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Chapter Two: Exploration

2. Geotechnical Investigation for Dams
2.1 Geotechnical Input at Various Stages of Project
Development
2.2 Surface Geophysical Explorations
2.3 Subsurface Explorations and Field Tests
2.4 Laboratory Tests
2.5 Soil and Rock Classification
2.6 Geotechnical Investigation Report
References

2.1. Geotechnical Input at Various Stages of Project Development

Activity Flow in Site Investigations

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2.1. Geotechnical Input at Various Stages of Project Development

Typical Site Characterization Activities to Support

Design (APEGA BC)

Required Data
Soil profile
- layer thickness and soil identification
Index properties
- water content, Atterberg limits, etc.
Strength and compressibility
- c’, cu, ’, Cc, Cr, OCR, etc.
Others:
- water table depth)
Desk study is the first stage of site investigation. It includes:
- Aerial photographs, and topographical maps
- Existing site investigation reports (for nearby sites)
- Other information from local councils, literature

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2.2 Surface Geophysical Explorations

• useful techniques for a non‐destructive exploration of the
subsurface
• can measure in situ properties of soil and rock that are often
valuable for geotechnical design of dams
• seepage assessment, integrity evaluations, foundation
conditions and seismic hazard estimation for existing dams
• areal and site geotechnical mapping allows early modification
of developed geologic models and tentative layouts for
surface geophysical surveys and subsurface explorations
• six major geophysical exploration methods are seismic,
electrical resistivity, sonic, magnetic, radar, and gravity
• seismic and electrical resistivity methods have found the
most practical application to the engineering problems

2.2 Surface Geophysical Explorations

Advantages:
• non-invasive method and can be carried out from the surface
or from existing boreholes
• can provide information on site conditions between data
points, e.g. boreholes
• may be able to identify local areas of concern which have no
surface expression, e.g. cavities, areas of concentrated GW
• surveys can usually be performed quickly and cover a
relatively large area
• recent development of computer analysis and presentation of
results (e.g. tomography) has assisted interpretation

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2.2 Surface Geophysical Explorations

Disadvantages:
• each method measures a particular physical subsurface
property which may or may not be relevant to the problem
• borehole geophysical methods are affected by the presence of
steel casing
• each method requires specialist, possibly expensive,
equipment and skilled operators
• the results involve the recording and analysis of a great
amount of numerical data
• mathematical analysis is based on an assumed subsurface
model which may be different from the actual geological
situation

2.2 Surface Geophysical Explorations

Disadvantages: Continued!
• Much of the data involves the averaging of information.
• The accuracy of the results may be lower than required.
• The interpreted subsurface profile usually needs to be
confirmed by drilling.
• Establishment of the equipment and operators is expensive
and also stand-by time waiting for other operations, e.g.
drilling.

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2.3 Subsurface Explorations and Field Tests

• for a safe dam design and construction, adequate assessment
of site geologic and geotechnical conditions is required
• subsurface investigation program should be thoroughly
planned in advance to obtain all of the necessary information
• In general, a geotechnical investigation may consider
boreholes, test pits (or trenches) and field tests

In situ
testing
devices

Hand augers

2.3.1 Boreholes - General

• Boring refers to making or drilling holes into the ground for
the purpose of obtaining samples or conducting in situ tests
• Boring methods are used for exploration at greater depths
where direct methods fail
• Test borings can be located in the footprint of the
embankment, spillway excavation and appurtenant structures
• The number and location of borings depends on the height
and length of the dam, geologic conditions in the area and the
complexity of the dam.
• Boreholes may extend to sound bedrock or at least to the
depth equal to the height of the dam

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2.3.1 Boreholes - General

• When the boreholes are extended to bedrock, coring of the
bedrock may be performed following ASTM Standard D2113
to assess its quality and characteristics
• The borehole logs must record the depths of any problems
such as borehole instability (cave in, squeezing hole, flowing
sands), cobbles, lost drilling fluid, lost ground, obstruction,
fluid return color changes and equipment problems, and a
discussion of the problem must be provided in the
geotechnical report
• The geotechnical report must provide details of the drilling
method, drilling fluid, size of boreholes and the ground
elevations at the top of the boreholes.

