Review

Advancement of Tidal Current Generation Technology in

Recent Years: A Review
Zhen Qin 1,2,†, Xiaoran Tang 1,*,†, Yu-Ting Wu 3,4 and Sung-Ki Lyu 2,*

1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, No. 266 West Xincun Road,
Zibo 255049, China
2 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, 501 Jinju-daero,

Jinju-si 52828, Korea

3 School of Transportation and Vehicle Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China

4 Tianrun Industrial Technology Co., Ltd., Weihai 264200, China

* Correspondence: tang_xiaoran@163.com (X.T.); sklyu@gnu.ac.kr (S.-K.L.)

† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Renewable energy provides an effective solution to the problem existing between energy
and environmental protection. Tidal energy has great potential as a form of renewable energy. Tidal
current generation (TCG) technology is the earliest renewable energy power generation technology.
The advancement of science and technology has led to TCG rapidly developing since its emergence
in the last century. This paper investigates the development of TCG in recent years based on the key
components of TCG systems, both in terms of tidal energy harvesting research and power genera-
tion unit research. A summary of tidal energy harvesting is presented, investigating the main tidal
Citation: Qin, Z.; Tang, X.; energy harvesting units currently available. In addition, research on generators and generator con-
Wu, Y.-T.; Lyu, S.-K. Advancement trol is summarized. Lastly, a comparison between horizontal and vertical axis turbines is carried
of Tidal Current Generation out, and predictions are made about the future trends in TCG development. The purpose of this
Technology in Recent Years: A review is to summarize the research status and research methods of key components in tidal energy
Review. Energies 2022, 15, 8042. power generation technology and to provide insight into the research of tidal energy-related tech-
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218042 nologies.
Academic Editor: Mamdud Hossain
and Saeed Badshah Keywords: tidal current generation; renewable energy; tidal energy collection; power generation

Received: 5 September 2022

Accepted: 26 October 2022
Published: 28 October 2022
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
Energy production that can meet society’s energy demand is a key concern for man-
tral with regard to jurisdictional
kind. With the rapid development of technology, energy demand has also increased sig-
claims in published maps and institu-
nificantly. However, fossil fuels have continued to be the most used energy source [1].
tional affiliations.
Renewable energy is being studied around the world in order to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions and other environmental pollution caused by traditional energy sources [2–8].
As shown in Figure 1, the proportion of renewable energy sources will gradually
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Li-
increase in the future. The optimal use of renewable energy sources is a key factor in
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
achieving environmental protection and sustainability in future energy systems [9,10]. As
This article is an open access article a renewable energy source, tidal energy has considerable potential as a form of ocean
distributed under the terms and con- energy [3]. There are two main types of tidal energy, the potential energy of the water
ditions of the Creative Commons At- level generated by high and low tides and the kinetic energy carried by ocean currents.
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre- Substantial research has been conducted in this field by scholars around the world and
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). many developments have been achieved in various countries [11–17].

Energies 2022, 15, 8042. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218042 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 8042 2 of 19

Figure 1. World primary electricity generation statistics chart (a) World primary energy for electric-
ity generation 2010 (b) World primary energy for electricity generation 2017 (c) IEA Policy State-
ment 2040 [18].

In particular, there are two parts that have been extensively studied in the field of
tidal energy. The first part is tidal energy collection, which covers how to collect tidal
energy through mechanical equipment such as turbines. For tidal energy collection, re-
search has been carried out on the mechanical structure, optimization of blades, and other
tidal energy collection devices. The other part is power generation unit design, where the
conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy through the generator has been
studied. The efficiency of power generation is variable so the design of the generator and
the control of the power generation have become the focus of research [19–23].
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the current state of the TCG field, to un-
derstand the progress of research in various aspects of the TCG field and to identify which
issues have been the subject of more in-depth research. There are two parts to the paper.
The first part describes the classification of tidal energy collection devices. The recent re-
search results are summarized from the perspective of different types of devices. The sec-
ond part summarizes the research results of power generation units, summarizes the
types of generators currently used, and analyzes the control technology of the power gen-
eration system. Finally, the development status of the TCG field and its prospects are an-
alyzed. This paper provides a valuable reference for the design and use of TCG systems
in the future.

