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Instructors Manual 13e Final

The document discusses environmental ethics and interrelationships. It introduces three main theories of environmental ethics: anthropocentric, which focuses on human interests; biocentric, which recognizes rights of all organisms; and ecocentric, which considers the environment as a whole. It also discusses the need for global cooperation and management of environmental issues as problems can transcend borders. Corporations are examining their impacts and some have adopted sustainability principles to balance economic and environmental concerns.

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Rico Abbiegail

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

29 views

Instructors Manual 13e Final

Uploaded by

Rico Abbiegail

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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CHAPTER 1

ENVIRONMENTAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field which includes traditional science, societal

values, and political awareness. The reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone National Park
demonstrates how many seemingly unrelated factors are “interrelated.” An ecosystem is defined
as the region in which organisms interact with their environment.

There are several major environmental challenges that face the world today. Ecosystems and
related environmental issues transcend political and social borders demonstrating further the
importance of the concept of interrelatedness in environmental science. Additionally,
environmental management must strongly consider human well-being as well as ecosystems.
Human well-being is more than just wealth but quality of life and how people feel about their
lives. Environmental issues often negatively affect human well-being such as increase in health
problems and the decrease in security. In our interconnected world, environmental issues must
be addressed and governed by the international community.

THE CONCEPTS
Environmental issues are interrelated because the natural world is organized into non-political
relational units between organisms and their environment called ecosystems.

Demonstrating the relationship between the natural environment and human well-being is a
core objective of the textbook.

Globalization has put more emphasis on global solutions to environmental issues.

KEY TERMS
ecosystem environmental science
environment science wilderness

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Finding solutions is difficult because different groups have different political and economic
views on what constitutes an environmental problem. Finding solutions has not always
been complicated because in the past the economy was less complicated and few people
understood the long-term environmental consequences of their actions.

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2. The natural world is organized into relational units between organisms and their
environment called ecosystems. An ecosystem approach requires consideration of these
relational units. It is the right approach because it looks at the natural world in its natural
state—without cultural or political bias.

3. The environment is the surrounding conditions that affect people and organisms. More
broadly, it means everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. For example, the
environment of the grizzly bear includes the physical conditions, such as climate and
habitat, as well as political and social decisions that affect its life. An ecosystem is a region
in which organisms and their physical environment form an interacting unit. An example is
the old-growth forest of the forested West.

4. Environmental conflicts arise when groups disagree on what constitutes an environmental

problem. Some people may feel justified in their use of a natural resource while others may
feel there is a diminished environment. Compromise between the groups is necessary.
Government should assist in assuring that all points of view are recognized and that a fair
decision is made. Economic and regional issues and long-term impact should be taken into
consideration when reaching the final compromise.
5. Management of saltwater species is a complicated issue in eastern North Carolina. For
example, sound scallops has been part of local diets for generations however recently the
scallop harvest season has been closed due to sever drops in scallop numbers. Recreational
groups blame commercial fisherman for overharvesting whereas the commercial fisherman
blame an increase in cow-nosed skates who eat scallops. Recent research has shown an
increase in cow-nosed skates is related to the over harvesting of sharks who prey on the
rays. There is no easy solution to the problem however it demonstrates an unbalanced
ecosystem negatively affects human well-being.

ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

In order to help students relate directly to the concept of regional environmental issues, obtain
newspaper articles covering local environmental issues for class discussion. This is an activity
which could be assigned to the students and continued throughout the semester in the form of an
environmental notebook. It will assist students in becoming more aware of the issues in their
local community.

Take a field trip to a local, state, or national park and “show” students the ecosystem they live in.
Discuss the ecosystem, climate, endangered species, land use management, etc…

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Have student’s visit Environmental Radio at http://www.enn.com/ and write a report on a news
story they heard.

“Ghana: Digital Dumping Ground” by Frontline World. 2009

http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/ghana804/video/video_index.html

Visit www.sciencedaily.com for current articles on environmental science.

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CHAPTER 2
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This chapter focuses on the various views and attitudes toward nature and how these views are
transformed into individual, corporate, and global ethics. Issues such as international
transportation of radioactive materials and the greenhouse effect illustrate the need for global
management of the planet’s resources.