2.3.1 Boreholes - methods of exploration

Considerations in selecting the boring method:
• The materials to be encountered and the relative efficiency of
the various boring methods in such materials
• The available facility and accuracy with which changes in the
soil and ground water conditions can be determined
• Possible disturbance of the material to be sampled
The different types of boring methods are:
• displacement boring, wash boring, auger boring, rotary
drilling, percussion drilling and continuous sampling.

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2.3.1 Boreholes - displacement boring

• It is a combined method of sampling and boring operation
• Closed bottom sampler, slit cup, or piston type can be used
• features of the displacement boring includes:
✓ Simple and economic method if excessive caving does
not occur, and not suitable for loose sand
✓ Major changes of soil character can be detected by means
of penetration resistance
✓ These are 25mm to 75mm holes
✓ It requires fairly continuous sampling in stiff and dense
soil, either to protect the sampler from damage or to avoid
objectionably heavy construction pit

2.3.1 Boreholes - Auger Boring

Hollow-stem
auger

Hand augers

(a) Plugged while advancing the auger

(b) plug removed and sampler inserted to sample soil below auger

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2.3.1 Boreholes - Auger Boring

• fast and economical, and uses simple, light, flexible and
inexpensive instruments for large to small holes
• can be hand operated or power driven; and normally limited
to a maximum of 10 m depth
• Hand operated augers:
✓ hand operated augers are suitable for all types of soils
except the following
o suitable only in clayey soil below the water table
o suitable only in clayey soil below the water table
o not suitable in very stiff to hard clay or in granular
soils below the water table
o not practicable in dense sand or in sand mixed with
gravel even if the strata lie above the water table
✓ string of drill rods is used for advancing the boring
✓ diameters of the holes normally vary from 10 to 20 cm

2.3.1 Boreholes - Auger Boring

Power Driven Augers:
• may be used in all types of soil including sandy soils below
the water table
• not suitable if the soil is mixed with gravel, cobbles
• central stem of the auger flight may be hollow or solid
• a hollow stem is sometimes preferred since SPT or sampling
may be done through the stem without lifting the auger from
its position in the hole
• a hollow stem can be plugged while advancing the bore and
the plug can be removed while taking samples or conducting
STP
• holes may be drilled to depths of 60 m or more

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2.3.1 Boreholes - Wash Boring

Wash boring
Technique

Soil exploration below the ground water table is usually very

difficult to perform by means of pits or auger-holes
Wash boring is a very convenient soil exploration method in
sand, silt, or clay soils. However, it is not suitable if the soil is
mixed with gravel or boulders.

2.3.1 Boreholes - Wash Boring

The hole is advanced a short depth by auger and then a casing
pipe is pushed to prevent the sides from caving in. The hole is
then continued by the use of a chopping bit fixed at the end of a
string of hollow drill rods.
A stream of water under pressure is forced through the rod and
the bit into the hole which loosens the soil and as the water
flows up around the pipe, the loosened soil in suspension in
water is discharged into a tub. The soil in suspension settles
down in the tub and the clean water flows into a sump which is
reused for circulation.
The motive power for a wash boring is either mechanical or man
power.

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2.3.1 Boreholes - Wash Boring

The bit which is hollow is screwed to a string of hollow drill
rods supported on a tripod by a rope or steel cable passing over
a pulley and operated by a winch fixed on one of the legs of the
tripod.
The purpose of wash boring is to drill holes only and not to
make use of the disturbed washed materials for analysis.
Whenever an undisturbed sample is required at a particular
depth, the boring is stopped, and the chopping bit is replaced by
a sampler. The sampler is pushed into the soil at the bottom of
the hole and the sample is withdrawn.

2.3.1 Boreholes - Rotary Drilling

Common types of rotary drill bits:

(a) Fishtail drill bit
(b) Cone-type rock drill bit
(c) Carbide button drill bit
(Source: Todd, 1980)

A general schema of typical

rotary drilling system

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2.3.1 Boreholes - Rotary Drilling

A cutter bit or a core barrel with a coring bit attached to the end
of a string of drill rods is rotated by a power rig
It is used primarily for penetrating the overburden between the
levels at which samples are required
It is useful in case of highly resistant strata
It is related to finding out the rock strata and also to access the
quality of rocks from cracks, fissures and joints
It can conveniently be used in sands and silts
The bore holes are advanced in depth by rotary percussion
method which is similar to wash boring technique
If the depth is small and the soil stable, water alone can be used
as a drilling fluid

2.3.1 Boreholes - Rotary Drilling

A drilling fluid causes stabilizing effect to the bore hole partly
due to higher specific gravity as compared with water and partly
due to formation of mud cake on the sides of the hole
This method is suitable for boring holes of diameter 10cm, or
more preferably 15 to20cm in most of the rocks. It is
uneconomical for holes less than 10cm diameter. The depth of
various strata can be detected by inspection of cuttings.