2. Tidal Energy Harvesting

Tidal energy is converted into mechanical energy for power generation through a
collection device, which is the first stage of TCG. Tidal energy collection devices can be
divided into vertical-axis tidal current turbines (VATCT), horizontal-axis tidal current tur-
bines (HATCT), and other collection devices. The mechanical structure of the collecting
device affects the efficiency of tidal energy collection. Therefore, much research has been
conducted on the structures of these collecting devices in order to maximize their effi-
ciency.

2.1. Study of HATCT

Compared with VATCT, HATCT has longer development history and more estab-
lished technology. As a result, HATCT is widely used in TCG systems [24]. An example
of a HATCT is the 1.5 MW tidal stream turbine named Atlantis AR1500 shown in Figure
2. Turbine performance and turbine arrays are currently hot topics in the HATCT field.
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 3 of 19

Figure 2. Atlantis AR1500 turbine [25].

2.1.1. HATCT Performance Study

The blades are a particularly critical part of the turbine. The hydrodynamic perfor-
mance of the blades directly affects the hydrodynamic performance of the turbine and
therefore turbine research is focused on the blades [26–29]. For the dynamic analysis of
the blades, blade element momentum theory (BEMT) is currently used [30–32]. The blade
is divided into infinitely thin blade elements along the radius direction, known as the
blade element, when the flows through the blade element, the pressure difference on the
surface of the blade element forms the momentum change in the airflow in and out of the
blade element, thus the whole blade analyzes dynamic performance. In this regard, Yeo
et al. proposed and verified a higher accuracy version of BEMT, where the power coeffi-
cient and thrust coefficient of the algorithm were 0.99828 and 0.99488, respectively [32].
CFD/BEMT is the addition of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to BEMT for more ac-
curate modeling of blade and seawater interactions. Ortega et al. made a study for the
CFD/BEMT blade calculation model and compared it with BEMT. The results provided a
CFD/BEMT simulation that shows the effects of turbulence, which is particularly im-
portant for assessing additional stress sources in the overall mechatronic system [30]. A
BEMT-based neural network model was devised by Zhu et al. The neural network model
was developed to apply a multi-objective optimization algorithm to the hydraulic perfor-
mance of a tidal turbine to improve the energy harvest efficiency of the blades in a variable
flow range, resulting in a 2% increase in the turbine power factor at maximum [28]. An
improved method for blade design based on a multi-objective genetic algorithm has been
proposed by Liu et al. An equivalent S-N curve model and a simplified load spectrum
have also been presented. With this improved blade design method, the relationship be-
tween blade life and output power can be determined more easily and quickly [33].
In addition to the blade performance algorithm studies, there are also studies on
other turbine parameters [34–37]. Alipour et al. studied the effects of curvature, thickness,
and pitch angle on turbine performance and determined the conditions for maximum
blade performance considering the probability of the presence of fatigue loads. There have
also been studies to determine the blade number for optimal turbine performance, and
studies to determine the optimal design for turbine blades using blade element momen-
tum theory. The results show that the optimum leaf tip speed ratio is five and that a larger
number of blades should be used when it is less than the optimum leaf tip speed ratio
while a smaller number of blades should be used when it is greater than the optimum leaf
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 4 of 19

tip speed ratio [38,39]. Ha et al. investigated the effects of starting flow turbulence charac-
teristics, and wave and blade pitch angles, which in turn determined the distribution of
chord length and pitch angle. In addition, there are many studies on the performance pat-
terns of turbines in terms of different parameters, which guide the design of the turbine
blades [40–46].
For the current turbine designs, the high capital and maintenance costs required to
operate them in the harsh subsea environment limit their commercial viability. The relia-
bility and durability of HATCTs are critical issues, as once the equipment is deployed the
cost of recovery and maintenance is high [47,48]. Because the blades are a critical compo-
nent with high failure rates, improving the robustness of the blades through material se-
lection and appropriate geometric design is very much in focus. A design methodology
was established by Gonabadi et al. for the preliminary evaluation of tidal turbine struc-
tures using low-cost composite materials [49]. These composite blades have undergone
many experimental studies, comparing them with traditional materials, verifying the ad-
vantages and shortcomings of composite materials, and predicting the development pro-
spects of composite blades [27,49,50].