Environmental ethics are divided into three theories: anthropocentric, which is derived from
human interests; biocentric, which assumes the rights of every organism; and ecocentric, which
considers the environment as a whole. In addition, three ethical views are presented: the
development ethic, which is based on the human benefit derived from natural resources; the
preservation ethic, which is based on the inherent worth and aesthetic value of nature; and the
conservation ethic, which works toward a balance between resource use and preservation.

Concepts such as sustainable development and environmental justice have become important
in attempting to balance economic growth with a healthy environment. Corporate and
industrial ethics and actions are reviewed with emphasis on their desire for economic growth
and resource exploitation, and the pollution which results from industrial energy use and
production of waste. As a result of public pressure, many corporations have adopted the
CERES principles to guide them in making decisions regarding proper waste disposal and
ethical profitability.

THE CONCEPTS

Some people believe that undeveloped resources should be used for the welfare of mankind and
to not exploit the resource is wasteful; others believe that natural resources have an inherent
value which should not be destroyed.

There are three basic views of environmental ethics: development, preservation, and
conservation.

There are three philosophical theories of applied ethics: anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and
ecocentrism.

Environmental justice refers to the impartiality that should guide human health and
environmental decisions.

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National Capitalism refers to the idea that businesses can sustain a profit while still protecting
the environment.

Triple Bottom Line is a business concept where corporations and companies factor
environmental and social success as well as financial success.

The U.S. consumes large amounts of the world’s resources. Each person can change their
consumer behavior to reduce their ecological footprint.

KEY TERMS
anthropocentric ecocentrism laws
ecological economics natural capitalism
biocentrism ecological footprint
economic growth preservationist
conservationist environmental justice
environmental ecomomics profitability
corporations ethics resource exploitation
cultural relativism externalize the costs
greenwashing sustainable development
development industrial ecology triple bottom line

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Ethical approaches to the environment have historically been anthropocentric. Ethics that
consider only human interests do not have a good track record for protecting the
environment. A new environmental ethic can help create a deeper appreciation of the need
to care for the natural environment.

2. The laws of a democratic country should map the ethical commitments of its citizenry. An
alternative way to look at the relationship is to think of the laws coinciding with a vision of
what makes for a good society. Not every action that is ethically correct can have a law
supporting it. Some actions will inevitably have to rely upon the ethics of individuals.

3. Anthropocentric ethics view all moral value in the world as derived from humans and their
interests. Biocentric ethics recognize the presence of moral value in all living creatures.
Ecocentric ethics find moral value in systemic wholes made up of both biotic and non-
biotic parts.

4. A pro-development attitude tends to adopt an anthropocentric approach to nature. It

sanctions any manipulation of nature that furthers human goals and interests.
Preservationism seeks to keep natural areas ecologically intact and as free from human
interference as possible. A conservationist approach seeks a balance between preservation
and development. This third approach looks for arrangements in which a broad range of
long-term human interests can be sustainability met.

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5. The environmental justice movement recognizes that civil rights issues can connect directly
to environmental issues. Environmental destruction affects people. Environmental justice
has been a valuable corrective to the idea that environmentalism is about saving wilderness
areas for the recreational benefit of elite groups.

6. Manufacturing goods for use and consumption by humans is often likely to incur some
environmental cost. Corporations are set up with an obligation to manufacture goods as

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profitably as possible. These profit margins can sometimes be directly impacted by the expense
of pollution controls.

7. Since corporations do not themselves have obligations to the environment, it must be their
executives, their shareholders, or their workers who move corporate behavior in a more
environmentally sustainable direction. On many occasions, corporations can also be
persuaded that it is in their economic interest to treat the environment kindly. Individual
consumers can also influence corporate behavior with their purchasing power.

8. Informed individuals can educate themselves about the environmental cost of their
consumer choices. Individuals can often make a big difference in their environmental
footprint by making a few responsible choices about how and how much they consume.
Environmentalists argue that better consumer choices also increase one’s quality of life,
bringing a payoff both for the environment and for the individual. Citizens living in
democracies can also implement their environmental ethics with their voting power.

