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Unit-1
Introduction to Computer
Basic Introduction
• Computer
A Computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results.

• Digital Computer
A Digital Computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information is represented
using the digits 0s and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and offices are digital computers.

• Analog Computer
Analog Computer is another kind of a computer that represents data as variable across a continuous
range of values. The earliest computers were Analog computers. They are used for measuring of
parameters that vary continuously in real time, such as temperature, pressure and voltage.

Characteristics of Computer
• Speed
The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per second. Some
calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can be completed in a
few seconds using the computer.

• Accuracy
Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can accurately give the
result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.

• Diligence
When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It can perform
long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.

• Storage Capability
Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also retrieved whenever
required.

• Versatility
Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the same ease.

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History of Computer
Machine Name Purpose Year
ABACUS Counting of large numbers Ancient Time
Napier’s Bones Multiplication 1617 AD
Slide Rule Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division 1620-1630
Pascal’s Adding & Subtracting Machine Addition, Subtraction 1642
Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Multiplication, Division 1673
Machine
Punch Card System Data processing 1801
Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine Complex mathematical calculations 1823
Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Electronically processing information read Late 1880s
Machine from a punched card.

Generations of Computer
Generation 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation 5th Generation
Characteristics (1940-1956) (1956-1963) (1964-1971) (1971 to Present) (Present &
Future)
Artificial
Integrated
Hardware Vacuum Tube Transistor Mirco processor Intelligence
Circuit
Based
High Level
High Level
Language,
Machine Assembly Language, Natural
Software Operating System,
Language Language Operating Language
Graphical User
System
Interface
Main Memory Magnetic Tapes Magnetic Disk Magnetic Core RAM, ROM, HDD Very Large
Monitor, Monitor,
Magnetic Monitor, Keyboard, Keyboard,
Paper Tape &
I/O Device Tapes & Keyboard, Printer, Pointing Printer,
Punched Cards
Punched Cards Printer Devices, Optical Touchscreen,
Scanning Speech Input
Computing Very less than
Milliseconds Microseconds Nanoseconds Picoseconds
Speed previous gen.
Very Large Smaller than
Appearance Smaller Handheld Very Small
(Room sized) previous gen.
Scientific
Commercial &
Application Scientific Commercial Public Use Commercial
Personal
Personal
UNIVAC PDP-8 Desktop
IBM 370 IBM PC
Example ENIAC IBM 1401 Laptop
PDP 11 Apple Macintosh
EDVAC CDC 1604 Smartphone

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Classification of Computer
Classification of Computers on the basis of Size:-
• Microcomputers
Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU, input unit,
output unit, storage unit and the software. It includes desktop computers, notebook computers or
laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones etc.

• Minicomputers
Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They have high
processing speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers. It can support 4–200 users
simultaneously. The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or terminal. They are used
for real-time applications in industries, research centres etc.

• Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high-performance computers. They
operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the workload of many
users. They are large and powerful systems generally used in centralized databases. They are used in
organizations like banks or companies, where many people require frequent access to the same data.

• Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high processing speed
compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS
(FLoating point Operations Per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers can perform trillions of
calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands of processors that
can work in parallel.

Classification of Computers on the basis of Functionality:-

• Servers
Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer some services to the clients.

• Workstation
Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by single user at a time. They run multi-
user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for our day to day personal / commercial
work.

• Information Appliances
They are the portable devices which are designed to perform a limited set of tasks like basic
calculations, playing multimedia, browsing internet etc.

• Embedded Computers
They are the computing devices which are used in other machines to serve limited set of
requirements. They follow instructions from the non-volatile memory and they are not required to
execute reboot or reset. The processing units used in such device work to those basic requirements
only and are different from the ones that are used in personal computers- better known as
workstations.

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The Computer System

Computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes the input data by performing
mathematical and logical operations on it, and gives the desired output. The computer system consists of
four parts, Hardware, Software, Data, and Users.

The Input-Process-Output Concept

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes data, generates output, and stores data. The
concept of generating output information from the input data is also referred to as Input-Process-Output
Concept.

Data and Input Output

C.P.U. Information
Programs Devices Devices

Storage
Devices

• Input
The computer accepts raw input data from the user via an input device like keyboard. The input data
can be characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.

• Processing
The computer processes the input data. For this, it performs some actions on the data by using the
instructions or program given by the user of the data. During processing, the data, instructions and
the output are stored temporarily in the computer’s main memory.

• Output
The output is the result generated after the processing of data. The output may be in the form of
text, sound, image, document, etc. The computer may display the output on a monitor, send output
to the printer for printing, play the output, etc.