2.1.2. HATCT Array Research

Energy harvesting efficiency is an important factor in power generation efficiency
and for this reason, many scholars have conducted research into improving power gener-
ation efficiency [51]. The amount of energy that can be collected by a single turbine is very
limited, but multiple turbines can increase the efficiency of tidal energy collection so mul-
tiple turbine arrays may be an efficient option [52,53]. As a result, studies have been con-
ducted on turbine arrays [54–60]. Figure 3 shows an experiment on a power generation
platform using a turbine array technology, named PLAT-I, which is an example of a
HATCT array. Many companies producing tidal generators are now introducing multi-
rotor power generation platforms. A multi-rotor power generation system is a use of tur-
bine array technology, where multiple horizontal axis turbines are combined to obtain a
larger amount of power. In addition, a large combination of turbine arrays can be used for
large-scale power generation. As research into renewable energy sources intensifies, more
tidal power stations using turbine array technology will be built as larger-scale power
generation platforms [16].

Figure 3. Example of a turbine array (a) CAD-model of the tidal energy converter system PLAT-I
(b) Full-scale tests in Western Scotland, UK [56].

In a HATCT array arrangement where turbines are not only arrayed side by side but
also front to back, the wake from turbines located upstream will have a non-negligible
effect on the tidal flow downstream [61]. Therefore, turbine wakes have become a hot
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 5 of 19

topic in recent years. Hill et al. conducted experiments on wake flow based on a two-rotor
turbine system and showed that the turbine wake would increase the turbulence level in
the downstream tidal flow and reduce the available efficiency of the tidal flow [62]. The
relationship between the parameters of the wake and the turbine system has been studied
to determine how the effects of the wake can be modified [63]. In recent years, HATCT
arrays have been extensively studied as an effective way of increasing power generation.
The turbine wake is a key factor in this, and research has focused on the factors that affect
the variability of the wake.
HATCTs are currently the most commonly used tidal energy harvesting device in the
world. With the spread of CAE technology, the optimal design of HATCTs has been
extensively investigated in a number of ways. The hydrodynamic performance of the
turbines has been studied through calculation methods, geometrical parameters and
material usage. Furthermore, turbine arrays have become a promising research area that
is currently focusing on mainly turbine wake variations. In the future, turbine arrays will
become increasingly more sophisticated and will be important for the establishment of
large-scale power stations.

2.2. Study of VATCT

A VATCT is a type of tidal turbine that harvests tidal energy by rotating its blades
around a vertical axis, which allows it to harvest tidal energy in multiple directions [57,64].
A HATCT has horizontal rotational movement, which is subject to high fatigue losses
caused by gravity, whereas a VATCT is able to avoid blade fatigue losses caused by grav-
ity [58]. However, due to the complexity of its blade motion, BEMT does not apply to the
blade calculation analysis of vertical axis turbines. As a result, VATCT is less studied and
less developed. Almost no commercial TCT systems using VATCT have emerged. The
research focus for VATCTs is similar to that of HATCTs, mainly in blade performance
studies and turbine array studies.
The hydrodynamic performance of the blades is key to the energy harvesting effi-
ciency of the VATCT and therefore the optimal design of the blades has been studied by
many scholars [59,65,66]. The hydrodynamic performance of a vertical axis twin rotor tur-
bine in surge motion is discussed in depth by Wang et al. A two-rotor turbine operating
at different surge frequencies, surge amplitudes, and tip speed ratios have been simulated
and the variation characteristics of the thrust, lateral forces, and flow fields have been
analyzed [59]. In addition, there are various factors such as rotor height to diameter ratio,
chord length, blade design, number of blades, and free flow tidal velocity for spiral blade
performance have been studied. These studies provide a reference value for the optimal
design of turbines [67–71].
Due to the special motion of VATCT, the wake effect generated by the turbine array
becomes an important issue to be addressed. The wake effect can lead to reduced power
production and increased structural fatigue in downstream turbines. Based on field meas-
urements, the power of the TCG system can be reduced by 10 to 25% due to the wake
effect. Close prediction and assessment of wake effects are therefore imperative to im-
prove the efficiency of tidal power generation and to mitigate the risk of fatigue in the
VATCT [72,73]. In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been widely
used for wake prediction by simulating turbine outflow field and wake flow [74,75]. Ma
et al. established a numerical simulation method based on CFD to systematically analyze
the turbine load conditions and the power output efficiency of a turbine under the action
of wave-induced motion. They then went on to discuss in depth the hydrodynamic per-
formance of vertical axis twin rotor turbines during surge motion, analyzing twin rotor
turbines operating at different surge frequencies, surge amplitudes, and tip speed ratios.
The results show that the average power output of the twin-rotor turbine can be increased
by 15.3% compared to a single turbine. The oscillation caused by the surge increases the
turbine load and power output fluctuations but does not change the average turbine load
and power output [76–78]. A visit array-based non-constant boundary element model was
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 6 of 19