9. Since we all live on one planet, the choices of people in one part of the world can end up
affecting the lives of those who live on the other side of the world. Since it is hard to
directly feel a moral obligation to those you will never know or see, global environmental
ethics requires international cooperation on a number of environmental issues. National self
interest might sometime have to give way to global environmental interest. In the long run,
what is good for the global environment will also be good for every nation that calls this
planet home.

10. The triple bottom line is an increasing popular business concept and model. Corporations
are realizing that employee as well as customer satisfaction and pride are very important to
financial success. Consumers are increasingly aware of corporate environmental and social
records and base their decisions on that record. Additionally, corporations understand the
health and wellness of their employees affect productivity and longevity ultimately helping
stable financial bottom lines. An example of a company attempting to apply the triple
bottom line concept is Google.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Assign further writings of the naturalist-authors (or even their biography) to give students a more
comprehensive view of the philosopher’s background and beliefs. Sand County Almanac, by
Aldo Leopold, and Silent Spring, by Rachel Carson, are both easy to read, inexpensive in
paperback form, and available in bookstores.

Have students read children’s books Henry Hikes to Fitchburg by D.B. Johnson (found online at
http://www.henryhikes.com/hikes/hikes.html) or The Lorax by Dr. Seuss. Children’s books are an
excellent way to evaluate important cultural ideals we are trying to transmit to our children. What is
the environmental ethics behind each book?

Have students contact local companies to obtain annual reports on their environmental policies.
Find out if these companies participate in any local stewardship programs or if they have their
own local environmental programs. Or research a large corporation and discuss whether they
adhere to the triple bottom line concept.
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Debate whether the triple bottom line is a realistic model for businesses.

Have students research “green” products or a “green” company. Which products/companies are
“greenwashing” and which are truly environmentally friendly.

Have students visit www.myfootprint.org and take the ecological footprint quiz. The quiz
calculates how many Earths it would take if everyone lived like YOU. Ask for reactions. In what
areas can they really improve their footprint?

Video – “The Human Footprint” by National Geographic (2008)

Video –“Bill Moyers’ Journal: 9/7/2007: Christians and the Environment”

(2007)

Video – “Bill Moyers’ Journal: 9/21/2007: Rachel Carson’s Legacy” (2007)

Seventh Annual Message to Congress Dec. 3, 1907 by Theodore Roosevelt – access
conservation statement at
http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/eight/trconserv.htm.
Video “Brazil: The Money Tree” -- http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/carbonwatch/
Information on how forests are becoming a corporate commodity to offset carbon emissions. A great
way to start a discussion on the triple bottom line and greenwashing.

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CHAPTER 3
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK: ECONOMICS,
ASSESSMENT, AND MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Three begins with a discussion of how we calculate risks in relation to the environment
and how individuals and corporations incorporate environmental impacts into their economic
decisions. In addition to supply and demand economics, pollution, health risks, and
environmental costs must be considered during decision making processes. This is difficult
because of the differences in the economic and ecological points of views. Globally, however,
there is a trend toward a new green economy where sustainable development is a priority.

Chapter Three continues by introducing governmental tools that can encourage environmental
stewardship. Examples include subsidies and governmental funds to revitalize “brownfields.”
Market based policies include information programs, tradable emissions permits, emission fees
and taxes, deposit-refund programs, and performance bonds. Requiring an understanding an
entire product’s life cycle, including disposal, adds an additional layer of corporate
responsibility.

Chapter Three concludes on issues and examples of global sustainable development. There are
five characteristics of sustainability: renewability, substitution, interdependence, adaptability,
and institutional commitment.

THE CONCEPTS

A risk assessment or calculation of probable harm to human health or the environment is used in
the decision making process in addition to social, economic, and political concerns.

Cost-benefit analysis can be used to help assign economic value to natural resources or calculate
environmental costs; however, it reduces all aspects of the issue into economic terms and there is
often inconsistencies when translating ecology into economics. Yet environmental degradation
has negative economic consequences and healthy ecosystems add wealth to communities.

