) learnt / were listening
12. My mother handed me a considerable amount of money and instructed me ____ Mrs Jakson buy anything for me
while I was staying with her.
A) don’t let B) not to let C) didn’t let D) not letting E) wouldn’t let
13. The painter has assured us that he ____ the decorating by the weekend as he promised.
A) will have completed B) had been completing C) has completed D) completed E) would have completed
14. Mr Partridge, the customer is asking whether he ____ the suit back if it ____ his son.
A) would bring / won’t fit B) was bringing / hadn’t fitted C) is bringing / didn’t fit D) could have brought / hasn’t fitted
E) can bring / doesn’t fit
15. The manager complained that the cleaners ____ at the time and wondered who ____ them permission to leave
early.
A) wouldn’t be working / will give B) wouldn’t work / will be given C) aren’t working / are giving D) hadn’t been working
/ had given E) weren’t working / have given
16. It is widely believed ____ watching television too much isn’t healthy for children.
A) which B) where C) when D) who E) that
17. I could have been more enthusiastic at the training scheme, you know, and so ____ you.
1. A) should B) do C) can D) had E) could
18. We weren’t given any homework for tonight, ____?
2. A) did it B) wasn’t it C) were we D) did we E) hadn’t it
19. A: I haven’t felt very motivated at work since the new manager, who doesn’t seem to be doing a very good job,
started. B: ____.
A) Neither was he B) So am I C) I expect he is D) Neither have I E) But I haven’t
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20. I think ‘Erin Brockovich’ is showing at the cinema in Moda, ____?

A) isn’t it B) don’t I C) do I D) wasn’t it E) is it
21. The shop manager told the sales assistant ____ idle and ____ something useful to do.
A) don’t stay / have found B) wasn’t standing / has found C) didn’t stand / finds D) not to stand / to find E) not standing
/ to be finding
22. A: Are we in Houston now? B: ____. I’m tired of sitting on this bus. A: Me too, and we are. Look! The sign says
Houston Central Bus Station
A) So is it B) Neither are we C) I hope so D) So we have E) Nor does it
23. A: I hope the Sims won’t be bringing their children to the wedding. B: ____ because Julia’s mother usually babysits
for them on such occasions.
A) I don’t expect so B) Neither will I C) I’m afraid so D) I hope so E) So will they
24. It is such a pity that Vicki and Dave can’t meet us at the restaurant for lunch because Vicki has the flu. I was looking
forward to it, and ____ were you, weren’t you?
A) so B) nor C) either D) yet E) too
25. In the evenings, my husband likes to watch films, ____. I prefer documentaries, so we have bought a second
television set.
A) and so am I B) but I don’t C) and nor am I D) but I do E) and I don’t either
26. You haven’t heard from Bill since he left for India, ____?
A) did he B) has he C) have you D) haven’t you E) didn’t you
27. Most of the members, who complained bitterly afterwards, didn’t appear to agree with the committee’s decision,
____?
A) were there B) didn’t it C) have they D) wasn’t it E) did they
28. The label explains how long we should cook it for, ____?
A) shouldn’t we B) do we C) does it D) doesn’t it E) should we
29. We live right next to the park, so I can take my daughter there to play ____ the weather is fine.
A) however B) whichever C) wherever D) whenever E) whomever
30. Look at the rubbish under that tree! ____ dumped that has absolutely no sense of social responsibility at all.
A) However B) Whoever C) Wherever D) Whenever E) Whatever
31. Good Luck. I hope you like Canada. Promise me that you’ll write to me ____happens.
A) whenever B) however C) wherever D) whoever E) whatever
32. I like them both, Mary. You will look beautiful in ____ wedding dress you choose.
B) whoever B) whichever C) however D) whatever E) whenever
33. We didn’t realize ____ some of the employees had been ill on Fridays and Mondays until we checked the company
records.
A) however B) how long C) how often D) where E) whether
34. It looks too cluttered ____ we arrange the furniture. It is smaller than our old living room and there just isn’t enough
space for everything!
A) whenever B) wherever C) whatever D) however E) whichever
35. Once you have learned ____ to centre your work and the basic stitches, embroidery is not difficult.
A) how B) whose C) that D) whether E) whom
Of course it is nice to go to Holland in the summer, but ____ you are going is the best time to see the daffodils and
tulips in bloom.
A) when B) where C) who D) how E) which
37. Nobody has any clear ideas ____ should captain the West Indies cricket team now that the present captain has
announced his retirement.
A) how B) who C) what D) when E) which
38. ____ happened in Yemen will put tourists from Europe off visiting the area.
A) When B) Which C) What D) Why E) Where
39. I was a little annoyed, but they explained ____ they had had to cancel the appointment.
A) why B) whose C) how D) when E) whom
40. Do you know ____ agency Kate and Richard went to Turkey with because I’m thinking of booking a trip to
Cappadocia myself?
A) which B) who C) where D) when E) why
41. ____ people had been killed in the operation was kept secret.
A) How many B) What C) Whenever D) Whomever E) Who
42. The immigration officer wants to know ____ you entered the country.
A) which B) what C) who D) whom E) when
43. The price of a bracelet is determined according to ____ pure gold it contains.
A) how many B) how much C) however D) what E) how
44. ____ he was tortured in his own country will be taken into account when his case for asylum is heard.
A) Whom B) What C) The fact that D) Where E) Which
45. I don’t know for sure ____ bicycle this is, but it must be either Jane’s or Jack’s.
A) what B) where C) how D) whose E) whom
Answer Key: 1: B 2: C 3: D 4: D 5: B 6: E 7: C 8: C 9: B 10: C 11: C 12: B 13: A 14: E 15: D 16: E 17: E 18: C 19: D 20: A 21:
D 22: C 23: D 24: A 25: B 26: C 27: E 28: D 29: D 30: B 31: E 32: B 33: C 34: D 35: A 36: A 37: B 38: C 39: A 40: A 41: A
42: E 43: B 44: C 45: D
Adverbial Clauses Conjunctions Inversion

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1. In the original Greek sense, “Clime” was a concept used to divide the world into climatic zones sharing similar climatic
attributes _____ temperature, length of the solar day (sunlight), and in particular latitudinal distance from the equator.
A) such as B) either C) too D) neither E) as well
2. ______ the Turks regard the Osmanlis, or Ottomans as their ancestors, they are a highly composite ethnic mixture.
A) While B) Although C) Despite D) However E) As
3. People are realizing there are different varieties of citrus _____ lemons and limes.
A) moreover B) in addition C) also D) besides E) further
4. Experts estimate that 20 million Americans have mild symptoms _____ for 6 million women and 3 million men, the
symptoms are moderate to severe.
A) despite the fact that B) because C) although D) while E) due to the fact that
5. The design hotel simply proved that good architecture isn’t _____ a demand ____ a requirement.
A) whether / or B) either / than C) neither / nor D) more / than E) just / but
6. A working group will outline the effects of the changes on humans, showing the effects of increases in temperature and
humidity on malaria _____ the impact of heatwaves on crop losses.
A) as well as B) in addition C) moreover D) more than E) so
7. UNICEF said today that _____ torrential rains in April, tens of thousands of pastoralist children still face death in one of
the world’s most inhospitable regions.
A) although B) however C) whereas D) instead of E) despite
8. First examples of illustrated text came much later _____ because paper had only been recently introduced to the area,
_____ because paper deteriorates so much more quickly than other products.
A) both / and B) yet /still C) either / or D) the moment / while E) not only / but also
9. Jewellery was important in _____ settled _____ nomadic societies and was worn for festive occasions and for displaying
wealth.
A) just as / when B) whether / or C) either / or D) neither / nor E) both / and
10. Science fiction is usually just an element of the story and the background _____ the play would deal with issues of
society.
A) much as B) during C) until D) whilst E) although
11. In our multi-medial world with a lot more fiction available than in the past, the influence _____ the origin of single
ideas are not so easy to trace.
A) as well as B) in addition C) beside D) what's more E) furthermore.
12. Extraterrestrials are not _____ an object science would have to deal with, _____ they constitute a very strong story
element for any kind of fiction as well.
A) just / but B) both / and C) so / that D) no sooner / than E) neither / nor
13. Throughout history, there have been some books which had an extraordinary influence, _____ this was nothing
compared to the influence the new media would have.
A) otherwise B) because C) yet D) in spite of E) on the one hand
14. _____ a long and controversial history, psychosurgery has persisted as a modern treatment option for some medically
intractable psychiatric disorders.
A) Although B) Yet C) Despite D) While E) In spite of the fact that
15. The bishop, who stated that he intends to amend the Easter message to German churches _____ include the
delegation's political impressions from their visit to the territories, has finally set out.
A) even though B) how C) no matter D) in order that E) so as to
16. _____ cloudy conditions over much of Europe, a variety of webcasts carried the weather event lives.
A) Whereas B) Despite C) Although D) However E) Instead of
17. Residents of Asia saw the eclipse cut short by moonset _____ those in America had the moon already totally eclipsed
by the time it rose.
A) much as B) however C) even if D) while E) although
18. The Heart Association lists risk factors for heart disease _____ increasing age, male sex, heredity, smoking, high blood
cholesterol.
A) to illustrate B) for example C) so that D) such as E) as
19. Alcohol may have a sedative effect for the first hours following consumption, it can then lead to a nonrestful night's
sleep, _____.
A) even so B) otherwise C) however D) all the same E) except
20. The story of the hero was lost to human memory, _____ occasional fragments.
A) as regards B) with respect to C) as for D) in addition E) except for
21. _____ napping seems like a proper way to catch up on missed sleep, it is not always so.
A) Much as B) As C) However D) Otherwise E) In contrast
22. Regular exercise can improve sleep quality and duration; _____, exercising immediately before bedtime can have a
stimulant effect on the body.
A) nevertheless B) nonetheless C) furthermore D) whereas E) whenever
23. _____ their lack of rights and privileges, women in high position were viewed as temptresses, and an essential part of
Mesopotamian culture.
A) Despite B) Although C) As though D) In case of E) Owing to
24. The new system improved the remote access for doctors on the move, enabling them to log into the hospital
information systems, _____ what equipment they were using.
A) regardless of B) pertaining to C) for fear that D) besides E) even though
25. Hand washing needs to happen quite often _____ you just have a snack, especially _____ from a self-service source.