• Storage
The input data, instructions and output are stored permanently in the secondary storage devices like
disk or tape. The stored data can be retrieved later, whenever needed.

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Computer Hardware and it’s Components

Hardware consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a machine. The hardware
consists of physical devices of the computer. The devices are required for input, output, storage and
processing of the data. The computer system hardware comprises of three main components, i.e., Input-
Output (I/O) Unit, Central Processing Unit (CPU), and Memory Unit.

• Input-Output (I/O) Unit

The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit accepts data from the user and
the Output unit provides the processed data i.e., the information to the user. The Input unit
converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable by the computer.
Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by the user.

Some common Input Devices and their uses.

Pictorial View Device Name Use

Keyboard Typing Text

Mouse Pointing Device

Scanner Scan Documents

Graphic Design
Light Pen
Text Messaging

Capturing Pictures and

Webcam
videos

Microphone Capture Sound

Controls through Finger

Touch Screen
Touch
Directions & Controls in
Joystick
Gaming

Trackball Pointing Device

QR Code Scanner Scans QR Code

Barcode Reader Scans Barcode

Fingerprint Scanner Scans Fingerprint

Iris Scanner Scans Iris

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Some common Output Devices and their uses.

Pictorial View Device Name Use

Display Output on a
Monitor
Screen

Prints Information on
Printer
paper

Project Output on a
Projector
Screen

Speaker Outputs Sound Waves

Headphones Outputs Sound Waves

Earbuds Outputs Sound Waves

Plotter Make Graphical Prints

GPS Displays Location

Speech Synthesizer Generate Audio from Text

Convert text on the screen

Braille Reader
into Braille

Provides Virtual Reality to

the user, by creating a feel
Virtual Reality Device
as if the user is actually
there in the application.

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Comparison between Hardware and Software

Parameter Hardware Software
Hardware is a physical part of the computer Software is a set of instructions that
Basic Definition
that causes the processing of data. tells a computer exactly what to do.
Development It is manufactured. It is developed and engineered.
Hardware cannot perform any task without The software cannot be executed
Dependency
software. without hardware.
Electronic and other materials are used to Created by utilizing a computer
Process of creating
create hardware. language to write instructions.
Hardware is tangible as hardware is a Software is intangible as we can see
Tangible physical electronic device, that can be and also use the software but can’t
touched. touch them.
The software does not wear out with
Durability Hardware typically wears out over time. time. However, it may contain flaws
and glitches.
Input-Output (I/O) Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU) System Software
Types
Memory Unit. Application Software

Hardware is not affected by computer Software is affected by computer

Virus effect
viruses. viruses.
It cannot be transferred from one place to It can be transferred via a network
Transfer
another electrically through the network. means.
The program accepts human-
readable input, interprets it in
Machine-Level Only machine-level language is known to be
machine-level language, and sends it
language understood by hardware.
to hardware for additional
processing.
If the hardware is damaged, it is replaced If the software is damaged, its
Replacement
with a new one. backup copy can be reinstalled.
Overloading, systematic error,
Dust, overheating, humidity, and other
major-minor version error, and
Failures factors are commonly responsible for
other factors are commonly
hardware failures.
responsible for software failures.

Examples

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• Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer. It is responsible for
processing of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
➢ ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.
➢ CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e., it checks the sequence of
execution of instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the
units of computer.
Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions, addresses
and intermediate results of calculation.
Following are popularly used Components attached with CPU and their use.
Pictorial View Device Name Use
Cabinet Case that contains
physical components of a
computer
Processor "Brain" of the computer,
processes instructions &
performs calculations
Motherboard Main board inside the
computer case, in which
the CPU, RAM, drives,
power supply are plugged
Power Supply (SMPS) Provides electricity that
activates the entire
computer system

Bus Connect computer

components and transfer
data, address,
intstructions between
them
Random Access A volatile memory that
Memory (RAM) keeps data ready for the
CPU to process
Read Only Memory Essential for the storage
(ROM) and operation of the BIOS,
booting the system
Hard Disk Store all your information
permanently, for retrieval
at any time
Graphics Card Processes the data from
the motherboard, sends
the appropriate
information to the
computer’s screen
Network Interface Used to provide network
Card (NIC) connections

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• Memory Unit
Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily, during the
processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory of the computer.
The input data that is to be processed is brought into the main memory before processing. The
instructions required for processing of data and any intermediate results are also stored in the main
memory. The output is stored in memory before being transferred to the output device. Another kind
of storage unit is also referred to as the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the programs
and the output are stored permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical
disks and magnetic tapes are examples of secondary memory.