The tragedy of commons theory argues that when there is shared ownership of a resource
individuals have a tendency to overharvest because they feel others will use all the resource.
However, the idea of green economics is gaining in global popularity leading to a new economic
transformation.

There are many market based approaches to encourage companies to address environmental
issues. These include subsidies, grants and liability protection, information programs, tradable
emission permits, emission fees and taxes, deposit programs, performance bonds, and life cycle
analysis.

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Sustainable development policies are increasing in importance worldwide and programs like
debt-for-nature are helping developing nations to conserve valuable natural resources.

KEY TERMS
biodegradable natural resources
natural capitalism risk
brownfields negligible risk risk assessment
cost-benefit analysis nonrenewable resources risk management
debt for nature exchanges pollution subsidy
deferred cost pollution costs supply
demand pollution prevention costs supply/demand curve
environmental costs price sustainable development
extended product responsibility probability
external costs renewable resources
life cycle analysis resources

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Risk assessment provides an orderly, clearly stated, and consistent way to deal with
scientific issues when evaluating whether a hazard exists and what the magnitude of the
hazard may be. It includes the probability of risk, the consequences of risk, and the
economics of risk.

2. A cost-benefit analysis includes identification of the project to be evaluated, determination

of favorable and unfavorable impacts, determination of the values of those impacts, and
calculation of the net benefit.

3. Criticism of the cost-benefit analysis is based on the question of whether everything has an
economic value. If economic thinking dominates society, then even noneconomic values,
like beauty, can survive only if a monetary value is assigned to them.

4. Sustainable development is criticized as being ambiguous and open to a wide range of

interpretations. There is confusion between the terms sustainable growth, sustainable use,
and sustainable development. In addition, since it requires a balance between economic
requirements and ecological concerns worldwide, some believe that the world should not
impose environmental protection standards upon poorer nations without also helping them
move into the economic mainstream.

5. External costs are costs not borne by the entity the causes the problem. Pollution of air and
water are often external costs since the people who cause the problem do not pay to clean it
up. Erosion damage by improper logging and abandoned waste sites are other examples.

6. Pollution-prevention costs are those incurred either in the private sector or by government
to prevent the pollution that would otherwise result from some production or consumption
activity.
7. Common-property resource development generally leads to overexploitation and misuse
because effectively no one owns the resource. Common ownership of air makes it virtually

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costless for any industry or individual to dispose of wastes by burning them. There is also a
lack of enforceable property rights to commonly owned resources.

8. In 1987, Conservation International bought $650,000 of Bolivia’s foreign debt in exchange

for Bolivia’s promise to establish a national park.

9. Subsidies may include consumer rebates for purchases of environmentally friendly goods,
loans for businesses planning to implement environmental products, and other monetary
incentives designed to reduce the costs of improving environmental performance. The cost
of government management of federal forests is a subsidy to the forest products industry.
Market-based instruments include: Information programs provide consumers with
information about the environmental consequences of purchasing decisions; Tradable
emissions permits; Emission fees and taxes; Deposit-refund programs; and Performance
bonds. Life cycle analysis is the process of assessing the environmental effects associated
with the production, use, re-use, and disposal of a product over its entire useful life. It
includes assigning dollar costs to such items as: pollution, disposal, energy costs, and
useful length of life.

10. People generally willingly accept risks with which they are familiar and which they
encounter daily, such as: the risks associated with automobile travel and the risk associated
with alcohol use.

11. Renewable: wildlife, soil, forests, freshwater, etc. Nonrenewable: iron ore, oil, coal, land,
mountains, etc.

12. The economic cost of environmental degradation is often not included as a factor in
economic analysis used to justify a project or action. However, the costs become obvious
with the passage of time. For example, cutting the trees on a hillside often leads to
increased erosion, which affects down-slope environments.

13. Manufactured products are required to be “taken back” from the consumer to the
manufacturer for recycling/reclaiming.

14. It might be able to gain environmental liability relief and/or grant funding and tax
incentives.

15. A variety of reasons: differences in liability tolerance; money; experience with

environmental issues; and/or perception differences.