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2.3.1 Boreholes - Percussion Drilling

Percussion drilling setup. (Source: Raghunath, 2007)

2.3.1 Boreholes - Percussion Drilling

For hard soils or soft rock, auger boring or wash boring cannot
be employed. For such strata, percussion drilling is usually
adopted
Advancement of hole is done by alternatively lifting and
dropping a heavy drilling bit which is attached to the lower end
of the drilling bit which is attached to the cable
Addition of sand increases the cutting action of the drilling bit in
clays
After the carrying capacity of the soil is reached by adding clay,
churn bit is removed and the slurry is removed using bailers and
sand pumps
Change in soil character is identified by the composition of the
outgoing slurry

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2.3.1 Boreholes - Percussion Drilling

The stroke of bit is 45-100cm in depth with rate of 35-60
drops/min
It is not economical for hole of diameter less than 10cm
It can be used in most of the soils and rocks and can drill any
material
One main disadvantage of this process is that the material at the
bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy blows of the chisel and
hence it is not possible to get good quality undisturbed samples
It cannot detect thin strata as well

2.3.1 Boreholes - Continuous Sampling

The sampling operation advances the borehole and the boring is
accomplished entirely by taking samples continuously
The casing is used to prevent the caving in soils
provides more reliable and detail information on soil condition
than the other methods. Therefore, it is used extensively in
detailed and special foundation exploration for important
structures
slower method and more expensive than intermittent sampling
When modern rotary drilling rigs or power driven augers are not
available, continuous sampling may be used to advantage for
advancing larger diameter borings in stiff and tough strata of
clay and mixed soil.

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2.3.2 Test Pits or Trenches

2.3.2 Test Pits or Trenches

Test pits are often preferable to borings in cohesive soils and
soft rocks above the water table
They can easily be dug with a mechanical excavator (or by
hand) to depths of 2-3 m; their sides may require adequate
supports
It exposes the succession of strata for easy visual examination
Test pits and trenches must be logged
Collection of block samples can be performed according to
ASTM Standard D7015

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2.3.3 Field Tests - General

The most common in situ testing devices are Standard
Penetration Test (SPT), Vane shear test (VST), Pressuremeter
Test (PMT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and Dilatometer Test
(DMT).

2.3.3 Field Tests - SPT

SPT was developed in North America in 1927
SPT is an in situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide
information on the geotechnical engineering properties of soil
The test procedure is described in the British Standard BS EN
ISO 22476-3, ASTM D1586 and Australian Standards AS
1289.6.3.1.
Standard penetration resistance (SPT N or N value) is the
number of blows of a 140 lb (app. 65 kg) hammer falling by 30
inch (app. 760 mm) required to produce 12 inch (app 300 mm)
of penetration of a specified (standard) 2 inch (app 51 mm)
outside diameter, 13/8 inch (35 mm) inside diameter sampler
into soil, after an initial 6 inch (app 150 mm) seating (or driven
into the ground).

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2.3.3 Field Tests - SPT

Split-spoon sampler

A general schema of typical STP system

2.3.3 Field Tests - SPT

A penetration test that does not meet these requirements is not a
SPT and the penetration resistance must not be reported as a SPT
N-value or N-value and care must be taken with its use for
correlating soil properties
If SPT N-values are used for the assessment of liquefaction
potential, the SPT N-values must be normalized according to
ASTM Standard D6066.
The test can be terminated if the following three conditions
appear in the field.
- A total of 50 blows have been applied during any one of the
three 6-in. (150 mm) increments;
- A total of 100 blows have been applied; and
- There is no observed advance of the sampler during the
application of 10 successive blows of the hammer

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2.3.3 Field Tests – SPT (Cohesionless Soil: Fairly reliable)

2.3.3 Field Tests – SPT (Cohesive Soil: rather unreliable)

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2.3.3 Field Tests – SPT (Cohesionless Soil)