• Memory Representation
The computer memory stores different kinds of data like input data, output data,
intermediate results, etc., and the instructions. Binary digit or bit is the basic unit of memory.
A bit is a single binary digit, i.e., 0 or 1. A bit is the smallest unit of representation of data in a
computer. However, the data is handled by the computer as a combination of bits. A group
of 8 bits form a byte. One byte is the smallest unit of data that is handled by the computer.
One byte can store 28, i.e., 256 different combinations of bits, and thus can be used to
represent 256 different symbols. In a byte, the different combinations of bits fall in the range
00000000 to 11111111. A group of bytes can be further combined to form a word. A word
can be a group of 2, 4 or 8 bytes.

Memory Unit Description

1 bit A binary digit i.e., 0 or 1
1 Nibble A collection of 4 bits
1 Byte (B) A collection of 8 bits
Word A collection of 2,4 or 8 bytes
1 Kilobyte (KB) 210 bytes or 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) 220 bytes or 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) 230 bytes or 1024 MB or 1024 x 1024 KB
1 Terabyte (TB) 240 bytes or 1024 GB or 1024 x 1024 x 1024 KB
1 Petabyte (PB) 250 bytes
1 Exabyte (EB) 260 bytes
1 Zettabyte (ZB) 270 bytes
1 Yottabyte (YB) 280 bytes

• Memory Hierarchy
The memory is characterized on the basis of two key factors—capacity and access time.
Capacity is the amount of information (in bits) that a memory can store. Access time is the
time interval between the read/ write request and the availability of data. The lesser the
access time, the faster is the speed of memory.

Problem: We want the memory with fastest speed and largest capacity. However, the cost of fast
memory is very high.

Solution: The computer uses a hierarchy of memory that is organized in a manner to enable the
fastest speed and largest capacity of memory.
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C
A CPU
S Registers
C P
P Cache Memory
O A
E
S C Random Access Memory
E
T I
D Hard Disk
T
Y External Storage

The internal memory and external memory are the two broad categories of memory used in
the computer.

1. Internal Memory
The key features of internal memory are Limited storage capacity, Temporary storage,
Fast access, and High cost. Registers, Cache memory, RAM and ROM constitute the
Internal Memory.

a. CPU Registers
Registers are very high-speed storage areas located inside the CPU. After CPU
gets the data and instructions from the cache or RAM, the data and
instructions are moved to the registers for processing. Since CPU uses registers
for the processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU and the size of
each register affect the power and speed of a CPU. The more the number of
registers (ten to hundreds) and bigger the size of each register (8 bits to 64
bits), the better it is.

b. Cache Memory
Cache memory is placed in between the CPU and the RAM. Cache memory is
a fast memory, faster than the RAM. When the CPU needs an instruction or
data during processing, it first looks in the cache. If the information is present
in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the data or instruction is retrieved
from the cache. If the information is not present in cache, then it is called a
cache miss and the information is then retrieved from RAM.

c. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is used to store data and instructions during the operation of computer.
The data and instructions that need to be operated upon by CPU are first
brought to RAM from the secondary storage devices like the hard disk. CPU
interacts with RAM to get the data and instructions for processing. RAM loses
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information when the computer is powered off. It is a volatile memory. When

the power is turned on, again, all files that are required by the CPU are
loaded from the hard disk to RAM. Since RAM is a volatile memory, any
information that needs to be saved for a longer duration of time must not be
stored in RAM. RAM provides random access to the stored bytes, words, or
larger data units. This means that it requires same amount of time to access
information from RAM, irrespective of where it is located in it. RAM can be
read from and written to with the same speed. The size of RAM is limited due
to its high cost. The size of RAM is measured in MB or GB. There are two
categories of RAM, depending on the technology used to construct a RAM—
(1) Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and (2) Static RAM (SRAM).

d. Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a non-volatile primary memory. It does not lose its content when the
power is switched off. ROM, as the name implies, has only read capability and
no write capability. After the information is stored in ROM, it is permanent
and cannot be corrected. ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.
ROM stores the data needed for the startup of the computer. The ROM
memory chip stores the Basic Input Output System (BIOS). BIOS provides the
processor with the information required to boot the system. It does not load
from disk but instead is stored in a ROM memory chip. ROMs are of different
kinds. Programmable ROM (PROM), Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
and Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) are some of the
ROMs.

