EDITH DOUGLAS HIGHER

SECONDARY SCHOOL

PHYSICS
INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
2023 – 2024
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

Submitted by : Submitted to :
Festus L Hmar Rajesh Singha
Class - XI Physics Teacher
Roll No. 3
 INDEX
❖ PRESSURE
❖ EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
❖ DANIEL BERNOULLI
❖ INTRODUCTION TO BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
❖ BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
❖ EXPERIMENT
❖ APPLICATIONS
❖ CONCLUSIONS
 PRESSURE
▪ Pressure, in the physical sciences, is the
perpendicular force per unit area , or the stress at a
point within a confined fluid.

▪ In SI units , pressure is measured in pascals;

one pascal equals one newton per square metre.

▪ Absolute pressure of a gas or liquid is the total

pressure it exerts, including the effect of
atmospheric pressure. An absolute pressure of zero
corresponds to empty space or a complete vacuum.

▪ Pressure is a scalar quantity.

 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

▪ According to the equation of continuity Av =

constant. Where A =cross-sectional area and v=velocity
with which the fluid flows.

▪ It means that if any liquid is flowing in streamline

flow in a pipe of non-uniform cross-section area, then
rate of flow of liquid across any cross-section remains
constant.

Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying

thickness.
Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A1 and cross-
sectional area of other end (II) = A2.

The velocity and density of the fluid at one end (I)=v1, ρ1

respectively, velocity and density of fluid at other
end (II) = v2, ρ2
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time
Δt, across left cross-sectional is Area (I) =A1xv1xΔt
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time
Δt, across right cross-sectional Area (II) = A2x v2xΔt
Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of fluid does not
change by applying pressure) that is density remains
same. {ρ1=ρ2 .... (equation 1)}
Along (I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1Δt and along second point (II) ,
mass = ρ2A2 v2Δt
By using equation (1), we can conclude that
A1 v1 = A2 v2.This is the equation of continuity.
From Equation of continuity we can say that
Av=constant.
This equation is also termed as “Conservation of mass of
incompressible fluids”.
 DANIEL BERNOULLI

Daniel Bernoulli (8 February 1700 – 17 March 1782) was

a Swiss mathematician and physicist and was one of the
many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family.
He is particularly remembered for his applications of
mathematics to mechanics, especially fluid mechanics,
and for his pioneering work in probability and statistics.
His name is commemorated in the Bernoulli's principle,
a particular example of the conservation of energy, which
describes the mathematics of the mechanism underlying
the operation of two important technologies of the 20th
century: the carburetor and the airplane wing.

Together Bernoulli and Euler tried to discover more about

the flow of fluids. It was known that a moving body
exchanges its kinetic energy for potential energy when it
gains height. Daniel realised that in a similar way, a
moving fluid exchanges its specific kinetic energy for
pressure, the former being the kinetic energy per unit
volume.
 INTRODUCTION TO
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an
increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously
with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's
potential energy. The principle is named after Daniel
Bernoulli, as mentioned before, who published it in his
book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Although Bernoulli
deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed
increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's
equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle is only
applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of
irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic
processes (e.g.heat radiation) are small and can be
neglected.

Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of

fluid flow, resulting in various forms of Bernoulli's
equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's equation
for different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's
equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid
flows and gases moving at low Mach number). More
advanced forms may be applied to compressible flows at
higher Mach numbers.

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of

conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady flow,
the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline
is the same at all points on that streamline. This requires
that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and
internal energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the
speed of the fluid – implying an increase in its kinetic
energy (dynamic pressure) – occurs with a simultaneous
decrease in (the sum of) its potential energy (including the
static pressure) and internal energy. If the fluid is flowing
out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the
same on all streamlines because in a reservoir the energy
per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational
potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from

Isaac Newton's Second Law of Motion. If a small volume
of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high
pressure to a region of low pressure, then there is more
pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on
the volume, accelerating it along the streamline.

Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own

weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a
section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can
only be because the fluid on that section has moved from
a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure;
and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has
moved from a region of lower pressure to a region of
higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing
horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the pressure
is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure
is highest.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
The equation is given as,
P + 1/2(ρ v2) + ρgh = 0
Where P is pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is its
velocity, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the
height of the fluid from the ground.