studied by Li, G.N. et al. Hydrodynamic interference phenomena in tidal turbine arrays
were investigated via a hydrodynamic performance prediction procedure. As a result, the
turbines are arranged at an angle, as shown in Figure 4. In the interval ψ = 90°~30°, the
turbine power coefficient decreases slowly from the maximum value, and in the interval
ψ = 30°~0°, the turbine array power coefficient decreases rapidly to the minimum value.
Therefore, in the arrangement of the turbine array, the angle between the axis of the twin
turbines and the direction of air intake should be avoided as much as possible, ψ =
−30°~30° [79]. Two equations for predicting turbine wake flow have been proposed by Ma
et al. The first equation for predicting efflux velocity (Efflux velocity is the minimum ve-
locity closest to the turbine downstream) was derived based on axial momentum theory
and dimensional analysis. The second equation used to predict the lateral velocity distri-
bution is derived based on a Gaussian probability distribution [80]. Muller et al. used
acoustic Doppler velocimetry to characterize the three-dimensional wake developed
downstream of independent and dual vertical axis turbines with different combinations
of inter-axis distance and rotation directions based on mean velocity and turbulence sta-
tistics and quantified their effect on momentum recovery [81]. Some scholars have intro-
duced new algorithms based on CFD to simulate and analyze the flow field of turbine
arrays. The Kutta algorithm has been introduced by some scholars for the analysis of tur-
bine wake flows to make the results more accurate [82,83]. Studies made on turbine arrays
have deepened the understanding of multi-turbine interactions and have provided a ref-
erence value for vertical axis turbine arrays [62,83–86].

Figure 4. Turbine layout diagram [79].

VATCTs have many advantages over HATCTs. Because of its vertical axis rotation,
it can collect tidal flow in multiple directions, and its energy harvesting efficiency is higher
than that of a HATCT. However, due to their difficult design, VATCTs are less developed
and far less popular than HATCTs. As a result, most companies launch tidal power plat-
forms with HATCTs instead of VATCTs. In the future, as the degree of VATCT develop-
ment increases and the design costs decrease, VATCTs will increasingly appear in TCG
systems.
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 7 of 19

