Materi Kuliah Ke - 6

FAKULTAS TEKNIK
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
CALCULUS 2
KULIAH KE - 6
Pertemu Sasaran Pembelajaran
Pokok Bahasan dan Sub Pokok Bahasan
an ke- Penunjang
1. Mahasiswa dapat [ Chapter D. Persamaan parabola,

Varberg, E. J.
menyederhanakan elips dan hiperbola
Purcell, S.E.
persamaan parabola, Rigdon, Calculus, dengan mentranslasi
elips dan hiperbola 9th ed., PEARSON, atau merotasi sumbu
dengan mentranslasi atau Prentice Hall, 2007, koordinat
Chapter 10.].
merotasi sumbu
koordinat. H. Anton, I. Bivens,
2. Mahasiswa dapat S.Davis, Calculus,
membuat persamaan John Wiley & Son,
2012, Chapter 10.]
parametrik dari kurva di
bidang.
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS; TANGENT
LINES AND ARC LENGTH
FOR PARAMETRIC CURVES
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
• Suppose that a particle moves along a curve C in the xy-plane in such a
way that its x- and y-coordinates, as functions of time, are :
x = f (t), y = g(t)
• We call these the parametric equations of motion for the particle and
refer to C as the trajectory of the particle or the graph of the equations.
• The variable t is called the parameter for the equations.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the trajectory over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 10 of the particle whose
parametric equations of motion are x = t − 3 sin t ; y = 4 − 3 cos t
EXAMPLE
Find the graph of the parametric equations x = cos t, y = sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π)
One way to find the graph is to eliminate the parameter t by noting that
EXPRESSING ORDINARY FUNCTIONS PARAMETRICALLY
• An equation y = f (x) can be expressed in parametric form by introducing

the parameter t = x ; this yields the parametric equations
x = t, y = f (t)
EXAMPLE
The portion of the curve y = cos x over the interval [−2π, 2π] can be
expressed parametrically as :
x = t, y = cos t (−2π ≤ t ≤ 2π)
TANGENT LINES TO PARAMETRIC CURVES
• We will be concerned with curves that are given by parametric equations:
x = f (t), y = g (t)
in which f (t) and g (t) have continuous first derivatives with respect to t.
It can be proved that if dx/dt ≠ 0, then y is a differentiable function of x, in
which case the chain rule implies that :
• The tangent line to a parametric curve will be horizontal at those points

where dy/dt = 0 and dx/dt ≠ 0
• At points where dx/dt = 0 and dy/dt ≠ 0, the curve has infinite slope and a
vertical tangent line at such points
• At points where dx/dt and dy/dt are both zero, we call such points
singular points
TANGENT LINES TO PARAMETRIC CURVES
EXAMPLE
1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the unit circle x = cos t, y = sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π)
at the point where t = π/6
2. Without eliminating the parameter, find dy/dx and d2y/dx2 at (1, 1)

ARC LENGTH OF PARAMETRIC CURVES
ARC LENGTH OF PARAMETRIC CURVES
EXAMPLE
Find the circumference of a circle of radius a from the parametric equations :
THE CYCLOID (THE APPLE OF DISCORD)
POLAR COORDINATES
POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• A polar coordinate system in a plane consists of a fixed point O, called
the pole (or origin), and a ray emanating from the pole, called the polar
axis.
• The polar coordinates of a point are not unique. For example, the polar
coordinates (1, 7π/4), (1,− π/4), and (1, 15π/4) all represent the same
point.
• In general, if a point P has polar coordinates (r, θ), then :

(r, θ + 2nπ) and (r, θ − 2nπ)
are also polar coordinates of P for any nonnegative integer n
(− r, θ) and (r, θ + π) are polar coordinates of the same point

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLAR AND RECTANGULAR
COORDINATES
• Every point P will have both rectangular coordinates (x, y) and polar
coordinates (r, θ).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLAR AND RECTANGULAR
COORDINATES
EXAMPLE
• Find the rectangular coordinates of the point P whose polar coordinates are (r, θ) =
(6, 2π/3)
• Find polar coordinates of the point P whose rectangular coordinates are (−2,−2√ 3 )
GRAPHS IN POLAR COORDINATES
• We will now consider the problem of graphing equations in r and θ,

where θ is assumed to be measured in radians. Some examples of such
equations are
r = 1, θ= π/4, r= θ, r = sin θ, r = cos 2θ
• In a rectangular coordinate system the graph of an equation in x and y

consists of all points whose coordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation.
• However, in a polar coordinate system, points have infinitely many