DERIVATION

Finding the Work Done

First, we will calculate the work done (W1) on the fluid in the
region BC. Work done is
W1 = P1A1 (v1Δt) = P1ΔV
Moreover, if we consider the equation of continuity, the same
volume of fluid will pass through BC and DE. Therefore, work
done by the fluid on the right-hand side of the pipe or DE region
is W2 = P2A2 (v2Δt) = P2ΔV
Thus, we can consider the work done on the fluid as – P2ΔV.
Therefore, the total work done on the fluid is
W1 – W2 = (P1 − P2) ΔV
The total work done helps to convert the gravitational potential
energy and kinetic energy of the fluid. Now, consider the fluid
density as ρ and the mass passing through the pipe as Δm in the
Δt interval of time.
Hence, Δm = ρA1 v1Δt = ρΔV

Change in Gravitational Potential and Kinetic

Energy
Now, we have to calculate the change in gravitational potential
energy ΔU.
Similarly, the change in ΔK or kinetic energy can be written as

Calculation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Applying work-energy theorem in the volume of the fluid, the
equation will be

Dividing each term by ΔV, we will obtain the equation

Rearranging the equation will yield

The above equation is the Bernoulli’s equation. However, the 1

and 2 of both the sides of the equation denotes two different
points along the pipe. Thus, the general equation can be written
as
 EXPERIMENT
This experiment is aimed at investigating the validity of
Bernoulli’s equation when applied to a steady flow of
water in tapered duct and to measure the flow rate of
steady flow rates. Based on Bernoulli’s theorem relates
the pressure, velocity, and elevation in a moving fluid
the compressibility and viscosity (internal friction) of
which are negligible and the flow of which is steady, or
laminar.

For this experiment, by using the FM 24 Bernoulli’s

Apparatus Test Equipment is to demonstrate the
Bernoulli’s theorem. The experiment was conducted in
order to find the time taken to collect 3L of water, the
volumetric flow rates of the water, the pressure
difference at all manometer tube at different cross
section. The time to collect 0.003 m3 water is recorded
based on the different flow rate for each experiment.

The combination of venture meter complete with

manometer tube and hydraulic bench were used. During
the experiment, water is fed through a hose connector
and the flow rate can be adjusted at the flow regulator
valve at the outlet of the test section. The venture can be
demonstrated as a means of flow measurement and the
discharge coefficient can be determined the results show
the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the
pressure difference increases. From the reading of height
can be calculated the data by applied the Bernoulli
equation to fin the velocity of the fluid moving.
The pressure level and velocity reading for part A to E of
the tube is recorded. From Bernoulli theory, the relation
between the increase and decrease in the pressure value
is inversely proportional to its velocity. Bernoulli's
Principle tells that as the fluid flows more quickly
through the narrow sections, the pressure actually
decreases rather than increases. Thus, it proves the
validity of Bernoulli’s theorem.
 APPLICATIONS
In modern everyday life there are many observations
that can be successfully explained by application of
Bernoulli's principle, even though no real fluid is entirely
inviscid and a small viscosity often has a large effect on
the flow.
∎ An injector on a steam locomotive (or static boiler).

∎ A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to

create a force by turning pressure energy generated by
the combustion of propellants into velocity. This then
generates thrust by way of Newton's third law of motion.

∎ The pilot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to

determine the airspeed of the aircraft. These two devices
are connected to the airspeed indicator, which
determines the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the
aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference between
stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's
principle is used to calibrate the airspeed indicator so
that it displays the indicated airspeed appropriate to the
dynamic pressure.

∎ Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift

force on an airfoil, if the behaviour of the fluid flow in the
vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if the air
flowing past the top surface of an aircraft wing is moving
faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface, then
Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the
surfaces of the wing will be lower above than below. This
pressure difference results in an upwards lifting force.
Whenever the distribution of speed past the top and
bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces can be
calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's
equations – established by Bernoulli over a century
before the first man-made wings were used for the
purpose of flight. Bernoulli's principle does not explain
why the air flows faster past the top of the wing and
slower past the underside.

∎ The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a

non-contact adhesive force between a surface and the
gripper.

∎ The carburettor used in many reciprocating engines

contains a venturi to create a region of low pressure to
draw fuel into the carburettor and mix it thoroughly with
the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a
venturi can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the
narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and
therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
∎ The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a
device such as a Venturi meter or an orifice plate, which
can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of
the flow. For a horizontal device, the continuity equation
shows that for an incompressible fluid, the reduction in
diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed.

Subsequently, Bernoulli's principle then shows that

there must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced
diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the
Venturi effect.

∎ The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a

hole or tap at the base can be calculated directly from
Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to
the square root of the height of the fluid in the tank. This
is Torricelli's law, showing that Torricelli's law is
compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers
this drain rate. This is reflected in the discharge
coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number
and the shape of the orifice.
 CONCLUSION
Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is
flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the
pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is
higher, and the pressure is higher where the pipe opens
out and the fluid stagnate. Many people find this
situation paradoxical when they first encounter it
(higher velocity, lower pressure). Venturimeter, atomiser
and filter pump Bernoulli’s principle is used in
venturimeter to find the rate of flow of a liquid. It is used
in a carburettor to mix air and petrol vapour in an
internal combustion engine. Bernoulli’s principle is used
in an atomiser and filter pump. Wings of Aeroplane
Wings of an aeroplane are made tapering. The upper
surface is made convex and the lower surface is made
concave. Due to this shape of the wing, the air currents
at the top have a large velocity than at the bottom.
Consequently the pressure above the surface of the wing
is less as compared to the lower surface of the wing. This
difference of pressure is helpful in giving a vertical lift to
the plane.