2.3.3 Field Tests - SPT

The blow count measured in the field, SPT N, is a crude measure
of soil strength and stiffness
The STP N value corrected for field procedures and overburden.
(N1)60, provides a more meaningful N value

Where, CN = Overburden pressure correction factor

Refer Peck et al.’s relationships (1974) and Liao and Whitman’s
relationship (1986) for estimation of CN

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2.3.3 Field Tests - SPT

Flow chart of different types of correction of SPT N value

2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT

The CPT originated from Netherlands in 1930s
A modern and expedient approach is offered by CPT which
involves pushing an instrumented electronic penetrometer into
the soil and recording multiple measurements continuously with
depth
As per ASTM and international standards, three separate
measurements of tip resistance (qc), sleeve friction (fs), and
porewater pressure (u) are obtained with depth
The testing apparatus consists of an instrumented still cone
having a tip facing down, with an apex angle of 60° and cross-
section area of 1000 mm2
The cone is attached to an internal still rode that can run inside
an outer hollow rod, which itself is attached to a sleeve

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2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT

Overview of the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) Per ASTM

D 5778 Procedures

2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT

Typical results of CPT

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2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT

The two main CPT testing cones are static cone penetration test
(SCPT) and Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT).
• SCPT is pushed into the ground at 2 cm/sec, and gives
continuous measurements.
• DCPT is similar to SPT, hammer driven, and uses cone
instead of split spoon (closed end, no samples), and .gives
blow counts at 1.5 m depth intervals
Additional sensors can be provided to increase the numbers and
types of measurements taken with CPT
Since both the penetration resistance and sleeve resistance
increase with depth due to the increase in effective overburden
stress, the CPT data requires normalization for overburden stress
for very shallow and/or very deep soundings

2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT available for Site Characterization

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2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT

Normalized CPT Soil Behavior Type (SBTn) chart, Qt - F

(Robertson, 1990, updated by Robertson, 2010).

2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT

Undrained shear strength, Su, of clay can be estimated from

Where Nk is the cone factor and σv is total overburden stress or

in situ mean stress
Knowledge of the cone factor Nk is essential for reliable
estimation of su from qc, and numerous attempts have been made
by researchers to develop accurate Nk values by empirical
approaches
The corrected cone resistance qt is calculated by the equation:

where u2 = pore pressure acting behind the cone during

penetration; a = cone area ratio

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2.3.3 Field Tests - CPT

There are many Standards for CPT (& CPTu):
- ISSMGE - (IRTP) 1999/2001
- USA - ASTM D: 5778-12
- European - CEN TC341
- CPT and CPTu (CEN/ISO 22476-1:2012)
- Other National standards and codes
- Offshore

2.3.3 Field Tests - Geophysical Investigation

Geophysical survey methods may be used to supplement
borehole and outcrop data and to interpret soil profile between
boreholes
They can be used to plan borehole locations. ASTM Standards
D6429 and D5753 provide guidance on planning and selection of
geophysical methods
ASTM Standard D5777 provides guidance on test procedures
and interpretation of the seismic refraction method. ASTM
Standard D4428/D4428M provides test methods and
interpretation of the crosshole seismic test
The geotechnical report must explain the test method and
interpretation of the test results
Refer Section 2.2 of the lecture note for details

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2.3.3 Field Tests - Field Permeability Test

If a field permeability test is performed, details of the test
method, calculations and interpretation must be included along
with the results

2.3.3 Field Tests - Measurement of Water Level in Boreholes

Water level can be measured in boreholes and test pits and shown
accordingly on logs of the boreholes and test pits
The water level should be recorded during drilling and after the
ground water table is stabilized. Both water levels should be
provided on borehole logs along with the time of measurement.
Elevation of the water table must be established based on the
project datum and shown on the ground profile of the dam site.
Field tests with equipment such as pocket penetrometer and
torvane are not generally acceptable for deriving design
parameters. Equipment used in the geotechnical investigation
must be used appropriately in accordance with ASTM standards.