16. It utilizes ecological risk factors to assess “true” vs. perceived risk, thus “risk based
corrective action (RBCA).”

17. Perception is reality when dealing with economic and environmental issues, as well as
health and safety.

18. Design for Environment (DfE) is preventative in that it allows for environmental protection
to be built into the design of a product (pre-production), thus potentially avoiding
environmental problems.

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19. Governments enact and/or enforce regulations that can help promote development of
sustainable products... as well as through tax incentives, grants, and other programs.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

A good way to get students to comprehend the complexity of management decisions is to have
them choose a local environmental issue (building of a new factory, power plant, shopping
center, etc., or the passing of new environmental laws) and cast students as the stakeholders.
Have them research their assigned stakeholder’s viewpoint and voice it in class stakeholder
meeting.

Have students perform cost benefit analysis on products that buy considering Chapter 2’s
triple bottom line concept or health benefits (i.e. organic foods). How much more are they
as consumers willing to pay for sustainable products?

Have students research an example of sustainable development (preferable local) and present
their information to the class. Questions for them to ponder: How is the project sustainable? Is it
economically feasible? Why or why not? Did any government policy help propel the project?

Ask your local brownfield DENR manager to speak to your class about current projects and
monitoring. Or have students give a presentation on brownfield success stories in your area (see
http://portal.ncdenr.org/web/wm/bf/success#22 for ideas in North Carolina).

Plan a field trip to local environmental hearing. Or plan a trip to your county’s or city’s
commissioner meeting when they are discussing an issue related to environmental science.

Plan a field trip to a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified
building. Discuss the certification and complete a cost benefit analysis.

Video – “Carbon Hunters” by Frontline World

http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/carbonwatch/2010/05/the-carbon-hunters.htmlCHAPTER
4
INTERRELATED SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES:
MATTER, ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Four begins with the definition of science which is the gathering and evaluation of
information. The scientific method includes observation, hypothesis formation, testing,
evaluation, and sharing of information.

Matter is defined as anything that takes up space, has mass, and is made of moving particles
called atoms. Chemical solutions of particular interest are acids which release hydrogen ions, and
bases which release hydroxyl ions.

Two important chemical reactions are photosynthesis in which plants convert sunlight, water,
and carbon dioxide into sugars, and respiration in which organisms break down large organic
molecules thereby releasing energy. The laws of thermodynamics state that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, but can be converted into different forms. Energy conversion can change
the quality of the energy and during conversion some energy is lost, usually in the form of heat.

THE CONCEPTS

Science is an exact body of knowledge in which observations are tested, evaluated, and
reviewed.

Environmental science is a discipline that includes both applied and theoretical aspects of
traditional science, and includes economic, social, and political considerations. The
Northern spotted owl conservation and protection is used as an example of how science
and politics converge in environmental issues

Matter is composed of small particles called atoms which have a specific subatomic structure of
protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms may be combined and held together by chemical bonds
to produce molecules.

The formation of chemical bonds between different molecules occurs during chemical reactions
which are associated with energy change. Two important biological reactions are photosynthesis
which forms large organic molecules from inorganic substances, and respiration in which large
molecules are broken down.

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to another and
can be of a different quality than its original form.
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KEY TERMS
acid hydroxide ion respiration
activation energy hypothesis scientific method

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atom ion second law of
base isotope thermodynamics
catalyst kinetic molecular theory theory
cause and effect relationship law of conservation of mass variables
chemical bond matter
compound mixture
controlled experiment molecule
electron neutron
element nucleus
endothermic reactions observation
entrophy pH
enzyme photosynthesis
exothermic reactions proton
experiment reproducibility combustion
first law of science
thermodynamics scientific law

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Scientific disciplines use a process whereby information is gathered through repeated
experiments, evaluation, and review by professional scientists. This information, in the
form of laws and theories, is shared with the scientific community through publications.
Non-scientific disciplines generally do not use regimented experimentation; instead, they
use observation, facts already in existence, and supposition.

2. A hypothesis is a logical statement that explains an event or answers a question. It is

important to scientific thinking because it must be testable—the scientist must be able to
support it or disprove it.