2.3. Special Tidal Energy Harvesting Device

Turbines are widely used in TCG, but there are also devices with different designs.
These special collection devices can be divided into new turbines based on traditional tur-
bine designs and collection devices with different working principles.
For new turbines based on traditional turbine designs, blade rotation is the main way
to collect tidal energy. Counter-rotating horizontal-axis tidal turbines (CRHATT) have
been investigated by Cao et al. The principle of the CRHATT is to add a set of counter-
rotating blades to a conventional turbine to increase energy harvesting efficiency [87]. Cao
et al. investigated in detail the effect of key parameters on the energy harvesting efficiency
of the CRHATT and verified the reliability of the CRHATT design [88]. Tidal currents are
roughly bi-directional at low and high tides. A horizontal axial tidal turbine (HATT) with
a unidirectional foil must be able to face the current direction in order to maximize the
collection of current energy. A bi-directional blade turbine that can harvest tidal energy
in both directions was designed by Guo et al. Its hydrodynamics were analyzed and com-
pared with that of a conventional turbine [89]. Some scholars have studied tethered un-
dersea kites (TUSK). As shown in Figure 5, a TUSK is similar to a kite. It is connected to a
submarine foundation and has wings and a rudder and is equipped with axial turbines
that can be directionally controlled to increase the efficiency of power generation [88,90].
Ducted turbines (DC) and shaftless ducted turbines (SDT) are also new tidal turbines that
have recently emerged and have an additional duct compared to conventional paddle tur-
bines. The duct makes use of the Venturi effect, where a restricted flow appears to increase
in velocity as it passes through a reduced cross-section, the velocity of which is inversely
proportional to the cross-section. The efficiency of tidal energy harvesting can be in-
creased by controlling the tide. The SDT is similar to the DT but has no shaft, which re-
duces the effect on the flow field and improves the performance of the turbine by avoiding
fatigue damage caused by the shaft. The 500 kW rated SDT at the Paimpol Bréhal site in
Northern France is shown in Figure 6. The detailed hydrodynamic-energy losses of DT
and SDT were compared by Song et al. using CFD methods and the results showed that
SDT has higher power levels at low tip-to-velocity ratios (TSR) with reduced potential
flow resistance and disturbance relative to DT [91]. Additionally, DT and SDT have been
studied by many scholars [92–98]. These new turbines, based on conventional turbine de-
signs, have many advantages but are currently less researched and less developed. In the
future, as the technology of these new turbines develops further, they will replace con-
ventional turbines for TCG.

Figure 5. Diagram of the TUSK [90].

Energies 2022, 15, 8042 8 of 19

Figure 6. The use of SDT in reality [99].

In addition, there are many other collection devices that have different working prin-
ciples from turbines. Ma et al. used fluttering wings to extract tidal energy and proposed
a biplane coupled hydraulic system to achieve self-sustained oscillatory motion of the air-
foil. It has obvious advantages in shallow waters [100,101]. Under current conditions, al-
most all commercial TCG systems use turbines to harvest tidal energy. Although some
other types of TCG exist, they cannot be used on a large scale due to a variety of problems.
For example, the fluttering wings unit is suitable for areas with shallow water depths but
is less powerful than the turbine in conventional waters.

3. Power Generation unit Study

The power generation unit is the core of the TCG system. Its main role is to convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy and store it. The main parts of a power genera-
tion unit are the generator, controller, and transformer. The turbine collects tidal energy
and converts it into mechanical energy, and the generator converts the mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The energy is then converted into a current by a converter, the trans-
former changes the voltage, and finally, it flows into the grid to collect electricity. This
process is accompanied by a controller to control the efficiency of the generated electricity.
Generator optimization design and power control are the focus of this field.

3.1. Design of Power Generator

The choice of generator is a factor to be considered when designing a tidal power
system. Currently, there are two types. One is an asynchronous generator and the other is
a synchronous generator.
Asynchronous generators are simple, robust, and particularly suitable for high cir-
cumferential speed motors. They have high reliability due to the absence of collector rings
and carbon brushes, regardless of the place of use. The absence of a rotor excitation field
eliminates the need for synchronization and voltage regulation devices and simplifies the
required power station equipment. The two main types of asynchronous generators cur-
rently used are the squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) and the wound rotor induc-
tion generator (WRIG). Figure 7 shows a TCG system based on SCIG [101,102] consisting
of a turbine, gearbox, SCIG, and transformer.
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 9 of 19

Figure 7. SCIG-based TCG system.

Figure 8 shows a WRIG-based TCG system consisting of a turbine, gearbox, WRIG,

back-to-back bi-directional converter, control system, and transformer [103]. The genera-
tor used in this system has a variable speed and a constant frequency. When the rotor
speed is less than the synchronous speed, the rotor absorbs power from the grid to provide
rotor excitation [104]. A comparative study of the different modes of operation of doubly
fed induction generators and permanent magnet synchronous generators on tidal turbines
was carried out by Sur et al. [105].