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2.3.3 Field Tests - Sample Collection for Laboratory Testing

• The sample collection program must be designed to meet the
requirements of the laboratory tests planned for the project
• Some laboratory tests require relatively undisturbed samples
while others can use disturbed samples so long as the
properties of the sample are preserved
• Sample collection, preservation, transportation and handling
must be described in the geotechnical report
• ASTM Standards D4220 and D5079 can be followed to
prevent samples from experiencing excessive disturbance
during transportation and handling.
• Disturbance of samples inherent to sampling techniques must
be recognized

2.3.3 Field Tests - Sample Collection for Laboratory Testing

• Soil samples that are obtained by driving samplers with a
hammer such as the SPT (ASTM Standard D1586) and
penetration of samplers lined with rings (ASTM Standard
D3550) are considered highly disturbed. This must be
recognized when interpreting and presenting results from
laboratory tests based on these samples.
• If the soil samples for the laboratory tests were reconstituted
in the laboratory, the method of sample preparation must be
explained in detail.
• Samples collected by a Thin-Walled Tube Sampler (ASTM
Standard D1587) and other samplers specifically designed to
minimize disturbance during sample collection process are
recognized as undisturbed samples

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2.3.3 Field Tests - Sample Collection for Laboratory Testing

• Description of the sampler and sample collection method must
be provided.
• For block samples, the method of collection, preservation,
transportation and handling must be described in the
geotechnical report. If the method complies with ASTM
standard D7015, the block samples will be considered
undisturbed.
• Rock samples must be collected following the procedures
outlined in ASTM Standard D2113. Rock Quality Designation
(RQD) determination of rock core can follow ASTM Standard
D6032.

2.4 Laboratory Tests – Index Tests

Consistency tests (Atterberg Limits) for fine-grained soil and
sieve analysis for coarse-grained soil are the basic tests required
for classification of soil and must be performed
Determination of density, water content and specific gravity is
also required
Selection of other laboratory tests must be based on the
requirements of the design project
A laboratory testing program must be developed while planning
for the site investigation since it may dictate the selection of a
boring method and sample collection. Limitations of the
laboratory tests must be recognized in the laboratory testing
program. Laboratory tests must follow appropriate ASTM
standards.

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2.4 Laboratory Tests - Strength Tests

Direct Shear Test (Consolidated Drained Shear Test)

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)
Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test (UU Test
or Q Test)
Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test with Pore
Pressure Measurement (CU Test or R Test)
Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Compression Test (CD Test or S
Test)

2.4 Laboratory Tests - Consolidation Tests

One-Dimensional Consolidation Test (Oedometer Test):

Oedometer tests are performed on clayey soils to obtain
consolidation parameters required for the estimation of
consolidation settlement. Undisturbed soil samples are required
for this test. The test specimen must be fully saturated. ASTM
Standards D2435 and D4186 provide the test methods, analysis
and reporting of results. If the oedometer is used for evaluating
collapse potential of soils, follow ASTM Standard D5333.

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2.4 Laboratory Tests - Other Tests

Permeability Test: The sample preparation and the test method

of the permeability test must be discussed in the report. ASTM
Standard D2434 provides the methodology for the constant head
test on granular soils. If the falling head test is used, it must be
stated as such in the report. Relative density of the granular soil
specimen must be reported with the result.
Dispersibility Test: ASTM Standards D4647 and D4221 provide
methods of evaluating dispersive properties of clay soils. A
description of the sample preparation and test method must be
included in the report along with the discussion of the results.
Collapse Potential Test: ASTM Standard D5333 provides the
methodology for evaluating collapse potential of soils. This
standard can be followed for the test and interpretation of the
results.

2.4 Laboratory Tests - Other Tests

Compaction Tests: ASTM Standards D698 and D1557 provide

methods for the Standard Proctor and Modified Proctor,
respectively, for the laboratory evaluation of compaction
characteristics of soils containing up to 30 percent coarse
materials by weight retained on the ¾-inch sieve. If the soil
contains over 5 percent coarse particles retained on the ¾-inch
sieve and the coarse particles are not included in the Proctor
tests, it must be mentioned in the test results and a correction for
the oversize particles can be suggested as provided in ASTM
Standard D4718. The compaction curves must show all the data
points along with the interpreted curve. The 100- percent
saturation curve (zero air voids curve) must also be shown on
the graph with the compaction curve. The sample preparation
and test method must also be explained.

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2.5 Soil and Rock Classification

Soil classification can follow the Unified Soil Classification
System as provided in ASTM Standard D2487.
Rock-mass classification can follow ASTM Standard D5878. A
discussion must be provided on the selection of the
classification system.