3. Sometimes the results from a one-time experiment are inconclusive—they neither support
nor disprove the hypothesis. A new experiment must be conducted or more information
collected. Repeatability is the process whereby scientists eliminate bias and test their
results by having independent investigators repeat their experiment. If a hypothesis is
supported by many experiments and different investigators, it is considered reliable.

4. The scientific method is the process of gathering information, and generally involves
observation, hypothesis formation, hypothesis testing, critical evaluation of results, and the
publishing of findings.

5. When energy is converted from one form to another, there is a loss of useful energy. This
loss is a form of pollution. An example would be the emissions from power plants.

6. See figure 4.2.

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7. The atoms in a molecule are held together by chemical bonds which result from the
interaction of the electrons. During a reaction, electronic attractions are rearranged and
bonds between them are either broken or new ones formed.

8. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
The second law states that when energy is transformed from one form to another there is a
loss of useful energy.

9. In solids, molecules have a low amount of energy and vibrate close to one another. In
liquids, higher-energy molecules are farther apart and flow over each other. In gases, the
molecules move rapidly and are far apart.

10. Five kinds of energy are heat, light, electricity, chemical energy, potential, and kinetic
energy.

11. Different energy forms are of different quality. Electrical energy is of high quality and can
be easily transformed to perform a variety of useful actions. Heat in ocean water is of low
quality because of the small temperature difference between the ocean and its surroundings.
It can do little work for us.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Have students bring in statements they have heard on TV or read online and research the science
behind the statement. Determine whether the statement is science or pseudoscience. Is the
statement supported by studies that followed the scientific method? What is the strengths and
weakness of those studies?

Showing a Mythbusters episode (found at Discovery online or YouTube) is an exciting way to

start a discussion on the scientific method.

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Students often have difficulty understanding the abstract three-dimensional structure of atoms,
molecules and chemical bonds. There are several molecular model kits available from the
biological supply houses such as Carolina Biological which can help illustrate their structure.

The process of photosynthesis is a prerequisite for life on Earth and its importance cannot be
overstated. There are several aspects that can be easily demonstrated. First of all, the general
equation for photosynthesis is:
CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2.

Next, discuss the importance of respiration whose general equation is the opposite of
photosynthesis. The role of light and the liberation of oxygen in photosynthesis can be
demonstrated by tying a healthy sprig of the common aquarium plant, elodea (Anacharis), to a
glass rod (for support) and placing it in a test tube filled with water and 1/8 teaspoon of sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda). The baking soda will provide a source of carbon dioxide. When the
apparatus is placed under a gooseneck lamp, it should release bubbles of oxygen from
photosynthesis which can be counted over a period of time. For comparison, a second tube can
be set up in the dark.

To illustrate energy efficiency, obtain the bright yellow and black energy use/cost stickers which
come on new appliances. Compare different brands and various types of appliances.
Plan a field trip to a nuclear power plant, hydro-electric dam, gas company, electric company, or
other utility to discuss energy sources, energy quality, and energy transformation

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FURTHER READING AND VIEWING
Video – “Concepts in Science: Energy Flow,” by Carolina Biological. (Six 10-minute programs
on topics such as Photosynthesis and Energy Flow in the Biosphere.)

CHAPTER 5
INTERACTIONS: ENVIRONMENT
AND ORGANISMS
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Five introduces basic ecological principles and terminology describing the interactions
between organisms and their environment. Ecology is defined as the scientific study of the
interactions between different organisms and the interactions between organisms and their
environment. Successful interaction with the environment depends on biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) limiting factors specific to an organism’s needs.

Discussed are the concepts of habitat, or the space in which an organism lives and which
contains the particular requirements for success, and niche which is the functional role of an
organism in its habitat. Several niches and organismal relationships are discussed including
predation, inter- and intraspecific competition, symbiosis, parasitism, commensalism, and
mutualism.

In the process known as natural selection, individuals possessing a close fit with their
environment are usually successful at survival, reproduce in large numbers, and pass on to the
next generation the characteristics that made them successful.

Each group of organisms has a specific role in an ecosystem which is related to the way they
produce or consume energy. The three broad categories are producers, consumers, and
decomposers. Producers are plants that make organic compounds from inorganic ones.
Consumers are animals that consume the organic molecules produced by plants as a source of
energy. Decomposers, such as bacteria, return the organic molecules to the inorganic form.