Figure 8. WRIG-based TCG system.

Synchronous generators, which require an external excitation current, have the same
stator speed and the same magnetic field speed. Among the available synchronous
generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) are the most widely used
[106]. Figure 9 shows a TCG system based on a PMSG. The PMSG replaces excitation by
excitation winding with permanent magnet excitation, (excitation: the device that pro-
vides the generator with an operating magnetic field) resulting in a simpler motor struc-
ture, lower machining and assembly costs, and the elimination of problematic collector
rings and brushes, increasing the reliability of motor operation. As no excitation current
is required, there are no excitation losses, which improves the efficiency of the motor. Not
requiring an excitation current also increases the efficiency and power density of the mo-
tor. PMSG has been studied by many scholars during the period of 2018 to 2022. A linear
rotating motion permanent magnet generator capable of meeting the requirements of
wave and tidal energy generation has been designed by Guo et al. [107] A permanent
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 10 of 19

magnet generator design has been proposed by Touimi et al. and an analysis of the cost-
effectiveness of the system has been made [22]. Zhang et al. proposed an optimized design
method for double-stator PMSG [108].

Figure 9. PMSG-based tidal TCG system.

With the development of science and technology, some new technologies have also
been applied to power generation. Nanogenerators are one of the emerging technologies
that have been applied in energy harvesting and new sensors due to their high sensitivity
and flexible structure. The principle of friction nanogenerators uses nylon and PTFE,
which gather electrons when they come into contact and generate electricity through rel-
ative friction. Shen et al. provided an overview of the current environment of friction nan-
ogenerators from various perspectives and provide an outlook for the future. They have
greater advantages in low-frequency (<5 Hz) environments and have greater potential for
remote sea deployment and large-scale nanogenerator network construction [109]. Yang
et al. designed a fully packaged water wheel-like rolling friction-electrical-electromag-
netic hybrid nanogenerator. A fully packaged rolling frictional electro-electromagnetic
hybrid nanogenerator of the waterwheel type can be utilized in harsh environments (e.g.,
underwater) to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy to power electrical equip-
ment [110]. In addition, a disc generator for ocean wave energy harvesting, coaxial to the
magnetic gear, was designed by Dobzhansky. et al., who investigated its performance
characteristics. The permanent magnets of both the generator and the MG are arranged in
a special way to improve the overall performance of the system [111]. Zhao, H. designed
a new double modulator magneto-gear machine for TCG, which has the advantage of high
torque output at low speeds [112]. A novel magnetically geared tubular linear motor for
tidal and wave energy conversion has been designed by Ho et al. Compared to existing
products of this type, this machine has a higher force density due to its transmission effect,
resulting in a simpler mechanical structure [113].
Comparing the different generators, synchronous generators and asynchronous gen-
erators are now the mainstay. Synchronous generators are more efficient but complex,
expensive and relatively difficult to maintain, while asynchronous generators are less ef-
ficient, but easier to install and use, and are cheaper. Asynchronous generators are advan-
tageous for small installations or where tidal currents are constant and stable, but real
tidal currents are highly unstable, and the scale of generation is generally large in order
to increase the capacity of the power platform. Therefore, synchronous generators are the
better choice.
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 11 of 19

3.2. Power Generation Control

Due to the random nature of the tides, their speed is variable. The power of the gen-
erator varies dynamically on a curve. This requires control of the variables associated with
energy handling. In recent years, maximum power point tracking (MPPT) of TCG systems
has become a popular research topic [114–117]. There are three types of MPPT methods,
the first being the tip speed ratio (TSR), another being the perturbation and observation
(PO) and the last being the power signal feedback (PSF)/optimum torque (OT) method
[118].
The proportional–integral (PI) controller is widely used in TCG systems [119]. As a
linear controller, the PI regulator controls an object by linearly combining the proportional
and integral deviations of the given value with the actual output value to form a control
deviation [120–124]. (Figure 10 shows the working principle of the PI controller).

Figure 10. PI controller working diagram.