2. Secondary Memory
The secondary memory is also called the storage device of computer. In comparison
to the primary memory, the secondary memory stores much larger amounts of data
and information for extended periods of time (until the user deletes it or the storage
gets corrupted). The data and instructions stored in secondary memory must be
fetched into RAM before processing is done by CPU. The information stored in storage
devices can be accessed in two ways:

a. Sequential access
Sequential access means that computer must run through the data in
sequence, starting from the beginning, in order to locate a particular piece of
data. Magnetic tape is an example of sequential access device.

b. Direct access
Direct access devices are the ones in which any piece of data can be retrieved
in a non-sequential manner by locating it using the data’s address. It accesses
the data directly, from a desired location. Magnetic disks (Floppy & Hard disk)
and optical disks (CD & DVD) are examples of direct access devices.

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Comparison between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Primary memory is temporary. Secondary memory is permanent.
Primary memory is directly accessible by Secondary memory is not directly
Processor/CPU. accessible by the CPU.
Nature of Parts of Primary memory varies, RAM-
It’s Non-volatile in nature.
volatile in nature. ROM- Non-volatile.
Secondary memory devices are less
Primary memory devices are more expensive
expensive when compared to primary
than secondary storage devices.
memory devices.
The memory devices used for primary memory The secondary memory devices are
are semiconductor memories. magnetic and optical memories.
Primary memory is also known as Main memory Secondary memory is also known as
or Internal memory. External memory or Auxiliary memory.
Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, PROM, Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk,
EPROM, Registers, etc. Magnetic Tapes, etc.

Comparison between
Random Access Memory (RAM) & Read Only Memory (ROM)
Parameter Random Access Memory (RAM) Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a non-volatile memory that
RAM is a volatile memory that could store
Data-Retention could retain the data even when the
the data as long as the power is supplied.
power is turned off.
Read/Write Read and write operations are supported. Only read operations are supported.
It is typically used to store firmware
Used to store the data that has to be which is used to initialize and control
Use
currently processed by CPU temporarily. hardware components of the
computer.
Speed It is a high-speed memory. It is much slower than the RAM.
CPU cannot easily access data stored
CPU Interaction CPU can easily access data stored in RAM.
in ROM.
Large size with higher capacity, concerning Small size with less capacity,
Size and Capacity
ROM. concerning RAM.
Used as/in CPU Cache, Primary memory. Firmware
The data stored is not as easily
Accessibility The data stored is easily accessible.
accessible as in the concerning RAM.
Cost RAM is costlier than ROM. ROM is cheaper than RAM.
A RAM chip can store only a few gigabytes A ROM chip can store multiple
Chip Size
(GB) of data. megabytes (MB) of data.
Used to store firmware, BIOS, and
Used for the temporary storage of data
Function other data that needs to be
currently being processed by the CPU.
retained.
• Using the Computer Memory
The computer starts using the memory from the moment the computer is switched on, till
the time it is switched off. Following explains the roles of ROM & RAM respectively:
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➢ The Read Only Memory’s (ROM) Role:

The list of steps that the computer performs from the time it is switched on are:
1. Turn the computer on.
2. The computer loads data from ROM. It makes sure that all the major components
of the computer are functioning properly.
3. The computer loads the BIOS from ROM. The BIOS provides the most basic
information about storage devices, boot sequence, security, plug and play
capability and other items.
➢ The Random Access Memory’s (RAM) Role:
After successful BIOS run, following steps are carried out:
1. The computer loads the OS from the hard drive into the system’s RAM. CPU has
immediate access to the OS as the critical parts of the OS are maintained in RAM
as long as the computer is on. This enhances the performance and functionality
of the overall system. Now the system is ready for use.
2. When you load or open an application it is loaded in the RAM. Since the CPU
looks for information in the RAM, any data and instructions that are required for
processing (read, write or update) is brought into RAM. To conserve RAM usage,
many applications load only the essential parts of the program initially and then
load other pieces as needed. Any files that are opened for use in that application
are also loaded into RAM.
3. The CPU requests the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new data
back to RAM in a continuous cycle. The shuffling of data between the CPU and
RAM happens millions of times every second.
4. When you save a file and close the application, the file is written to the
secondary memory as specified by you. The application and any accompanying
files usually get deleted from RAM to make space for new data.
5. If the files are not saved to a storage device before being closed, they are lost.

Note: Sometimes, when you write a program and the power goes off, your program is lost if you
have not saved it. This is because your program was in the RAM and was not saved on the
secondary memory; the content of the RAM gets erased when the power is switched off.

By: Piyush Sharma