different pairs of polar coordinates, so that a given point may have some
polar coordinates that satisfy an equation and others that do not.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the graphs of (a) r = 1 (b) θ = π / 4 in polar coordinates.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of r = θ (θ ≥ 0) in polar coordinates by plotting points
EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of the equation r = sin θ in polar coordinates by plotting points
EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of r = cos 2θ in polar coordinates.
SYMMETRY TESTS
SYMMETRY TESTS
EXAMPLE
Use Theorem 10.2.1 to confirm that the graph of r = cos 2θ is symmetric about the
x-axis and y-axis.
•To test for symmetry about the x-axis, we replace θ by − θ. This yields
r = cos(−2θ) = cos 2θ
Thus, replacing θ by −θ does not alter the equation.
• To test for symmetry about the y-axis, we replace θ by π − θ. This yields
r = cos 2(π − θ) = cos(2π − 2θ) = cos(−2θ) = cos 2θ
Thus, replacing θ by π − θ does not alter the equation.
SYMMETRY TESTS
EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of r = a(1 − cos θ) in polar coordinates, assuming a to be a
positive constant
Observe first that replacing θ by (−θ) does not alter the equation, so we know in
advance that the graph is symmetric about the x-axis
This heart-shaped curve is called a cardioid (from the Greek word kardia meaning “heart” ).
SYMMETRY TESTS
SYMMETRY TESTS
EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of r2 = 4 cos 2θ in polar coordinates.
FAMILIES OF CIRCLES
FAMILIES OF ROSE CURVES
FAMILIES OF CARDIOIDS AND LIMAÇONS
• Equations with any of the four forms
r = a ± b sin θ or r = a ± b cos θ
in which a > 0 and b > 0 represent polar curves called limaçons
FAMILIES OF SPIRALS
A spiral is a curve that coils around a central point
SPIRALS IN NATURE
TANGENT LINES, ARC LENGTH, AND
AREA FOR POLAR CURVES
TANGENT LINES TO POLAR CURVES
• Our first objective in this section is to find a method for obtaining slopes of
tangent lines to polar curves of the form r = f (θ) in which r is a differentiable
function of θ.
• Substituting f (θ) for r in the equations x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, yields :
TANGENT LINES TO POLAR CURVES
EXAMPLE
Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle r = 4 cos θ at the point where θ = π/4.
We have dr/dθ = −4 sin θ

TANGENT LINES TO POLAR CURVES AT THE ORIGIN
ARC LENGTH OF A POLAR CURVE
EXAMPLE .
Find the arc length of the spiral r = eθ in Figure between θ = 0 and θ = π
ARC LENGTH OF A POLAR CURVE
EXAMPLE .
Find the total arc length of the cardioid r = 1 + cos θ
AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES
The hardest part of applying (6) is determining the limits of integration

EXAMPLE
Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is within the cardioid r =
1− cos θ
The region and a typical radial line are shown in Figure. For the radial line
to sweep out the region, θ must vary from 0 to π/2. Thus, from (6) with α = 0
and β = π/2
EXAMPLE
Find the entire area within the cardioid of previous Example.
For the radial line to sweep out the entire cardioid, θ must vary from 0 to 2π.
Thus, from (6) with α = 0 and β = 2π,
USING SYMMETRY
• Although Formula (6) is applicable if r = f (θ) is negative, area computations can
sometimes be simplified by using symmetry to restrict the limits of integration to
intervals where r ≥ 0.
EXAMPLE
Find the area of the region enclosed by the rose curve r = cos 2θ.
• The area in the first quadrant that is swept out for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/4 is one-eighth of the
total area inside the rose
USING SYMMETRY
EXAMPLE
Find the area of the region outside the cardioid r = 1+ cos θ and inside the circle
r = 3 sin θ
USING SYMMETRY

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FAKULTAS TEKNIK

1. Mahasiswa dapat [ Chapter D. Persamaan parabola,

• An equation y = f (x) can be expressed in parametric form by introducing

• The tangent line to a parametric curve will be horizontal at those points

2. Without eliminating the parameter, find dy/dx and d2y/dx2 at (1, 1)

• In general, if a point P has polar coordinates (r, θ), then :

(− r, θ) and (r, θ + π) are polar coordinates of the same point

• We will now consider the problem of graphing equations in r and θ,

r = 1, θ= π/4, r= θ, r = sin θ, r = cos 2θ

• In a rectangular coordinate system the graph of an equation in x and y

• However, in a polar coordinate system, points have infinitely many

We have dr/dθ = −4 sin θ

The hardest part of applying (6) is determining the limits of integration

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