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A) even if /if B) in case / as though C) as long as / provided D) otherwise / unless E) as though / when
Answer Key: 1: A 2: B 3: D 4: D 5: E 6: A 7: E 8: C 9: E 10: D 11: A 12: A 13: C 14: C 15: E 16: B 17: D 18: D 19: C 20: E 21: A
22: C 23: A 24: A 25: A
There is no point in ---- the washing out because it keeps ---- with rain.
A) to hang / to shower B) hanging / showering C) hand / shower D) hung / having showered E) having hung / showered
2. I dislike spending my time ---- so I prefer ---- clothes made from synthetic fabrics.
A) to iron / to buy B) ironed / bought C) ironing / buying D) iron / being bought E) having ironed / buy
3. Don’t you think the assistant deserves ---- a day off after working so hard at the exhibition?
A) to give B) giving C) to be given D) gave E) having given
4. In my opinion, it’s ridiculous ---- a computer as a present for a three-year-old child.
A) bought B) buy C) having bought D) being bought E) to buy
5. I don’t think I would enjoy ---- a cricket match as I don’t understand the rules.
A) to watch B) being watched C) having watched D) watching E) watch
6. Because they both work at the family’s flower shop, they have agreed ---- about flowers at weekends.
A) not to talk B) not talking C) haven’t talked D) not talk E) don’t talk
7. ---- the old hospital would cost £1 million, so the council are considering ---- the building to developers.
A) Demolishing / selling B) To demolish / to sell C) Demolished / to have sold D) Having demolished / sell E) Being
demolished / having sold
8. Being able to think quickly and having up-to-date knowledge of a language is essential for speakers ---- simultaneously.
A) to be translated B) having translated C) to translate D) being translated E) translated
9. In order to save money and energy, we are going to have double glazed windows ----.
A) having installed B) install C) to install D) installed E) installing
10. In his performance against Brazil, he proved himself ---- a skilled player.
A) was B) be C) having been D) being E) to be
11. After the game, the players sat around ---- themselves on their performance.
A) being congratulated B) congratulate C) congratulating D) to have congratulated E) congratulated
12. The photographs he took of the products were too dark ---- on the company’s website, so he’ll have to get some ----
professionally.
A) using / to be taken B) to be used / taken C) to use / taking D) use / to take E) being used / take
13. The director of the play still hasn’t decided whom ---- in the role of the hero.
A) casting B) to cast C) cast D) having cast E) being cast
14. Why don’t you go and ask a chemist ---- something ---- dry skin?
A) recommending / soothed B) having recommended / soothe C) recommend / having soothed D) to recommend / to
soothe E) recommend / soothing
15. The problem with Simon is that he thinks he can succeed ---- a degree without ---- any lectures.
A) gaining / having attended B) to gain / to have attended C) on gaining / attended D) for gaining / to attend E) in gaining
/ attending
16. We have decided ---- a new Ford Focus, but we are not certain about which colour ----.
A) buying / choosing B) bought / chosen C) having bought / choose D) to have bought / be chosen E) to buy / to choose
17. Wearing high-heeled shoes for long periods can result in women ---- too much pain from their feet ---- in active work.
A) to suffer / continuing B) suffer / having continued C) suffering / to continue D) suffered / not to continue E) having
suffered / not continuing
18. His daughter persuaded him ---- his heart operation in a private hospital instead of waiting for one in a state hospital
as she could see his condition ---- worse daily.
A) to have / getting B) from having / to get C) having had / get D) to be having / to have got E) have / having been getting
19. I knew the answer, but I didn’t press the buzzer quickly enough ---- the prize.
A) winning B) to win C) win D) won E) being won
20. Robert didn’t work as carefully last year as he does this year, and the boss had even threatened ---- him if he didn’t
improve his work.
A) sacking B) being sacked C) to be sacked D) to sack E) to have sacked
21. I’d love ---- on my own, but I simply can’t afford ---- my own flat.
A) to live / to have B) living / having C) live / to be having D) having lived / have E) to have lived / having had
22. The receptionist never minds ---- with sending out the new catalogues.
A) to help B) to have helped C) to be helping D) have helped E) helping
23. The manager likes ---- on all pricing decisions.
A) to have consulted B) having consulted C) to be consulting D) being consulted E) having been consulting
24. I am hoping ---- for the school basketball team next week.
A) picking B) to be picked C) to pick D) picked E) pick
25. Your hair needs ---- before you go back to school. A) to cut B) being cut C) cutting D) having cut E) to be cutting
26. The social worker gave the students a talk ---- them against ---- drugs.
A) to warn / taking B) having warned / to take C) warning / taken D) to have warned / take E) warn / having taken
27. He’s not in the habit ---- lies, but he had to make up an excuse ---- the afternoon off for his job interview.
A) of telling / to take B) to tell / to have taken C) for telling / being ta D) being told / taking E) having told / to be taken
28. In the Middle Ages, surrounding a castle with a ditch filled with water proved ---- a successful technique ---- its security.
A) being / to be ensured B) to have been / ensure C) having been / of ensuring D) have been / to ensure E) to be / for
ensuring
29. The most effective way ---- the destructiveness of earthquakes is ---- buildings and other structures capable of
withstanding strong shaking.

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A) reducing / being constructed B) reduced / having construc C) to be reduced / constructing D) to reduce / to construct
E) reduce / to be constructed
30. The children were ---- giving up hope when someone phoned to say their dog had been found.
A) in the habit of B) in return for C) on the point of D) for the sake of E) in exchange for
31. ---- a doorman at a hotel consists ---- greeting guests and taking them to their rooms.
A) To be / in B) To have been / for C) Being / of D) Having been / about E) Be / from
32. She should have apologized to him ---- spilling coffee down his suit.
A) about B) with C) of D) for E) by
33. Sheep have been so changed by breeding that their wild ancestors are hard ----.
A) identifying B) being identified C) to identify D) identify E) having identified
34. Shopping for fruit and vegetables makes me ---- hungry.
A) to feel B) feel C) felt D) feeling E) to be feeling
35. We haven’t yet decided when ---- a meeting, so we’ll let you ---- as soon as we’ve fixed a date.
A) to hold / know B) holding / to know C) held / to be known D) to have held / knowing E) having held / known
36. Tobacco, which we now know ---- so harmful, was once thought ---- medicinal value.
A) being / to be having B) be / to have C) having been / to have had D) to have been / having E) to be / to have
37. His ability ---- well makes him a great teacher.
A) being communicated B) communicated C) having communicated D) to communicate E) communicating
38. We should appreciate ---- in the 20th century when we have so many appliances ---- the hardships of our lives.
A) to be living / easing B) having lived / being eased C) living / to ease D) to live / having eased E) live / to be easing
39. You don’t appear ---- the formula. Do you want me ---- it once more?
A) having understood / explaining B) understand / to have explained C) to have understood / to explain D) understood /
to be explaining E) understanding / having explained
40. My mother won’t allow anyone ---- the living room until she finishes ----.
A) enter / to vacuum B) to enter / vacuuming C) entering / having vacuumed D) entered / to be vacuuming E) having
entered / vacuum
Answer Key: 1: B 2: C 3: C 4: E 5: D 6: A 7: A 8: C 9: D 10: E 11: C 12: B 13: B 14: D 15: E 16: E 17: C 18: A 19: B 20: D 21: A
22: E 23: D 24: B 25: C 26: A 27: A 28: E 29: D 30: C 31: C 32: D 33: C 34: B 35: A 36: E 37: D 38: C 39: C 40: B
Modals Advanced Level Test