A reactive voltage control strategy for wind farms that takes into account reactive
power adequacy and end voltage balance was proposed by Dai et al. The reduction in
terminal voltage difference is approximately 2.8% and the reduction in active power losses
in wind farms under disturbing conditions such as load is approximately 7.8% [125].
Toumi et al. proposed a robust variable step size perturbation observation algorithm. It
improves the quality of the extracted power by 0.88%, 1.78% and 3.82% over SS-P&O, LS-
P&O and VS-P&O, respectively [126]. Dong et al. studied the simple power controller of
a horizontal axis-independent power flow generation system. The MPPT controller
provides a simple and practical method for maximum power control of independent tidal
flow energy conversion systems [127]. Zhu et al. proposed a power smoothing control
strategy based on kinetic energy for permanent magnet synchronous generators in wind
power conversion systems. The output power efficiency of the power smoothing method
is lower than that of the maximum power control. The effectiveness of rotor kinetic energy
control was verified [128]. Nguyen et al. proposed a robust control method for permanent
magnet synchronous generators based on error symbols. When we use the proposed
controller, the power coefficient value is almost kept at its maximum value, which is better
than the PID controller [129].
Current research on controlling power generation systems has seen scholars
investigate control systems from various perspectives, with some making optimized
designs based on MPPT and analyzing the impact of new algorithms on power. Some
scholars have made studies from the perspective of controllers, analyzing the impact of
different controllers on the efficiency of power generation. Others have designed control
methods for power generation systems based on other parameters. Nowadays, CAE
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 12 of 19

technology is very popular and power studies of power generation systems are widely
carried out. In the future, the power of power generation systems will be studied more
intensively and the algorithms for power will be more accurate.

4. Summary and Analysis of Future Trend

Due to the effects of climate change, people have started to think about how to save
energy and reduce emissions, and in order to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, research-
ers and energy companies in various countries are focusing on renewable and clean en-
ergy [130]. As one of the renewable clean energy sources, tidal energy is a predictable
energy source that depends on the gravitational force of the Moon and the Sun and the
centrifugal force generated by the rotation of the Earth-Moon system. The oceans cover
70% of the Earth’s surface area, so the total amount of tidal energy is enormous. As a
result, the potential for tidal energy is huge, and in the future, tidal energy will become
one of the world’s major forms of power generation. Over the years, the field of tidal en-
ergy has gained considerable ground, with many large tidal power stations having been
built around the world, and many companies involved in TCG having emerged around
the world.
Turbine and PMSG are widely used in the field of TCG and are the focal points of
research in recent years. As the most ideal energy harvesting device at present, the high
capital and maintenance costs required to operate turbines in harsh seabed environments
currently limit their commercial feasibility [131]. Efficient power generation and low
maintenance are the design goals of turbines. The durability, robustness, and energy col-
lection efficiency of turbines are the main performance indicators. A comparison between
HATCT and VATCT is shown in Figure 11. HATCT has been in development for a long
time and the technology is more complete. VATCT has many advantages over the hori-
zontal axis turbine, but due to the lower amount of research and shorter time in develop-
ment, few VATCTs are currently in commercial use. The HATCT has a simple structure,
and the pouches are analyzed using the BEMT, making it less difficult to design, while the
VATCT has more complex movements and is more difficult to design. Therefore, the
HATCT has developed for longer and faster than VATCT, which is the main reason why
the VATCT is used less frequently. The HATCT is subject to gravity, its load profile is
variable, and its fatigue strength is poor, while the VATCT has a constant load and good
fatigue strength, and the power unit can be installed on the surface, so it costs less money
to install and maintain. As tidal power is similar to wind power, this paper makes refer-
ence to wind turbines for the comparison of the two types of turbines [29]. Unlike wind
power, the load from gravity is reduced in the ocean due to buoyancy and the movement
direction of the tide is not as variable as wind. These advantages are combined with the
low design difficulty and established development of horizontal axis turbines, which
makes the advantages of VATCT over HATCT not as obvious. Although VATCTs have
many advantages, they are still not widely used.
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 13 of 19

Figure 11. The comparison of HATCT and VATCT.