Energy passes from one group of organisms, or trophic level, to the next by way of a food chain.
When several food chains overlap they form a food web. As energy is transferred from one
group to another, so are nutrients. Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are discussed as examples
of cycled nutrients.

THE CONCEPTS

Ecology is the study of the way organisms interact with the biotic and abiotic factors in their
surroundings or environment.

The success of an organism depends on its range of tolerance and the amount of limited
resources available.
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Habitat, or the space in which an organism lives, and the niche which is an organism’s role in its
environment, help us to understand an organism as part of its environment.

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Successful individuals produce large numbers of offspring and pass on the characteristics that
made them successful in the process known as natural selection.

Organisms interact in a variety of ways: predation, competition, symbiosis, parasitism,

commensalism, and mutualism.

In an ecosystem, energy flows from producers, or plants, through various trophic levels of
consumers, such as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and decomposers.

The sequence of organisms through which energy flows is known as a food chain.
Interconnecting food chains constitute a food web.

KEY TERMS
abiotic factors environment nitrogen-fixing bacteria
biogeochemical cycles evolution omnivore
biomass extinction parasite
biotic factors food chain parasitism
carbon cycle food web polyploidy
carnivore free-living nitrogen- population
coevolution fixing bacteria predator
commensalism genes prey
community habitat primary consumer
competition herbivore producer
competitive exclusion host range of tolerance
principle interspecific competition secondary consumer
consumer intraspecific competition speciation
decomposer keystone species species
denitrifying bacteria limiting factor symbiosis
detritus mutualism symbiotic nitrogen-fixing
ecology mycorrhizae bacteria
ecosystem natural selection trophic level
ectoparasite niche
endoparasite nitrogen cycle

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Abiotic (non-living) elements in my environment are the ocean, sand, and nutrients.
Biotic (living) elements of my environment are live oaks, shorebirds, and sea turtles.

2. Because they are cold blooded temperature is a primary limiting factor for reptiles.

3. An organism’s habitat refers to the type of ecological community that organism lives,
whereas, the organism’s niche refers to the interaction and role that organism plays within
the ecological community.

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4. A niche is the functional role of an organism in its environment. The role of humans is one
of consumer, specifically omnivore. Humans modify their surroundings, harness energy,
produce waste, and control their population.

5. A species is a group of organisms that can and do interbreed and produce viable
offspring. A population is a group of inter-breeding species.

6. Genetic differences can lead to a survival advantage or disadvantage over competing

organisms. The organism who can survive to produce the most successful offspring will
pass that genetic advantage to its offspring who in turn produce successful offspring --
offspring who are naturally selected.

7. Natural selection is the process whereby successful organisms pass on the characteristics
which made them successful to their offspring. In this way, each organism is finely tuned
to a particular habitat and niche, and unfit organisms are removed from the population.

8. Speciation is when a new species emerges due to genetic isolation from the main
population. It can occur due to physical or behavioral reproductive barriers.

9. Extinction occurs when a species no longer has the genetic resources to adapt to a
changing environment.

10. Cows and bacteria are an example of coevolution. The cow provides a safe space to
bacteria to live and the bacteria help the cow break down cellulose fibers to digest.

11. Predator/prey relationships include lion and zebras, eagles and mice, osprey and fish,
robins and worms, frogs and insects, baleen whales and zooplankton.

12. Interspecific competition refers to resource competition among different species

whereas intraspecific competition refers to resources competition among the same
species.

13. Parasitism, communalism, and mutualism are all forms of symbiosis or a close
ecological relationship between two different species. Parasitism: one specie
benefits and the other is harmed, communalism: one specie benefits and the other
is not harmed, and mutualism: both species benefit.

14. A community is composed of interacting populations of organisms in a given area, and an

ecosystem is composed of interacting groups of organisms and their physical
environment.

15. Producers “produce” or make food normally from sunlight in photosynthesis. There are
several levels of consumers who consume that food for energy. Lastly decomposers break
down organic molecules into molecules that can be absorbed by plants to make food.