1. Cold deserts _____ in snow, which don't receive much precipitation.
A) should be covered B) must be covered C) had better be covered D) might have been covered E) can be covered
2. The money in our pocket _____ far less today than it _____ ten years ago.
A) could buy / would B) can buy / had C) should buy / had D) might buy / should E) may buy / had to
3. They reminded me that we _____ an early start the next morning, so we _____ late to bed.
A) would make / didn’t need to be B) must have made / can’t be C) would make / wouldn’t be D) could make / needn't
have been E) would be making / mustn’t have been
4. Emergency supplies ______ the earthquake area as soon as possible with the help of the UN. It is crucial.
A) must reach B) should have reached C) had to reach D) can reach E) was going to reach
5. When I entered the kitchen, I realized that the chocolate cake was all gone! Someone ____ it.
A) would have eaten B) should have eaten C) must have eaten D) need to have eaten E) had to eat
6. No one knows exactly who were the first Americans, but scientists exploring caves have found evidence that they _____
from Asia.
A) should have arrived B) would have arrived C) must have arrived D) ought to have arrived E) have arrived
7. After the spraying and facing problems, state health officials said the amount of insecticide applied in Monterey _____
severe health risks.
A) shouldn't have posed B) needn't have posed C) didn't need to pose D) didn't use to pose E) hadn't posed
8. If the jury members ______ agreement, the case ______ retried before a new jury.
A) can't have reached / may be B) mustn't reach / should be C) aren’t able to reach / has been D) can’t reach / must be E)
couldn't reach / must be
9. The people who lived there _____ everything they needed from the gifted forest.
A) should get B) could get C) will get D) may get E) have got
10. If a store manager decides to take a shoplifter to court, the legal process _____ both time-consuming and expensive.
A) should be B) may be C) must be D) are to be E) has to be
11. Some European politicians, it seems, _____ spend billions on aid than allow poor-world farmers to sell attractively
priced food to Europe’s consumers.
A) would rather B) would prefer C) would D) prefer E) were to
12. Governments ______ regions in their countries more autonomy so that they _____ and enjoy their own cultures rather
than serving the centralized policies of the capital city.
A) had to give / can protected B) were going to give / may protect C) should have given / would have protected D) must
give / could have protected E) should give / can protect
13. In my opinion, rich people ____ permitted to buy educational advantages by sending their children to private schools
or _____ all schools be run by the state?
A) should be / should B) have to be / will C) must be / would D) should be / ought to E) could be / have
14. Greenpeace operates internationally and _____ governments and large oil companies through feats of direct action
which attract public sympathy.
A) could have embarrassed B) had to embarrass C) would embarrass D) is able to embarrass E) should be embarrassed
15. Do people have the right to smoke when children in the same house or colleagues in the same office _____ the smoke?
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A) could inhale B) have to inhale C) might inhale D) may inhale E) should inhale
16. Clients ____ the part of town where they want to be based if they want, though this _____ their choice of price-range.
A) can specify / may limit B) could specify / used to limit C) had to specify / might limit D) must specify / may have limited
E) are supposed to specify / might have limited
17. During the twentieth century, women in Britain _____ vigorously for equal rights - the right to vote and the right to
work in posts traditionally reserved for men.
A) were campaigning B) must campaign C) had to campaign D) must have campaigned E) have had to campaign
18. Any kind of modification ____ without informing all the members at that meeting.
A) shouldn’t be made B) didn’t need to be made C) wouldn’t be made D) didn’t use to be made E) ought not to have been
made
19. The Supreme Election Council ____ the end results of the election at tomorrow’s gathering.
A) would verify B) is bound to verify C) might as well verify D) had verified E) are used to verify
20. As an antielectron speeds along, it _____ come up against one of the trillions of ordinary electrons in its immediate
neighbourhood. It will do that in perhaps a millionth of a second.
A) must B) was unlikely to C) is about to D) may as well E) is bound to
21. Scientists fear that a patient's immune system _____ stem cells unless they _____ genetically identical to the patient's
other cells.
A) may reject / are B) may have rejected / were C) could reject / had been D) has rejected / has been E) would be rejected
/ were
22. I _____ to make myself heard above the noise lest I _____ lost there.
A) have to shout / got B) had to shout / should get C) used to shout / would get D) have had to shout / should have got E)
will shout / might have got
23. We_____ that we the adults are out to educate a group that mostly does not want education, and tailor our work
accordingly.
A) could remember B) must have remembered C) may remember D) should remember E) could have remembered
24. A spokeswoman said the company has identified only four deaths to date where its recalled heparin _____ a role in
them.
A) should have played B) must play C) had to play D) would play E) may have played
25. It was so dark that I fell down the stairs last night. I _____ the light.
A) must have fixed B) should have fixed C) had to fix D) would fix E) need to fix
Answer Key: 1: E 2: A 3: C 4: A 5: C 6: C 7: A 8: D 9: B 10: B 11: A 12: E 13: A 14: D 15: B 16: A 17: C 18: E 19: B 20: E 21: A
22: B 23: D 24: E 25: B
Mixed 12 Tenses Exercises MCQ
1. In recent decades, the efficiency of the United Nations ................. by a growing number of countries.
A) will have been questioned B) would be questioned C) has been questioned D) had been questioned E) was questioned.
2. We ................. no problems whatsoever with the dam since it ................. forty years ago.
A) had / has been constructed B) were having / was being constructed C) have had / was constructed D) had had / had
been constructed E) are having / is constructed
3. Before I got to the end of his article, I felt I knew everything there ______ about the North America Free Trade
Agreement.
A) had known B) was to know C) is known D) is being known E) has to be known
4. It seems likely that by the end of the week, the costs involved in the construction of the bridge ................. by the
Ministry.
A) would have been announced B) have been announced C) would be announced D) are being announced E) will have
been announced
5. One feels that there ................. any noticeable improvement in the human rights problem in Africa until all the African
countries ................. their economic difficulties.
A) cannot be / will overcome B) hasn’t been / had overcome C) won’t be / overcome D) wouldn’t be / would be overcome
E) wasn’t / have overcome
6. The Etruscans, who ................. a great part of Italy about 900 B.C., ................. from Asia Minor.
A) had colonized / originally came B) colonized / had originally come C) were colonized / have originally come D) have
colonized / originally come E) were colonizing / might originally come
7. The orders were that we ................. the area within hours to prevent further loss of life
A) had evacuated B) have to evacuate C) will have evacuated D) shall have to evacuate E) had to evacuate
8. As I ................. you yesterday, the undersecretary ................. over this afternoon’s discussions
A) have told / was presiding B) told / will be presiding C) would have told / had presided D) will tell / has presided E) would
tell / has been presiding
9. For a hundred years or so, some critics ................. that poetry is dying, and all that time poets ................. poems that
later generations recognize as great.
A) have maintained / have been writing B) maintained / wrote C) had maintained / were writing D) maintain / are writing
E) would maintain / had been writing
10. What I ................. is that we ................. to think seriously about a thorough reform in the legal system.
A) have proposed / should have begun B) had proposed / were beginning C) am proposing / begin D) was proposing / have
begun E) proposed / had begun
11. When the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli ................. a map of Mars in 1877, he ................. a large number of
straight linear features, which he called "canali", that is, channels.
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A) publishes / has noted B) had published / was noting C) has published / notes D) published / noted E) would have
published / had noted
12. In the past few months, our company director ................. more mettle than most industrialists ................. in an entire
career.
A) had shown / have done B) showed / would do C) shows / did D) was showing / may have done E) has shown / do
13. The history of the Venetian republic ................. to an end in 1797 when Venice ................. over to Austria by Napoleon.
A) was coming / would have been handed B) had come / has been handed C) comes / had been handed D) came / was
handed E) was questioned
14. The Pacific markets ................. extremely competitive since the manufacturing capacity of many Far Eastern countries
................. to improve at the turn of the decade.
A) are becoming / begins B) had become / would begin C) became / have begun D) were becoming / would have begun
E) have become / began
15. More than half of the 850 asylum seekers currently detained in Britain ................. in prison with no right of appeal,
even though the vast majority ................. with any offence, let alone convicted.
A) were held / are not charged B) are being held / have not been charged C) have been held / would not be charged D)
being held / had not been charged E) will be held / were not being charged
16. When they heard gunfire across the border, the relief workers in the camp knew that another group of refugees
................. before long.
A) are arriving B) had arrived C) will arrive D) would be arriving E) could have arrived
17. Last week’s supplementary budget package ................. to prevent Japan's economy from plunging even lower.
A) is being designed B) has designed C) was designed D) would be designed E) had designed
18. Russia .................. earlier this week that it ................... all its troops out of Georgia.
A) had announced / pulled B) announces / would have pulled C) announced / had pulled D) is announcing / has pulled E)
has announced / was pulling
19. To the astronomers of the Middle Ages, the most important classical authorities on natural philosophy .................
Aristotle and Ptolemy, since both ................. frameworks that explained the whole universe.
A) had been / created B) are / have created C) were / had created D) have been / create E) may have been / were creating
20. North Korea still .................. a vast police state that .................. a network of concentration camps spanning the
country.
A) was maintaining / has included B) had maintained / would include C) is maintaining / had included D) maintains /
includes E) maintained / will include
Answer Key: 1: C 2: C 3: B 4: E 5: C 6: B 7: E 8: B 9: A 10: C 11: D 12: E 13: D 14: E 15: B 16: D 17: C 18: C 19: C 20: D
Mixed 12 Tenses Exercises MCQ
1. It _____ that, by 2050, world population _____ twice as much as it is now.
A) appeared / would have been rising B) appears / will have risen C) has appeared / will be rising D) would appear / has
risen E) will appear / would rise
2. After years of cheap credit worldwide, the U.S. Federal Reserve _____ its short-term rates for two years, and now comes
new signs that long-term rates, in the end, _____ to rise, too.
A) has been rising / are starting B) rose / had started C) will have risen / had been starting D) was rising / started E) had
risen / have started
3. Scientists _____ that by 2030, doctors _____ the people suffering from certain illness during their space travel in the
health care institutions in space.
A) will have expected / are treating B) have expected / would be treating C) expected / had treated D) will expect / will
have been treating E) expect / will be treating
4. She had been trying to learn how to use a computer _____ as long as she lived here _____ she gave up because of her
illness.
A) for / when B) till / before C) before / for D) so / until E) since / once
5. Jane quitted trying for the swimming team after that time she _____ out too far down at Horn Pond.
A) swims B) will swim C) would swim D) was swimming E) had swum
6. Stone _____, and so the tools of long ago have remained when even the bones of the men who made them _____
without trace.
A) didn't decay / disappeared B) wouldn’t decay / disappear C) doesn’t decay / have disappeared D) won’t decay / had
disappeared E) didn’t decay / have disappeared
7. We _____ a play by Oscar Wilde in the class which _____ “The importance of Being Earnest”
A) read / is called B) are reading / was called C) have read / has been called D) had read / was called E) are reading / is
called
8. No zoologist _____ able to keep a gorilla under close observation in the dark jungles in which he ______.
A) was / lived B) will / will live C) had been / has lived D) is / had been living E) has been / lives
9. The practice of working woman _____ so widespread that the working mother _____ now not an unusual factor in the
world.
A) becomes / was B) became / is C) had become / is D) has become / is E) became / was
10. What ____ almost all Hollywood pictures _____ their inner emptiness.
A) characterized / was B) characterizes / had been C) has characterized / were D) characterized / will be E) characterizes
/ is
11. When I first arrived at State University, I _____ by the size of the campus. Fortunately, I found three helpful people
who _____ me from total confusion.
A) had been overwhelmed / saved B) was overwhelmed / saved C) was overwhelmed / was saving D) would be
overwhelmed / had saved E) was overwhelmed / had saved
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12. The peace which Istanbul once _____, ______ away.

A) know / has been swept B) knew / had been swept C) knew / has been swept D) knows / will sweep E) has known /
swept
13. The young soldier ____ that he _____ in the battle.
A) will fear / would be killed B) feared / was killed C) fears / is killed D) fears / will be killed E) has feared / is killed
14. The oldest Mesoamerican calendar inscriptions _____ from the site of San Jose Mogote in the Oaxaca Valley, with day
signs that _____ from 600 BC.
A) were / were dated B) were / had been dated C) are / are dated D) have been / will be dated E) will be / have been dated
15. William S. Hart ____ the greatest of all Western stars, for he _____ in nothing but Westerns.
A) had been / appeared B) has been / appeared C) was / appears D) is / would appear E) is / is appearing
16. One important field in which the laser ______ many applications ________ communication.
A) has / is B) was / are C) does / are D) have / is E) is / is
17. Since my roommate ______ yet, Mrs Stanton _____ me all around the dormitory.
A) does not come / showed B) has not come / showed C) was not coming / showed D) hadn’t come / had showed E) had
not come / showed
18. Whoever ____ the cooking ______ a great deal of work to do.
A) do / has B) does / had had C) has done / has D) is doing / had E) does / have
19. By the end of this month, he ______ as one of the assistants of Bill Gates for five years.
A) had worked B) will work C) is going to work D) had been working E) will have been working
20. It’s only the second time I ______ a football match in a stadium.
A) saw B) see C) will see D) had seen E) have seen
21. He is the man about whom we ______ so much. A) have heard B) heard C) would have heard D) had heard E) have
been hearing
22. The experts are now fully convinced that the animal two old women _____ at the pack _____ a puma.
A) had seen / is B) saw / was C) saw / had been D) have seen / were E) saw / has been
23. Time _____ over. We ______ fifty applications in all.
A) had been / received B) is / have received C) is / received D) was / had been receiving E) was / would receive
24. You _____ for being late to the party.
A) will regret B) will be regretting C) have been regretting D) regret E) regretted
25. Previous studies _____ that girls who have earlier puberty _____ tendency to have a higher body mass index.
A) found / have B) have found / has C) had found / would have D) find / is having E) are finding / have
Answer Key: 1: B 2: A 3: E 4: A 5: E 6: C 7: E 8: E 9: D 10: E 11: B 12: C 13: D 14: C 15: B 16: A 17: E 18: C 19: E 20: E 21: A
22: B 23: B 24: A 25: A
Determiners, Articles, Quantifiers
1. This year’s whiteout of a winter has prompted _____ global-warming naysayer to crow about buying Al Gore a snow
shovel.
A) some B) a lot of C) many a D) none E) little
2. _____ commercial or recreational salmon fishing will be allowed off the coast of Oregon this year due to the possible
extinction of the species.
A) Some B) One C) No D) None E) Each
3. With some families displaced for more than a decade, children born or raised in camps have _____ or ______ memory
of traditional farming life.
A) little / no B) no / any C) more / less D) few / fewer E) less / none
4. Istanbul is the biggest city in Turkey and one of the world’s major cities, with around 6.7 million people in the city _____
and ______ four million in the area around it.
A) its own / other B) themselves / the other C) alone / others D) one another / the others E) itself / another
5. _____ product you buy should be a gateway to a personal sustainability practice.
A) None B) Everything C) Any D) Several E) Most
6. There were Rangers fans throwing bottles and cans at _____ because the game was not on.
A) themselves B) one another C) other D) each another E) the others
7. Officials say _____ affected county has now been reached and rescue efforts started.
A) each other B) both C) all D) either E) every
8. At no time should you endanger yourself or ______ take _____ unnecessary risks.
A) the others / every B) others / any C) one another / no D) each other / some E) the other / either
9. While consumers who obtain genuine products can improve their health, _____ who are deceived by clever advertising
may lose their health, their savings or _____.
A) those / both B) ones / neither C) all / none D) both / all E) none / either
10. Discount retailers such as Aldi and Lidl have been charging for bags for ______ years.
A) a great amount of B) a number of C) many a D) a lot E) too much
11. For most of ______ who emigrated, the search for employment and a better life was almost certainly the principal
cause of ______ departure.
A) none / their B) ones / some C) all / any D) some / its E) those / their
12. Not ____ of the changes observed in nature are damaging to _____ creatures.
A) every / whole B) each / both C) either / neither D) none / all E) all / all
13. _____ attempt to explain why humans think and behave in the way that they do will inevitably be linked to one or
_____ branch of psychology.
A) Whole / others B) Each / each other C) Every / the other D) All / one another E) Any / another
14. Having different types of businesses in a neighbourhood can increase _____ walking trips among residents.
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A) a great amount of B) a vast amount of C) the number of D) several E) a number of