2.6 Geotechnical Investigation Report

The site investigation report can include, but not be limited to,
the following:
• A topographic map of the dam site showing locations of
boreholes, test pits, trenches, CPT, geophysical tests and
other field tests with the footprint of the proposed dam,
spillway and other appurtenant structures.
• Logs of boreholes and test pits. ASTM Standard D5434 can
be used as guidance and a checklist. Ground elevation of the
borehole, test pits and CPT locations should be provided
based on the datum established for the project. Also, provide
a record of any problems such as borehole instability (cave
in, squeezing hole, flowing sands), cobbles, lost drilling fluid,
lost ground, obstruction, fluid return color changes, and
equipment problems in the logs.

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2.6 Geotechnical Investigation Report

• Details of the drilling method, drill rig, drilling fluid, sample
collection method, measurement of water table etc. should be
included.
• Details of the field tests such as SPT, CPT, geophysical
testing and permeability including description of equipments
and test methods along with calculations, discussion and
interpretation of results.
• Details of the laboratory tests including descriptions of
equipments, sample preparation, test methods, calculations
and a discussion of the results. ASTM standards provide
guidelines on reporting individual tests. Following those
guidelines will suffice in reporting the laboratory and field
tests.

2.6 Geotechnical Investigation Report

• Locations of borrow material with properties based on the
field and laboratory tests.
• Subsurface ground profiles based on borehole and test pit
logs, field and laboratory tests. At least one profile must be
shown along the dam axis and spillway.
• Discussion of site conditions based on the investigation, any
design challenges, possible and recommended solutions.
Discussion must include, if warranted, recommendation for
any further investigation or analysis.

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2.6 Geotechnical Investigation Report

• Recommended design parameters in a tabular form based on
the objectives of the investigation and requirements of the
design. The design parameters should be based on the
investigation. In general, setting aside the results from the
investigation and using design parameters from published
literature and textbooks is not usually acceptable. Published
correlations, however, can be used to verify reasonableness of
the field and laboratory test results. Also in special
circumstances where the testing of the material is recognized
to be difficult, use of design parameters based on literature
review may be allowed, but adequate justification must be
provided in the report.

References
APEGA BC. Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists
British Columbia
Briaud, J. L. and J. Miran (1992). The Cone Penetrometer Test,
Report FHWA-SA91-043, Fed. Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C., Feb., 161 pp.
Campanella, R.G. and P.K. Robertson (1988). Current Status of the
Piezocone Test. Proceedings of the First International
Symposium on Penetration Testing, Vol. 1, Orlando, Fla.
(Penetration Testing 1988), Balkema, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands, Mar. 20–24, pp. 93–116.
Fell, R., MacGregor, P., Stapledon, D., Bell, G., Foster, M. (2015).
Geotechnical Engineering of Dams, 2nd edition, CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK.
Raghunath, H.M. (2007). Ground Water. Third Edition, New Age
International Publishers, New Delhi.

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References
Robertson P.K. 1990. Soil classification using the cone penetration
test. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 27(1): 151–158.
Schmertmann, J.H. (1978). Guidelines for Cone Penetration Test:
Performance and Design, Report FHWA-TS-78-209, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C, 146 pp.
Todd, D.K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
Lunne and Kleven 1981, Aas et al. 1986, Rochelle et al. 1988, Lunne
et al. 1986, Stark and Juhrend 1989
Lunne, T. and Kleven, A. (1981). “Role of CPT in North Sea
Foundation Engineering”, Symposium on Cone Penetration
Engineering Division, ASCE, 49-75.
Aas, G., Lacasse, S., Lunne, T., and Hoeg, K. (1986). “Use of in situ
tests for foundation design on clay”, Proceedings of In situ '86,
Use of In Situ Tests in Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE GSP 6,
Blacksburg, Virginia, 1-30.

References
Rochelle, Le P., Zebdi, P.M., Leroueil, S., Tavenas, F. and Virely, D.
(1988). “Piezocone Tests in Sensitive Clays of Eastern Canada”.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Penetration
Testing, ISOPT-1, Orlando, 2, Balkema Pub., Rotterdam., 831-
841.
Lunne, T., Eidsmoen, T., Gillespie, D., and Howland, J.D., (1986).
“Laboratory and field evaluation of cone penetrometer”,
Proceedings of In situ '86, Use of In Situ Tests in Geotechnical
Engineering. ASCE GSP 6, Blacksburg, Virginia, 714-729.
Stark, T. D. and Juhrend, J. E., (1989). “Undrained shear strength
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