Turbine arrays are a hot topic for both VATCT and HATCT. Multiple turbine arrays
can greatly increase the efficiency of tidal power generation, but the impact of the turbines
on each other cannot be ignored. The wake generated by the turbines affects the state of
the flow field around them and therefore the efficiency of the entire array, so the layout
to maximize the efficiency of the power generation has become a focal point. Many of the
current commercial tidal power platforms use a two-rotor design. Large-scale turbine ar-
rays are also required for larger power stations. The use of tidal energy is increasing, and
more large-scale power stations are being built, so the study of turbine arrays is necessary.
Ouro et al. experimented with arrays of two types of turbines. Three sites were selected,
in which the HATCT array and VATCT array were set up, respectively, and the arrays
were tested for power generation. The results showed that the HATCT achieved an aver-
age power of 49.3 W m−2 and the VATCT array averaged 34.7 W m−2 across the three sites.
The HATCT array had higher power density when the tidal flow velocity was high, and
the VATCT had higher power density when the flow velocity was low. This is mainly
because HATCT has higher energy harvesting efficiency than VATCT when the tidal flow
velocity is high. Although the energy collected by the VATCT is not limited to one direc-
tion, in a real site, the peak of tidal energy is at high tide and low tide, and there is less
energy at normal times [132].
In the future, as research into VATCT intensifies, the performance of VATCT will be
further improved, design costs will be reduced, and the use of VATCT in tidal power
turbines will rise. However, HATCT technology is also advancing with the emergence of
new horizontal axis turbines such as the DT and SDT, which are also improving in per-
formance. Therefore, this paper infers that vertical-axis turbines will not completely re-
place horizontal-axis turbines.
As the core of a power generation system, PMSG is widely used in TCG due to its
high efficiency and high torque. The efficiency of permanent magnet synchronous gener-
ators can be improved by optimizing the design of the generator itself by starting with the
components of the generator, such as by optimizing the permanent magnet material, de-
signing new rotor structures, or researching more efficient mechanical structures such as
gearboxes. Control techniques that combine power converters to optimize the power gen-
eration system, such as MPPT, can also improve MPSG efficiency. There are two main
types of MPPT. The first is the optimal characteristic curve method, which includes the
blade tip speed ratio method and the optimal torque (OT) method. The other method is
the hill climbing algorithm, which may not give the best results because it is not a com-
prehensive search. Researchers generally propose a new fuzzy control MPPT algorithm,
Energies 2022, 15, 8042 14 of 19

use data analysis and simulation software, and compare the results with conventional
MPPT methods to conclude.
The future trends in TCG are focused on several areas. The first is in tidal energy
harvesting, focusing mainly on the hydrodynamic performance of turbines and array re-
search. HATCT and VATCT are the two research directions. In addition to the traditional
turbines, new turbines, such as DT and SDT turbines, have emerged for horizontal axis
tidal turbines, while VATCT has also been gaining ground in recent years. Secondly, in
the area of power generation, the use of permanent magnet synchronous generators in
tidal power systems will become more widespread in the future. Future research will fo-
cus on optimizing the design of generators and the control technology innovation of the
power generation system, thus driving the efficiency of power generation. Thirdly, tidal
power stations will become more popular around the world. Today’s renewable energy
generation technologies are developing rapidly, but the current total amount of tidal en-
ergy generation is relatively small. The small number and scale of power stations are one
of the key reasons why. However, as the number of tidal power stations rises around the
world, tidal power generation is also set for a huge breakthrough.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.Q. and X.T.; methodology, Z.Q.; software, X.T.; vali-
dation, Z.Q., X.T. and Y.-T.W.; formal analysis, S.-K.L.; investigation, Y.-T.W.; resources, X.T.; data
curation, Z.Q.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.Q.; writing—review and editing, X.T.; visual-
ization, Y.-T.W.; supervision, Y.-T.W.; project administration, S.-K.L.; funding acquisition, Z.Q. and
S.-K.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province under
Grant ZR2022QE085, and the Regional Leading Research Center of NRF and MOCIE (NRF-
2019R1A5A8083201).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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