15. In neighbourhoods where residents are willing to help _____, children are less likely to be overweight.
A) another B) one another C) each other D) the other E) themselves
16. Until the 1980s, about 2 in ______ 1,000 people were thought to be affected by the disease.
A) each B) other C) more D) no E) every 17. Our brain is made of many parts, ______ of which has a specific function.
A) every B) all C) each D) whole E) many
18. _____ number has an inherent power of analysis; it has also the power of synthesis because of the inner bond that
connects all _____ numbers to the unit.
A) Every / the other B) Each / other C) All / some D) No / any E) Whole / many
19. There were ____ adventurers who were willing to fight in _____ cause if the pay were good.
A) several / some B) many / none C) some / any D) a good deal of / few E) the number of / most
20. The scientists stripped the DNA from 19 human eggs and implanted in _____ a DNA-containing nucleus from _____
person's cell.
A) both / the other B) every / other C) each / another D) none / ot’ers E) neither / the others
21. When an electron meets an antielectron, _____ particles vanish.
A) none B) all C) both D) either E) every
22. Physical dating violence affects almost one in _____ 11 adolescents.
A) several B) other C) all D) every E) each
23. Police had no motive for the attack, and witnesses said they heard _____ demand for money or _____ else.
A) no / anything B) any / something C) some / anyone D) every / nothing E) a / anything
24. Under law, the manufacturers don't have to declare _____ ingredients.
A) whole B) all C) every D) each E) fe’
25. She put forward two proposals, ______ of which didn’t make any sense to the participants in the summit.
A) a good number B) all C) neither D) none E) either
Answer Key: 1: C 2: C 3: A 4: E 5: C 6: B 7: E 8: B 9: A 10: B 11: E 12: E 13: E 14: C 15: B 16: E 17: C 18: B 19: C 20: C 21: C 22:
D 23: A 24: B 25: E
Adverbial Clauses Conjunctions Inversion

1. It’s generally a decision by each company or cruise line ______ how many doctors or nurses to provide.
A) all in all B) as regard C) in fact D) as to E) by the same token
2. Some of the more productive petroleum areas on Earth are found in arid and semiarid regions of Africa and the Middle
East, ______ the oil fields were originally formed in shallow marine environments.
A) although B) however C) whatever D) in order to E) for fear that
3. Some of the great minds argued that the universe was not a confined space, ______ others contended that its
boundaries were drawn.
A) while B) thus C) all the same D) however E) as to
4. ______ how aggressively the U.S. tackles its carbon problem, the global outlook hinges on the coal-fired economies of
the world’s two looming giants: China and India.
A) In view of B) No matter C) However D) As if E) Hence
5. We need to hear from the inspectors to know for sure, but it sounds _____ Iran has not yet got in its enrichment
program as far as it has been proclaiming.
A) just as B) as though C) thereby D) meanwhile E) that is
6. Economic growth might be advantageously enjoyed and evenly balanced shared, merely in a community where
solidarity has developed ______ familiarity.
A) in order that B) in spite of C) despite D) as a consequence of E) in the event that
7. _____ I would like to help you, I’m afraid I’m simply too busy at the moment.
A) However B) While C) Inasmuch as D) Even if E) Despite
8. I cannot help thinking about it so much, but _____ I can’t believe how lucky I was to survive such a terrifying accident.
A) even if B) as if C) even though D) even how E) even
9. ______ Mr Ash’s pride in the system he has put together, it hasn’t always been as reliable as he might have wished.
A) Lest B) Even though C) In spite of D) However E) No matter
10. OK, I admit that health insurances require much money. But _____, if people are healthy, you shouldn’t consider it as
losing money.
A) similar B) on the other hand C) hardly D) in addition E) for
11. Because of being on the verge of bankruptcy, the company is trying to reduce its costs; _____, staff who leave are not
being replaced.
A) consequently B) because C) yet D) however E) provided that
12. The thinker writes in support of freedom _____ darkness may fall upon our society in the form of dwindling rights and
oppression.
A) however B) lest C) in order that D) apart from E) in that
13. The charity concert for the homeless has been cancelled _____ the lack of support.
A) owing to B) in spite of C) as long as D) in contrast to E) as a result
14. All the children are lumped together in one class, ______their ability.
A) as regards B) regarding C) regardless of D) with regard to E) in regard to
15. We’ll take an umbrella _____ insure ourselves against the unfortunate possibility that it might rain.
A) according to B) so as to C) owing to D) due to E) as to
16. The Ottomans started to use one crescent and a star on their flags, ______ the current Turkish flag, after the 16 th
century.
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A) owing to B) similar to C) however D) since E) for example

17. Granted that it is dangerous, ____ I still want to go.
A) all the same B) although C) whereas D) in case E) therefore
18. _____ the bomb attack had occurred did the lack of safety measures become obvious.
A) When B) Only after C) Never D) Hardly E) Not
19. We felt very nice and snug, ______ there was a fire in the room.
A) otherwise B) so that C) as if D) provided E) all the same
20. He knocked over the red wine, ______ ruining the table cloth.
A) thereby B) nonetheless C) furthermore D) meanwhile E) so
21. _____ dessert, I’d better skip it today as I am getting too much fat.
A) In short B) As for C) That is D) Just as E) In spite of
22. He refused to answer any of the questions asked _____ she was unfairly dismissed from the base.
A) so that B) in order that C) on the grounds that D) for fear that E) in that
23. Off the coast of South-West Mediterranean Region _____ the groups of islands, a popular summer resort area.
A) lie B) lay C) lying D) Has lain E) had lain
24. I would have asked her about the subject we discussed _____ I seen her at the party yesterday
A) if B) had C) were D) not until E) never
25. _____ high was the Alps _____ the elderly climbers could take only a couple of steps per minute as they came closer
to the apex.
A) As / as B) Either / or C) Neither / nor D) Such / that E) So / that
Answer Key: 1: D 2: A 3: A 4: B 5: B 6: D 7: D 8: D 9: C 10: B 11: A 12: B 13: A 14: C 15: B 16: B 17: A 18: B 19: C 20: A 21: B
22: C 23: A 24: B 25: E
Conditional Mood MCQ Test
1. I think it's extremely unlikely, but if we do come across ............... wild animals at all, we must be prepared to kill them.
A) some B) however C) any D) whatever E) no
2. It probably ............... if you'd been more careful.
A) doesn't happen ever again B) won't ever happen again C) didn't happen D) would never have happened E) hadn't ever
happened
3. If he had taken my advice, he ............... a rich man by now.
A) will be B) would be C) were D) could be E) would have been
4. If he had taken my advice, he ............... a rich man now.
A) will be B) would be C) were D) was E) would have been
5. She'd be quite pretty if she ............... so much makeup.
A) didn't wear B) wears C) will wear D) won't wear E) doesn't wear
6. I didn't know whether you had to have one of these or not. I would have given it to you freely if you ............... one.
A) had to have B) had had to have C) had have D) had E) have had to have
7. You ............... pay less now if you had decided to become a full member at the time.
A) would have to B) had to C) would have had to D) had had E) will have to
8. I'm sure she would have come and seen me if she .............. the time.
A) has B) has had C) would have D) had had E) were having
9. If I ............... you, I wouldn't buy that old car.
A) had been B) would be C) will be D) am E) were
10. If the fog gets any thicker, they .............. to cancel the game altogether.
A) had to decide B) might have to decide C) have decided D) were going to decide E) would have decided
11. If you really want to lose some weight, you ............... less bread.
A) had better eat B) have eaten C) will have eaten D) are rather eating E) would eat
12. I'm terrified of planes. I'd feel much safer if we ................ by boat.
A) will go B) 've been going C) had gone D) were going E) go
13. I .............. it that colour -- if I were you.
A) had painted B) will paint C) don't paint D) didn't paint E) wouldn't paint
14. Unless you ............... the bell twice, nobody will answer it.
A) don't ring B) ring C) will ring D) won't ring E) rang
15. ............... there be any delay, please notify us at once.
A) Unless B) Can C) Had D) Should E) Were
16. I ............... very grateful if you .............. as soon as possible.
A) should have been / would have been replied B) shall have been / will have been replied C) am being / will reply D)
should be / would reply E) were / would reply
We .............. shopping again today if you had bought enough supplies yesterday.
A) were going B) didn't have to go C) are not going D) don't have to go E) wouldn't have to go
18. If he didn't gamble as much as he does, I'm sure he ............... quite rich by now.
A) would have been B) could be C) were D) would be E) cannot be
19. If it hadn't been for their help, we .............. here now.
A) aren't B) wouldn't have been C) weren't D) are E) wouldn't be
20. I .............. you provided that you promise to be more careful from now on.
A) 'll help B) had helped C) won't help D) wouldn't have helped E) helped
21. As everyone knows, she's a hopeless case. Always and ever. I should have married her if she ............... such a fool.
A) won't be B) weren't C) isn't D) is E) would be
22. If I had known about the cancellation beforehand, I ............... a ticket in the first place.
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A) had never bought B) would certainly not buy C) wouldn't have bought D) don't buy E) wouldn't buy
23. If I hadn't missed that plane, I ............... dead now.
A) would be B) will be C) am not D) would have been E) were not
24. ............... she to appear here suddenly, wouldn't you be greatly surprised?
A) Is B) If C) Will D) Was E) Were
25. Were you ............... on your own for this difficult mission, you should have had a perfect right to protest.
A) being sent B) to be sent C) sending D) to send E) to have been sent
Answer Key: 1: C 2: D 3: E 4: B 5: A 6: B 7: A 8: D 9: E 10: B 11: A 12: D 13: E 14: B 15: D 16: D 17: E 18: A 19: E 20: A 21: B
22: C 23: A 24: E 25: E Conditional Mood MCQ
CHAPTER #11: IDIOMS AND PHRASaL VERBS

1. Break the ice
Meaning: To get the conversation going. Provide a conversation prompt.
Example: Starting class with a joke or subjects students like will help to break the ice.
2. A dime a dozen
Meaning: Very common: quite ordinary
Example: I thought it was something special but it turns out they're a dime a dozen.
3. Beat around the bush
Meaning: To avoid saying something
Example: Don't beat around the bush. Just tell me what happened.
4. Back against the wall
Meaning: Forced to do something that you would rather not.
Example: I really don't want to do this but my back is against the wall.
5. Bite the bullet
Meaning: Doing something you don't want to but also expressing that you're making a proactive choice.
Example: I'm going to go ahead and bite the bullet rather than waiting around.
6. Wrap one's head around something
Meaning: To understand something that may take a bit of time and effort.
Example: That's really complicated. It's going to take a moment to wrap my head around that.
7. Under the weather
Meaning: Sick. Typically used to describe minor illnesses like a cold.
Example: Sorry I'm feeling a bit under the weather and won't be able to come in today.
8. Better late than never
Meaning: Describes things that are better done than not, even if it takes a long time.
Example: I went back to college at 30 years old and figured better late than never.
9. Cut corners
Meaning: To skip steps or not do things completely.
Example: This is an important project so don't cut any corners on this one.
10. Get out of hand
Meaning: When a situation gets out of control.
Example: I meant to just have a small party but too many people came and it quickly got out of hand.
11. A snowball effect
Meaning: Something that can continue to get more and more out of control
Example: I just invited a couple of people over but there was a bit of a snowball effect and now there's a giant party at
my house.
12. We'll cross that bridge when we get to it
Meaning: Let's avoid addressing the problem until later on.
Example: We won't find out until next month so we’ll cross that bridge when we get there.
13. To cut someone some slack
Meaning: To not manage someone very strictly or to not be critical.
Example: Cut me some slack. I'm trying.
14. To be hard on someone
Meaning: To criticize or to manage someone very strictly.
Example: You don't have to be so hard on your employees to be successful.
15. Get something out of one's system
Meaning: To do something you really want to and have been waiting to.
Example: I really want to go to karaoke, sing a few songs and just get it out of my system.
16. Burn bridges
Meaning: To do something or anger someone to where you cannot go back to how things were and cannot expect help
in the future.
Example: Don't burn bridges with your employer. You may need their help in the future.
17. Sell like hotcakes
Meaning: To sell very quickly or be in high demand.
Example: I didn't think my crafts would be that popular but they're selling like hotcakes.
18. Fish out of water
Meaning: To be in an unfamiliar or uncomfortable place.
Example: I don't want to change schools and be a fish out of water.
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19. Step up one’s game

Meaning: To work harder or perform better.
Example: You need to step up your game if you want a promotion this year.
20. Your guess is as good as mine
Meaning: I don't know either.
Example: I haven't found out anything so your guess is as good as mine.
21. Leave out in the cold
Meaning: To be ignored or not considered.
Example: Not being invited to any of the meetings lately has me feeling left out in the cold.
22. Keep an ear to the ground
Meaning: To listen for new information.
Example: I'll keep an ear to the ground for any updates on the project.
23. Up in arms
Meaning: To be angry or overreact.
Example: Don't get up in arms. I'm just telling you what happened.
24. Run around in circles
Meaning: To put effort into something while making little or no progress.
Example: My boss has me running around in circles with unnecessary tasks that aren't getting us anywhere.
25. Scrape the barrel
Meaning: To make choices you don't want to or normally wouldn't.
Example: They're not great but I was really scraping the barrel to find something.
26. Blessing in disguise
Meaning: Something that seems bad but provides some benefit.
Example: I hated that assignment but it was a blessing in disguise since it taught me things that I use for the job I have
now.
27. Having an Ace up the sleeve
Meaning: To have a hidden or untold advantage.
Example: I thought he was definitely going to lose but he had an ace up his sleeve and caught up in points.
28. Buy it
Meaning: To believe something.
Example: That guy told me he's related to the president but I don't buy it.
29. Hook line and sinker
Meaning: To be deceived completely.
Example: I told him that I would pay him $1,000,000 and he bought it hook line and sinker.
30. Piece of cake
Meaning: Very Easy.
Example: Winning the game is a piece of cake once you understand how to play.
31. Once in a blue moon
Meaning: Very rare.
Example: She doesn't like it here and only comes once in a blue moon.
32. On the line
Meaning: To risk something or have something at risk.
Example: I invested my life savings in this business and have everything on the line.
33. A quick buck
Meaning: An easy way to make money quickly.
Example: Translation work is kind of boring for me but it's a quick buck.
34. Sights set on | Set sights on
Meaning: To desire something or to make a goal.
Example: I have my sights set on going to France next year. | I set my sights on going to France next year.
35. Add fuel to the fire
Meaning: To make a situation worse.
Example: You should wait until later to say something. Sometimes arguing just adds fuel to the fire.
36. Bone to pick
Meaning: To be angry about something and want to discuss it.
Example: You might not think you did anything wrong but I have a bone to pick with you about that.
37. Go the extra mile
Meaning: To do extra work or put in extra effort.
Example: She went the extra mile and got our seats upgraded even though she didn’t have to.
38. Hang in there
Meaning: To not give up.
Example: I know things are hard but hang in there.
39. Down for the count
Meaning: To give up or not be able to keep going.
Example: I tried everything and it took so much out of me. I'm down for the count on this one.
40. Rest on your laurels
Meaning: To stop trying as hard because of your past achievements.
Example: The work still isn't finished and things are just going to get more difficult. This is no time to rest on your laurels.
41. Give it a whirl

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Meaning: To try something.

Example: I'm willing to give it a whirl even though I've never done it before.
42. It's not rocket science
Meaning: It's not as difficult as you might think.
Example: Of course, I figured it out. It's not rocket science.
43. Get bent out of shape
Meaning: To get upset at times when others don't think you should.
Example: Hey it's just a joke. Don't get bent out of shape.
44. Spill the beans
Meaning: To tell a secret.
Example: I already know you did it. Your best friend spilled the beans.
45. Sit on the fence
Meaning: To be undecided.
Example: I'm still sitting on the fence about whether I'm going to buy that car.
46. Don't cry over spilled milk/ No use in crying over spilled milk
Meaning: What has already happened cannot be undone so you shouldn't cry but you should think of what to do going
forward.
Example: I know it wasn't your fault but there's no use in crying over spilled milk. Think of what you're going to do next.
47. Fair and square
Meaning: To do things in a fair way with no advantages given to either side.
Example: No do-overs. I won fair and square.
48. Straight from the horse's mouth
Meaning: To hear information directly from the person involved.
Example: I already know the truth. I heard straight from the horse's mouth.
49. Bigger fish to fry
Meaning: There is something more important to take care of.
Example: I can't think about that right now. I have bigger fish to fry.
50. At face value
Meaning: As something seems or as one claims it to be.
Example: Don't take what he says at face value. He's been known to lie.
51. Read between the lines
Meaning: To look for the real meaning when something is said.
Example: I don't just listen to what people tell me. I know how to read between the lines.
52. Wild goose chase
Meaning: To waste time trying to do something you cannot.
Example: My mom sent me on a wild goose chase trying to find things that aren't available anywhere.
53. Call it a day
Meaning: To stop working.
Example: Hey let's go home. It's time to call it a day.
54. Chip off the old block
Meaning: To be similar to one's parents in one way or overall.
Example: She's a really higher achiever like her mom. A real chip off the old block.
55. The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree.
Meaning: Similar to one’s parents. This is used at the time when you observe that someone is doing something their
parents would.
Example: Of course, he got into Harvard. The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree.
56. In for a penny in for a pound
Meaning: To make sure a task is complete no matter what once someone has spent any effort or money towards the
goal.
Example: I'm in for a penny in for a pound on this one. I've already spent seven hours getting this project off the ground.
57. By the skin of one’s teeth
Meaning: To barely get something done.
Example: I passed that test by the skin of my teeth with a 61/100.
58. Draw the line
Meaning: To decide on a stopping past which you will not let something continue.
Example: I'm going to have to draw the line here. I can't do any more work until you pay your balance.
59. To not see/to lose the forest for the trees
Meaning: To fixate on trivial details to the point of ignoring the overall meaning or more important facts.
Example: Don't lose the forest for the trees here. The first few questions are only worth one point each so make sure you
leave enough time for the open-ended questions.
60. Penny wise and pound foolish
Meaning: To worry about or obsess over unimportant details while ignoring the important ones.
Example: He did every homework assignment but didn't submit his major project. Absolutely penny wise and pound
foolish.
61. Cry wolf
Meaning: To ask for help or attention by lying about a situation.
Example: If you keep crying wolf, nobody is going to help you when you really need it.
62. Play devil's advocate

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Meaning: To present the other side or both sides of an argument.

Example: I just need you to support me, not to keep trying to play devil's advocate.
63. On thin ice
Meaning: In a dangerous or risky situation with much margin for error.
Example: I used 9 out of my 10 absences so my teacher told me I'm on thin ice.
64. The best thing since sliced bread
Meaning: Really, really good.
Example: The iPhone was the best thing since sliced bread. It really changed the world.
65. Take it with a pinch of salt
Meaning: Don’t believe it to be 100% true.
Example: He lies a lot so take what he says with a pinch of salt.
66. The whole nine yards
Meaning: Everything to the greatest extent.
Example: I want everything on the menu. Appetizers, entrees, desserts, the whole nine yards.
67. Bite off more than you can chew
Meaning: To take on a task that is more difficult than you can handle.
Example: I regret agreeing to cook dinner for 100 people. I really bit off more than I could chew.
68. A second wind
Meaning: To have more energy or more appetite after being tired or full.
Example: I was completely full but once the dessert came, I had a second wind.
69. Play it by ear
Meaning: To improvise or wait for more information to come to a decision.
Example: I can't decide on what to do until I know what my manager's decision will be so I have to play it by ear.
70. Put something on ice
Meaning: To stop progress on something or put it on hold.
Example: Hey I need you to work on this project that's due today so you're going to have to put what you're doing on ice.
71. 24/7
Meaning: All the time, always. (24 hours a day, 7 days a week)
Example: I didn't invite him to my party because he's in medical school and studying 24/7.
72. Lose one's touch
Meaning: To not be as good at something as one used to be.
Example: It took me 10 tries to get a basket. I'm really losing my touch.
73. Sit tight
Meaning: Please wait patiently.
Example: Hey I still have a few tasks to do before I can head out to dinner so sit tight and I'll be there soon.
74. Twist my arm
Meaning: To convince someone with persistence.
Example: Alright I wasn't planning on buying a new car today but you twisted my arm. I'll take it.
75. Turn a deaf ear
Meaning: To ignore someone.
Example: I could really use some help but everyone around me has turned a deaf ear.
76. Hit the books
Meaning: To study (more often used to imply studying hard)
Example: Final exams are coming up and I need a high score to maintain my A. I'm going to hit the books hard today.
77. Cold turkey
Meaning: To quit suddenly rather than gradually.
Example: If I start playing video games at all, I won't stop for hours so I had to quit cold turkey.
78. Go down in flames
Meaning: To fail suddenly and severely.
Example: A couple of scandals after her debut caused her career to go down in flames.
79. Pitch in
Meaning: To put in effort or to make a contribution.
Example: It's a lot of work but if everyone pitches in, we'll be done in no time.
80. Cut to the chase
Meaning: To get directly to the point.
Example: I'm in a rush so I need you to cut to the chase and just tell me what the problem is.
81. Off the table
Meaning: Unavailable, the offer has been revoked.
Example: If your offer is still on the table, I'd like to accept the job.
82. Ship has sailed
Meaning: It is too late for the opportunity. You waited too long for the opportunity and it is no longer available.
Example: You waited too long and the job isn't available anymore. That ship has sailed so keep looking.
83. Blow off steam
Meaning: To do fun activities to help relieve stress.
Example: I had a long day at work and went to the batting cages to blow off some steam.
84. Come rain or shine
Meaning: No matter what.
Example: I promise, come rain or shine, I'll be at your graduation. You can count on it.

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85. See eye to eye

Meaning: To agree, compromise or understand the other person's perspective.
Example: It's been six weeks and they can't come to any agreement because they just can't see eye to eye.
86. Rings a bell
Meaning: Sounds familiar or reminds you of something.
Example: What you just said rings a bell. There's this thing I forgot to tell you earlier.
87. A class act
Meaning: Of great character or able to perform to high standards.
Example: He puts on a good show every time and then shakes hands and takes pictures with fans. He's a real class act.
88. Break the bank
Meaning: To be very expensive.
Example: I got the car I wanted but it really broke the bank.
89. Cost an arm and a leg
Meaning: To be very expensive. (Typically less used for items less expensive than ones that you would use "break the
bank" for).
Example: Replacing my broken car stereo cost me an arm and leg.
90. Face the music
Meaning: To accept reality.
Example: You failed every audition. It's time to face the music and accept that you're not a very good actor.
91. Darkest before the dawn
Meaning: Things will get better (Useful for when several bad things happen at once)
Example: I know that a lot of bad things happened to you this week but it's darkest before the dawn.
92. Through thick and thin
Meaning: Throughout good times and bad times.
Example: It doesn't matter if it's difficult or if bad things happen. I said I would help you through thick and thin.
93. Fortune favors the bold
Meaning: Taking a risk can pay off.
Example: There's only a 10% chance of success but the payout is 20 times higher if I win. You know what they say, fortune
favors the bold.
94. Don't put all your eggs in one basket
Meaning: You're taking too big of a risk or putting too much effort and resources into one risky option.
Example: I'm really glad that people like my art but I'm not going to make art full time. I don't want to put all my eggs in
one basket.
95. Throw caution to the wind
Meaning: To stop thinking about something and take the risk.
Example: My parents told me not to put all my eggs in one basket but I decided to throw caution to the wind and be a
full-time artist.
96. Look before you leap
Meaning: To think before you do something.
Example: The opportunity to move to another country is really exciting but I want you to look before you leap.
97. Jump on the bandwagon
Meaning: To follow a trend or not to do something until it's popular.
Example: She didn't care about K-pop before but now that it's popular, she's jumped on the bandwagon.
98. Pour one’s heart out
Meaning: To tell or confess something emotional.
Example: I don't like soap operas. They're so unrealistic with the way everyone pours their heart out about everything.
99. Right as rain
Meaning: There is nothing that can be improved.
Example: The dish was right as rain. I wouldn't change a thing about it.
100. Pull one's leg
Meaning: To lie.
Example: That doesn't sound right. Are you pulling my leg?
ask somebody out break up
invite on a date start laughing (informal)
Brian asked Judy out to dinner and a movie. The kids just broke up as soon as the clown started
ask around talking.
ask many people the same question break out
I asked around but nobody has seen my wallet. escape
add up to something The prisoners broke out of jail when the guards weren't
equal looking.
Your purchases add up to $205.32. break out in something
back something up develop a skin condition
reverse I broke out in a rash after our camping trip.
You'll have to back up your car so that I can get out. bring somebody down
back somebody up make unhappy
support This sad music is bringing me down.
My wife backed me up over my decision to quit my job.

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blow up bring somebody up

explode raise a child
The racing car blew up after it crashed into the fence. My grandparents brought me up after my parents died.
blow something up bring something up
add air start talking about a subject
We have to blow 50 balloons up for the party. My mother walks out of the room when my father brings
break down up sports.
stop functioning (vehicle, machine) bring something up
Our car broke down at the side of the highway in the vomit
snowstorm. He drank so much that he brought his dinner up in the
break down toilet.
get upset call around
The woman broke down when the police told her that phone many different places/people
her son had died. We called around but we weren't able to find the car
break something down part we needed.
divide into smaller parts call somebody back
Our teacher broke the final project down into three return a phone call
separate parts. I called the company back but the offices were closed for
break in the weekend.
force entry to a building call something off
Somebody broke in last night and stole our stereo. cancel
break into something Jason called the wedding off because he wasn't in love
enter forcibly with his fiancé.
The firemen had to break into the room to rescue the call on somebody
children. ask for an answer or opinion
break something in The professor called on me for question 1.
wear something a few times so that it doesn't look/feel call on somebody
new visit somebody
I need to break these shoes in before we run next week. We called on you last night but you weren't home.
break in call somebody up
interrupt phone
The TV station broke in to report the news of the Give me your phone number and I will call you up when
president's death. we are in town.
break up calm down
end a relationship relax after being angry
My boyfriend and I broke up before I moved to America. You are still mad. You need to calm down before you
clean something up drive the car.
tidy, clean not care for somebody/ something
Please clean up your bedroom before you go outside. not like (formal)
come across something I don't care for his behaviour.
find unexpectedly catch up
I came across these old photos when I was tidying the get to the same point as somebody else
closet. You'll have to run faster than that if you want to catch
come apart up with Marty.
separate check in
The top and bottom come apart if you pull hard enough. arrive and register at a hotel or airport
come down with something We will get the hotel keys when we check in.
become sick check out
My nephew came down with chicken pox this weekend. leave a hotel
come forward You have to check out of the hotel before 11:00 AM.
volunteer for a task or to give evidence check somebody/ something out
The woman came forward with her husband's finger look at carefully, investigate
prints. The company checks out all new employees.
come from some place check out somebody/ something
originate in look at (informal)
The art of origami comes from Asia. Check out the crazy hair on that guy!
count on somebody/ something cheer up
rely on become happier
I am counting on you to make dinner while I am out. She cheered up when she heard the good news.
cross something out cheer somebody up
draw a line through make happier
Please cross out your old address and write your new I brought you some flowers to cheer you up.
one. chip in
cut back on something help
consume less If everyone chips in we can get the kitchen painted by
My doctor wants me to cut back on sweets and fatty noon.
foods.

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cut something down eat out

make something fall to the ground eat at a restaurant
We had to cut the old tree in our yard down after the I don't feel like cooking tonight. Let's eat out.
storm. end up
cut in eventually reach/do/decide
interrupt We ended up renting a movie instead of going to the
Your father cut in while I was dancing with your uncle. theatre.
cut in fall apart
pull in too closely in front of another vehicle break into pieces
The bus driver got angry when that car cut in. My new dress fell apart in the washing machine.
cut in fall down
start operating (of an engine or electrical device) fall to the ground
The air conditioner cuts in when the temperature gets to The picture that you hung up last night fell down this
22°C. morning.
cut something off fall out
remove with something sharp separate from an interior
The doctors cut off his leg because it was severely The money must have fallen out of my pocket.
injured. fall out
cut something off (of hair, teeth) become loose and unattached
stop providing His hair started to fall out when he was only 35.
The phone company cut off our phone because we didn't figure something out
pay the bill. understand, find the answer
cut somebody off I need to figure out how to fit the piano and the
take out of a will bookshelf in this room.
My grandparents cut my father off when he remarried. fill something in
cut something out to write information in blanks, as on a form
remove part of something (usually with scissors and Please fill in the form with your name, address, and
paper) phone number.
I cut this ad out of the newspaper. fill something out
do somebody/ something over to write information in blanks, as on a form
beat up, ransack , informal) The form must be filled out in capital letters.
He's lucky to be alive. His shop was done over by a street fill something up
gang. fill to the top
do something over I always fill the water jug up when it is empty.
do again find out
My teacher wants me to do my essay over because she discover
doesn't like my topic. We don't know where he lives. How can we find out?
do away with something find something out
discard discover
It's time to do away with all of these old tax records. We tried to keep the time of the party a secret, but
do something up Samantha found it out.
fasten, close get something across/ over
Do your coat up before you go outside. It's snowing! communicate, make understandable
dress up I tried to get my point across/over to the judge but she
wear nice clothing wouldn't listen.
It's a fancy restaurant so we have to dress up. get along/on
drop back like each other
move back in a position/group I was surprised how well my new girlfriend and my
Andrea dropped back to third place when she fell off her sister got along/on.
bike. get around
drop in/ by/ over have mobility
come without an appointment My grandfather can get around fine in his new
I might drop in/by/over for tea sometime this week. wheelchair.
drop somebody/ something off get away
take somebody/ something somewhere and leave go on a vacation
them/it there We worked so hard this year that we had to get away for
I have to drop my sister off at work before I come over. a week.
drop out get away with something
quit a class, school etc do without being noticed or punished
I dropped out of Science because it was too difficult. Jason always gets away with cheating in his maths tests.
hang out get back
spend time relaxing (informal) return
Instead of going to the party we are just going to hang We got back from our vacation last week.
out at my place. get something back
hang up receive something you had before
end a phone call Liz finally got her Science notes back from my
He didn't say goodbye before he hung up. roommate.

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hold somebody/ something back get back at somebody

prevent from doing/going retaliate, take revenge
I had to hold my dog back because there was a cat in the My sister got back at me for stealing her shoes. She stole
park. my favourite hat.
hold something back get back into something
hide an emotion become interested in something again
Jamie held back his tears at his grandfather's funeral. I finally got back into my novel and finished it.
hold on get on something
wait a short time step onto a vehicle
Please hold on while I transfer you to the Sales We're going to freeze out here if you don't let us get
Department. on the bus.
hold onto somebody/ something get over something
hold firmly using your hands or arms recover from an illness, loss, difficulty
Hold onto your hat because it's very windy outside. I just got over the flu and now my sister has it.
hold somebody/ something up get over something
rob overcome a problem
A man in a black mask held the bank up this morning. The company will have to close if it can't get over the
keep on doing something new regulations.
continue doing get round to something
Keep on stirring until the liquid comes to a boil. finally find time to do (AmE: get around to something)
keep something from somebody I don't know when I am going to get round to writing the
not tell thank you cards.
We kept our relationship from our parents for two years. get together
keep somebody/ something out meet (usually for social reasons)
stop from entering Let's get together for a BBQ this weekend.
Try to keep the wet dog out of the living room. get up
keep something up get out of bed
continue at the same rate I got up early today to study for my exam.
If you keep those results up you will get into a great get up
college. stand
let somebody down You should get up and give the elderly man your seat.
fail to support or help, disappoint give somebody away
I need you to be on time. Don't let me down this time. reveal hidden information about somebody
let somebody in His wife gave him away to the police.
allow to enter give somebody away
Can you let the cat in before you go to school? take the bride to the altar
log in (or on) My father gave me away at my wedding.
sign in (to a website, database etc) give something away
I can't log in to Facebook because I've forgotten my ruin a secret
password. My little sister gave the surprise party away by accident.
log out (or off) give something away
sign out (of a website, database etc) give something to somebody for free
If you don't log off somebody could get into your The library was giving away old books on Friday.
account. give something back
look after somebody/ something return a borrowed item
take care of I have to give these skates back to Franz before his
I have to look after my sick grandmother. hockey game.
look down on somebody give in
think less of, consider inferior reluctantly stop fighting or arguing
Ever since we stole that chocolate bar your dad My boyfriend didn't want to go to the ballet, but he
has looked down on me. finally gave in.
look for somebody/ something give something out
try to find give to many people (usually at no cost)
I'm looking for a red dress for the wedding. They were giving out free perfume samples at the
look forward to something department store.
be excited about the future give something up
I'm looking forward to the Christmas break. quit a habit
look into something I am giving up smoking as of January 1st.
investigate give up
We are going to look into the price of snowboards today. stop trying
look out My maths homework was too difficult so I gave up.
be careful, vigilant, and take notice go after somebody
Look out! That car's going to hit you! follow somebody
look out for somebody/ something My brother tried to go after the thief in his car.
be especially vigilant for go after something
Don't forget to look out for snakes on the hiking trail. try to achieve something
I went after my dream and now I am a published writer.

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look something over go against somebody

check, examine compete, oppose
Can you look over my essay for spelling mistakes? We are going against the best soccer team in the city
look something up tonight.
search and find information in a reference book or go ahead
database start, proceed
We can look her phone number up on the Internet. Please go ahead and eat before the food gets cold.
look up to somebody go back
have a lot of respect for return to a place
My little sister has always looked up to me. I have to go back home and get my lunch.
make something up go out
invent, lie about something leave home to go on a social event
Josie made up a story about why we were late. We're going out for dinner tonight.
make up go out with somebody
forgive each other date
We were angry last night, but we made up at breakfast. Jesse has been going out with Luke since they met last
make somebody up winter.
apply cosmetics to go over something
My sisters made me up for my graduation party. review
mix something up Please go over your answers before you submit your
confuse two or more things test.
I mixed up the twins' names again! go over
pass away visit somebody nearby
die I haven't seen Tina for a long time. I think I'll go over for
His uncle passed away last night after a long illness. an hour or two.
pass out go without something
faint suffer lack or deprivation
It was so hot in the church that an elderly lady passed When I was young, we went without winter boots.
out. grow apart
pass something out stop being friends over time
give the same thing to many people My best friend and I grew apart after she changed
The professor passed the textbooks out before class. schools.
pass something up grow back
decline (usually something good) regrow
I passed up the job because I am afraid of change. My roses grew back this summer.
pay somebody back grow into something
return owed money grow big enough to fit
Thanks for buying my ticket. I'll pay you back on Friday. This bike is too big for him now, but he should grow
pay for something into it by next year.
be punished for doing something bad grow out of something
That bully will pay for being mean to my little brother. get too big for
pick something out Elizabeth needs a new pair of shoes because she
choose has grown out of her old ones.
I picked out three sweaters for you to try on. grow up
point somebody/ something out become an adult
indicate with your finger When Jack grows up he wants to be a fireman.
I'll point my boyfriend out when he runs by. hand something down
put something down give something used to somebody else
put what you are holding on a surface or floor I handed my old comic books down to my little cousin.
You can put the groceries down on the kitchen counter. hand something in
put somebody down submit
insult, make somebody feel stupid I have to hand in my essay by Friday.
The students put the substitute teacher down because hand something out
his pants were too short. to distribute to a group of people
put something off We will hand out the invitations at the door.
postpone hand something over
We are putting off our trip until January because of the give (usually unwillingly)
hurricane. The police asked the man to hand over his wallet and his
put something out weapons.
extinguish hang in
The neighbours put the fire out before the firemen stay positive (informal)
arrived. Hang in there. I'm sure you'll find a job very soon.
put something together hang on
assemble wait a short time (informal)
I have to put the crib together before the baby arrives. Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes!
put up with somebody/ something show off
tolerate act extra special for people watching (usually boastfully)
He always shows off on his skateboard

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I don't think I can put up with three small children in the sleep over
car. stay somewhere for the night (informal)
put something on You should sleep over tonight if the weather is too bad
put clothing/ accessories on your body to drive home.
Don't forget to put on your new earrings for the party. sort something out
run into somebody/ something organize, resolve a problem
meet unexpectedly We need to sort the bills out before the first of the
I ran into an old school-friend at the mall. month.
run over somebody/ something stick to something
drive a vehicle over a person or thing continue doing something, limit yourself to one
I accidentally ran over your bicycle in the driveway. particular thing
run over/ through something You will lose weight if you stick to the diet.
rehearse, review switch something off
Let's run over/through these lines one more time before stop the energy flow, turn off
the show. The light's too bright. Could you switch it off.
run away switch something on
leave unexpectedly, escape start the energy flow, turn on
The child ran away from home and has been missing for We heard the news as soon as we switched on the car
three days. radio.
run out take after somebody
have none left resemble a family member
We ran out of shampoo so I had to wash my hair with I take after my mother. We are both impatient.
soap. take something apart
send something back purposely break into pieces
return (usually by mail) He took the car brakes apart and found the problem.
My letter got sent back to me because I used the wrong take something back
stamp. return an item
set something up I have to take our new TV back because it doesn't work.
arrange, organize take off
Our boss set a meeting up with the president of the start to fly
company. My plane takes off in five minutes.
set somebody up take something off
trick, trap remove something (usually clothing)
The police set up the car thief by using a hidden camera. Take off your socks and shoes and come in the lake!
shop around take something out
compare prices remove from a place or thing
I want to shop around a little before I decide on these Can you take the garbage out to the street for me?
boots. take somebody out
try something on pay for somebody to go somewhere with you
sample clothing My grandparents took us out for dinner and a movie.
I'm going to try these jeans on, but I don't think they will tear something up
fit. rip into pieces
try something out I tore up my ex-boyfriend's letters and gave them back
test to him.
I am going to try this new brand of detergent out. think back
use something up remember (often + to, sometimes + on)
finish the supply When I think back on my youth, I wish I had studied
The kids used all of the toothpaste up so we need to buy harder.
some more. think something over
wake up consider
stop sleeping I'll have to think this job offer over before I make my
We have to wake up early for work on Monday. final decision.
warm somebody/ something up throw something away
increase the temperature dispose of
You can warm your feet up in front of the fireplace. We threw our old furniture away when we won the
warm up lottery.
prepare body for exercise turn something down
I always warm up by doing sit-ups before I go for a run. decrease the volume or strength (heat, light etc)
wear off Please turn the TV down while the guests are here.
fade away turn something down
Most of my make-up wore off before I got to the party. refuse
work out I turned the job down because I don't want to move.
exercise turn something off
I work out at the gym three times a week. stop the energy flow, switch off
work out Your mother wants you to turn the TV off and come for
be successful dinner.
Our plan worked out fine.

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work something out turn something on

make a calculation start the energy, switch on
We have to work out the total cost before we buy the It's too dark in here. Let's turn some lights on.
house. turn something up
increase the volume or strength (heat, light etc.)
Can you turn the music up? This is my favorite song.
turn up
appear suddenly
Our cat turned up after we put posters up all over the
neighborhood.
CHAPTER #12: transitional phrases

Transition Words Exercises
Exercise 1:
Read the sentence carefully and select the correct answer choice.
1. We have a mouse in the house. Unfortunately/Therefore, we should get a cat.
2. Megan got into a car accident. Furthermore/As a result, her insurance rate increased.
3. Michael is very athletic and plays on the school basketball team. However/In addition, his brother just stays at home
and plays video games all day.
4. There are many occupations today. Such as/For Example, you can become a doctor, engineer, teacher, artist, athlete,
musician, or chef, just to name a few.
5. The US government has been spending its money recklessly for too long. Furthermore/As a result, the plans that
Congress proposes are destined to put the nation at great economic risk in the future.
6. Getting a college degree is important. In conclusion/More importantly, building a good network of friends is crucial to
future success.
7. Hawaii is a beautiful place to live. In addition/On the contrary, Siberia is a very inhospitable location.
8. Eating well will help you live a healthier life. Moreover/As a result, exercising every day is also highly recommended.
9. Do you enjoy completing these grammar exercises? Then/Yet, you should be able to improve your writing skills in no
time!
10. Without getting a college degree, it will be difficult to get a job. Moreover/However, some will say, “It’s not what you
know, but who you know.”
11. The economy looks like it is improving. Therefore/However, with unemployment still very high, we are far from passing
through the recession.
12. Dr. Xavier gave his patients other forms of medical treatment. In addition/On the contrary, Dr. Magneto’s patients
only took sugar pills. As a result, Dr. Xavier’s patients healed more quickly than Dr. Magneto’s patients.
13. First, the author assumes that the two groups from these studies are the same group of people. Therefore/However,
considering these kinds of studies are based on random sampling, the first group may not be the same people who
responded in the second study.
14. Studies have proven that not only wine but also a beer can be good for your health. Therefore/However, only one
drink a day will have helpful benefits. Beyond that, drinking will cause more problems.
15. Getting a degree from law school is a great accomplishment. However/In addition, it does not guarantee that one will
have a job after graduation.
16. The Catholic Church has faced many struggles. However/In addition, child molestation may be the biggest challenge
the Pope and the clergy must resolve in recent times.
17. Moving from one country to another can result in culture shock. However/In addition, the language barrier that many
immigrants face can lead to a long life of hardship.
18. The author’s assumption that men are inferior to women is severely lacking. More importantly/However, she does
bring up a valid point that men are unable to give birth to
babies.
19. Lowering the national deficit would bring many positive benefits. However/For example, banks would have more
money to loan small business owners that could potentially
stimulate the economy.
20. A cease-fire between North and South Korea has been in effect for 50 years. However/Furthermore, without a peace
treaty, the potential for another war is always
there.
Exercise 2:
Insert the best alternative
Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century. ________________ , there are even members
of his own party who are uneasy with his approach.
a-In particular b-However c-For instance
There are some slight variations in temperature. ________________ , 26 to 27ºC should be expected.
a-consequently a-consequently a-consequently
The two main Channel Islands; _______________ _, Jersey, and Guernsey are much closer to France than to England.
a-for example a-for example a-for example
It was announced that nurses’ working hours would be increased by 25%. ______________ , even fewer trainee nurses
are expected to join the profession.
a- As a result a- As a result a- As a result

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Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months. _____________ , vinyl records have seen
an increase in their share of the market, up to 1.7%.
a- Above all a- Above all a- Above all
The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and because of unexpected bad debts, it would
be necessary to peg salary levels at their current level for all grades of staff. ______________ , no-one was getting a pay
rise.
a- Nevertheless a- Nevertheless a- Nevertheless
It is clear that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly. ______________ , the economic problems being experienced
in Japan, the outlook is slightly more optimistic.
a-Furthermore a-Furthermore a-Furthermore
In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has announced new restrictions on company parking
spaces and ______________ a new tax on individual car use.
a- as well as a- as well as a- as well as
Essays must be handed in by the deadline. ______________ ,they will not be marked.
a- obviously a- obviously a- obviously
______________ it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively low pressures, the use of the material
should not be completely discounted.
a- Nevertheless a- Nevertheless a- Nevertheless
Answers
Exercise 1. 1. Therefore 2. As a result 3. However 4. For example 5. Furthermore 6. More importantly 7. On the contrary
8. Moreover 9. Then 10. However 11. However 12. On the contrary 13. However 14. However 15. However 16. In addition
17. In addition 18. However 19. For example 20. furthermore
Exercise 2.
1..However. 2. Consequently 3. Namely 4. As a result 5. In contrast 6. Nevertheless 7. In comparison 8. In the same way 9.
Otherwise 10. Even though
Practice Transition Words with a Comparative Essay
Choose from: also, although, because, but, even, first, however, in addition, moreover, similarly
_________ online learning has both advantages and disadvantages, the benefits far outweigh the drawbacks. __________
most of the disadvantages can be reduced through careful planning. The _________ and perhaps most obvious
disadvantage of online classes is the lack of face-to-face interaction. Teachers cannot gauge their students’ nonverbal
reactions. _____________, students miss the teacher’s non-verbal cues: tone of voice, pauses, and gestures. They cannot
spontaneously ask a question or volunteer an answer. They __________ have less opportunity to get acquainted with
their fellow students. To make up for these disadvantages, teachers can post videos online so students can see and hear
them almost as clearly as in a large class. They can also plan webinars in which students can ask questions and get answers
in real-time, either by phone, Skype, or online chat. Lack of student interaction can be reduced by incorporating
opportunities for students to introduce themselves and socialize (including through icebreaker-type games) into the class
schedule. Students can work on projects together or organize study groups via Skype, chat, or instant messaging. The
greatest advantage of online learning is its great expansion of opportunities to many whose access to traditional education
was very limited due to geography, income, or various disabilities. Online learning is accessible to anyone who has or can
get the use of a computer, anywhere in the world. It enables major reductions in school expenses for overhead (buildings
and utilities), as well as student expenses for transportation, texts, and sometimes living costs. __________ computers
can accommodate physical limitations with text to speech, enlargeable print, foot or mouth-operated controls and other
adaptations, many students with disabilities have much better access to information than in traditional classrooms.
____________, slower students or language learners who need to hear material more than once can read or listen
repeatedly and learn at their own pace. The disadvantages of online learning can be reduced,________ its benefits are
increasing with each new technology. ___________, online learning does not need to be either-or. In many cases it can
be combined with traditional classroom learning to get the best of both worlds. Traditional classrooms can use online
components like flipped learning to make the best use of teacher time. Online classes serving a small geographic area can
begin with an orientation on campus so students and teachers can meet and interact face to face.__________ in
international classes, groups of students in the same area can meet and socialize. The possibilities are limited only by
eacher and student imagination.
Answers
Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Learning
Choose from: also, although, because, but, even, first, however, in addition, moreover, similarly
Although online learning has both advantages and disadvantages, the benefits far outweigh the drawbacks. In addition,
[or Moreover,] most of the disadvantages can be reduced through careful planning. The first and perhaps most obvious
disadvantage of online classes is the lack of face-to-face interaction. Teachers cannot gauge their students’ nonverbal
reactions. Moreover, Similarly, or In addition], students miss the teacher’s non-verbal cues: tone of voice, pauses, and
gestures. They cannot spontaneously ask a question or volunteer an answer. They also have less opportunity to get
acquainted with their fellow students. To make up for these disadvantages, teachers can post videos online so students
can see and hear them almost as clearly as in a large class. They can also plan webinars in which students can ask questions
and get answers in real-time, either by phone, Skype, or online chat. Lack of student interaction can be reduced by
incorporating opportunities for students to introduce themselves and socialize (including through icebreaker-type games)
into the class schedule. Students can work on projects together or organize study groups via Skype, chat, or instant
messaging. The greatest advantage of online learning is its great expansion of opportunities to many whose access to
traditional education was very limited due to geography, income, or various disabilities. Online learning is accessible to
anyone who has or can get the use of a computer, anywhere in the world. It enables major reductions in school expenses
for overhead (buildings and utilities), as well as student expenses for transportation, texts, and sometimes living costs.

Page 82 of 83
Because computers can accommodate physical limitations with text to speech, enlargeable print, foot or mouth-operated
controls and other adaptations, many students with disabilities have much better access to information than in traditional
classrooms. Moreover, [in addition, similarly] slower students or language learners who need to hear material more than
once can read or listen repeatedly and learn at their own pace. The disadvantages of online learning can be reduced, but
its benefits are increasing with each new technology. However, online learning does not need to be either-or. In many
cases it can be combined with traditional classroom learning to get the best of both worlds. Traditional classrooms can
use online components like flipped learning to make the best use of teacher time. Online classes serving a fairly small
geographic area can begin with an orientation on campus so students and teachers can meet and interact face to face.
Even in international classes, groups of students in the same area can meet and socialize. The possibilities are limited only
by teacher and student imagination
Solved passages
Fill in the blanks with the most suitable transitions from the list. Use each transition only once unless instructed
otherwise.
I. Thus This Then First Second For example A further They The final Indeed Finally Rather
A child may leave home for a number of reasons, but three seem to be more common than any others. 1- First, a
child may leave home because of lack of parental affection, which can leave the child with emotional scars. When
parents are cold and uncaring, a child senses 2- this and feels that s/he does not belong in the home. The child
will 3- then/thus leave, seeking a home where s/he at least feel s wanted and a part of a family. 4- Second, when
a child feels that s/he is not given just recognition as a person and as an individual, s/he may feel frustrated
enough to leave home-especially if he parents do not stop what they are doing long enough to really listen to
him/her or at least to respect some of the child’s opinions. 5- Finally, severe punishment by a child’s parents,
which does not suit the child’s misconduct, may cause him/her to leave home. 6- Indeed, severe punishment is
child abuse, and a child will normally feel that s/he is not safe in such a home. 7- Thus/Then, for his/her own
protection and for affection s/he may leave home.
II. When At the beginning Eventually However First X 2 Then X 2 At the end And For instance
“El Norte” is an excellent and disturbing film about two immigrants to the United States. 1- At the beginning of
the film, we meet a family in Guatemala – mother, father, son and daughter. 2- When the father is killed and the
mother is taken to the prison, the son and the daughter decide to go to “El Norte” – the United Statesby way of
Mexico. 3- At first, they have trouble finding someone to take them across the Mexican border, but 4- then, they
find a way across and end up in Los Angeles. 5- However, life in the U.S. is not as easy as they thought it would
be. 6- First, they have to find housing, 7- then, they need to learn English 8- and get jobs. 9- Eventually, they
succeed in accomplishing these three goals and life looks pretty good for them. Unfortunately, 10- at the end of
the film, tragedy strikes and we are left wondering if “El Norte” really is the land of opportunity after all.
III. Animals use various means to protect themselves. Color is one that is widely used as a protective device. For
instance, some birds display brightly colored feathers 1- when/whenever they are threatened. These are designed
to frighten away the enemy. 2-In addition to color, some animals emit a peculiar smell for the same purpose. 3-
Besides, form may be used to conceal the animal. Some insects, 4-for example, conceal themselves by making
themselves resemble plants of flowers. In this way, 5- they are hardly visible because they can merge into their
surroundings. Other animals adopt regular patterns of behavior 6-whenever/when they are frightened. Some
pretend to be dead 7- whereas others just come forward and stand still.
IV. Though eating disorders produce physical damage to the body, they are not 1- in fact physical illnesses. 2- Rather,
they are mental issues that develop more frequently among females but do affect the male population as well.
Anorexia nervosa, one of the most common eating disorders, is characterized by extremely low body weight and
a distorted self-body image accompanied by an intense fear of gaining weight. Extreme exercising is 3- also
commonly associated with anorexia and is believed to be its direct consequence. Anorexics may allow themselves
anywhere from 100 to 1000 calories a day. It is not food that turns them off 4- but the concern with gaining
weight. Food, in fact, may be on their mind constantly. There are several cases where people suffering from
anorexia nervosa developed a severe obsession for cooking 5- even though they never tasted anything of what
they prepared. Anorexia nervosa is considered to be a serious mental health disorder which is characterized by
an exaggerated concern with the appearance of the body. It can be considered a disorder of beauty 6- since the
sufferer believes, despite all the evidence to the contrary, that he or she is too fat and, 7- therefore, unattractive.
The anorexic wishes to be thinner, and the idea of being overweight appears to be a nightmare.
V. 1- Although we have scientific evidence that women should not smoke when they are pregnant, many future
mothers ignore this danger. These mothers endanger the physical health of their babies. 2- Also, they could be
contributing to even more problems in the future. 3- In addition to the known problems, recent studies have
linked mothers’ smoking during their pregnancy with sons who go on to become criminals. Researchers in Finland
followed over 5000 males and their mothers from the time the mothers were six months pregnant until the young
men were 28 years old. 4- Compared to sons whose mothers did not smoke during pregnancy, those young men
whose birth mothers did smoke were more than twice as likely to commit criminal acts. The researchers theorized
that smoking during pregnancy may alter the chemical balance in the baby’s brain. This recent information, added
to the body of evidence available for years, should be a warning to pregnant women to give up smoking.
VI. If you lead a busy life, you are probably not getting enough vitamin C. Given the choice, most of us would rather
relax with a cup of coffee, instead of peeling an orange. 1- However, the cold and flu season is not over yet.
Especially at this time of the year, vitamin C is not just a necessity, but essential for helping maintain the immune
system. 2- Despite the experts’ acknowledgement that there is no real substitute for real fruit, our company
discovered a new way to maximize the benefits of taking a daily dose of vitamin C. Redaxon makes this possible
with a capsule. 3- While an orange a day may give the body a sudden burst of vitamin C, the effects do not last
long- no matter how it is consumed. Vitamin C cannot be stored in the body for a long period of time 4- because

Page 83 of 83
of its solubility in water. So, how does Redaxon Slow Release work? Each capsule contains hundreds of coated
pellets made up of Vitamin C. These pellets dissolve safely and gradually into your system; 5-therefore, they
provide a continuous and steady source of vitamin C over a period of eight hours. This will help you to maintain
the body’s natural defenses and resistance to infection.
VII. Have you ever wondered how those big ocean storms called hurricanes or typhoons get their names? Who
decides to name a hurricane “Ann” or “Barbara” or “Bill”? The way hurricanes and typhoons are named has
changed over the years. At first, whether forecasters described them by their positions in degrees of latitude or
longitude. 1- For example, a typhoon used to be called “21.20 north, 157, 52 west”. 2- However, this method was
confusing because storms don’t stay in the same place; 3- Therefore, people developed other ways to identify
them. In the 60s, a weather forecaster in Australia used to name typhoons after politicians whom he disliked. For
example, he could make weather forecasts such as “Typhoon Smith is on a very destructive path”. 4- Although
this caused criticism among the public, this trend continued to exist for quite a long time. Later, during World
War I, women’s names began to be used like “Hurricane Betsy” or “Typhoon Alice”. 5- On the contrary, during
World War II, men’s names became popular; a storm could be named “Fred” or “George”. In short, we can say
that the way hurricanes and typhoons are named has changed over the years and will undoubtedly change again.
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ENGLISH

 DETAILED STUDY OF ALL PARTS OF SPEECH

 COMPLETE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

 ALL TENSES WITH VOICE AND NARRATION

 FICTION (DRAMA, PLAY, NOVEL.)

Compiled by | RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN | 03315536510

4 CORRECTION RULES 100 RULES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 26

9 CREATIVE WRITING 1) E-MAIL 51

10 EXERCISE SLO BASED MCQs for GRAMMAR 54

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

CHAPTER #01: PARTS OF SPEECH

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

Which Which Whose Whichever ---- (for things)

That That ---- (for both things and people)

Who Whom Whose Whoever/whomever/whosever ---- (for person)

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

o A person who loves nature is a good person.

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

Comparative degree: He is better than any other boy.

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

I love to do the chords. I'm loving to do the chords.

He does not hate you. He's hating you.

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

For of up off from out

With during down below beside over

By near behind inside among along

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

o Rina is both the CEO and Managing Director of the company.

Reason Relativity Opinion

Similarly But Lately Undoubtedly

To summarize To exemplify Effect Sequence

Briefly For example Accordingly First

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

o I'm doing fine, but I have my own struggles.

Phew Wow Oh Blah

Huh Aw God Oops

Hurray Yuck Gee Ugh

Ouch Alas Geez Meh

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

o Goodness! How did you go through all these books in a day?

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

o The honest are respected. (The + adjectives = plural noun)

CHAPTER #02: sentence types & kinds

Structurally, sentences are of four types:

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

o If you do well in the exams, I’ll buy you a gift.

If + subject + simple present tense + subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form. . .

For Habitual Conditions

If + subject + simple present tense + subject + simple present tense. . .

If + subject + simple present tense + command form (simple present) . . . . .

The unreal conditionals

If + subject + simple past tense + subject + would/could/might + verb in base form. . .

For Past Conditions

RAO MUHAMMAD IMRAN LECTURER IN ENGLISH ICB G-6/3 ISLAMABAD

CHAPTER #03: cluases & phrases