16. Examples of herbivores include seed-eating birds, deer, rabbits, and zooplankton.
Examples of carnivores include wolves, falcons, and sharks.
Examples of omnivores include humans, bears, and raccoon.
22
17. A keystone species is one that has a critical role to play in the maintenance of an ecosystem.
The extinction of a keystone species would completely change the structure of an
ecosystem..

18. When energy is transformed (i.e. flows up the trophic levels) some of the potential energy is
lost.

19. In an ocean biome the food chain would start with photoplankton (producers) which would be
eaten by zooplankton (primary consumers) which would be eaten by fish (secondary
consumers) which is eaten by seals (tertiary consumers) which is eaten by sharks (quaternary
consumers). A food web demonstrates several food chains within an ecosystem and shows
how food chains overlap. For example, a shark does not eat just seals therefore it participates
in several food chains.

20. The carbon cycle starts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is used by plants
(producers) during photosynthesis to create organic compounds. These organic compounds
are used by consumers during respiration to create energy needed to survive. Lastly,
decomposers break down these organic compounds into smaller molecules including carbon
dioxide.

21. Humans have destroyed large areas of forests that absorb carbon dioxide. They have taken
carbon trapped in the earth and released it into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. They
have also converted many ecosystems into farmland which does not absorb carbon as well as
natural ecosystems.

22. Most nitrogen is in the form of nitrogen gas and cannot be used by producers. Nitrogen fixing
bacteria can convert N2 to nitrates and ammonia which can be used by producers to create
proteins which can move up the food chain (consumers). Decomposers can breakdown
proteins into ammonia and denitrifying bacteria can convert ammonia into nitrates.

23. Humans have altered the nitrogen cycle by adding extra nitrogen to soils in the form of
fertilizers. Run off of fertilizers can disrupt aquatic systems and the burning of fossil fuels
produce nitrogen compounds.

24. The source of phosphorous is rocks and is dissolved in water during the process of erosion.
Plants (producers) use the dissolved phosphorous to build organic compounds which can
then move up the food chain by consumers through respiration. Decomposers recycle
phosphorous compounds from dead organisms and animal waste back into the soil.

23
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

24
To illustrate the various nutrient cycles and the use of nutrients by plants, obtain and share
with the class labels from various types of fertilizers (rose, strawberry, corn, etc.).
Discuss the meaning of the initials “N-P-K” and why different plants require different amounts
(5-10-5, for example). Also, discuss the use of compost and nitrogen-fixing green manures
in agriculture. How are these practices part of the various nutrient cycles?

The text does a great job of illustrating terrestrial food chains and webs. Discuss with
students the various marine food chains, such as those involving baleen whales and
sharks. Or take a field trip to a local park, state, or national forest to discuss the local
ecosystem. Use examples of local invasive species to stress how web chains and webs
can be disrupted.

To illustrate mutualism, find a patch of clover (common in fields and back yards) and dig up
a large, mature specimen, making sure to get the whole root system. Gently rinse the soil
from the roots and observe the nodules which contain beneficial nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Share this with the class. You can also use bean or pea plants from a garden or farm.

Have students give a 3-5 minute presentation on a specific animal/plant adaptation or

coevolution examples. Make sure student topics are variable covering all types of
adaptations including predator prey relationships, symbiosis, resource competition, etc…

Debate whether humans are still evolving. Students must clearly understand the
evolutionary process to argue for or against human evolution occurring today.

To illustrate the relationship of plants and soil, decomposition on the forest floor,
nutrient cycling, and soil food webs, collect a sample from the forest floor of a deciduous
woodland. Include in your sample the leaf layer, humus layer, top layer of soil, and
materials at various stages of decomposition. From this sample, decomposers,
herbivorous and carnivorous consumers (insects, spiders, millipedes), and some plants
can be observed and discussed.

Video – “Adaptation: Survival in a Changing World.” Carolina Biological. (An illustration

of natural selection.)

Video – “Planet Earth” by Discovery Channel (2007)

Video – “Wolves: A Legend Returns to Yellowstone” by National Geographic (2007)

Video – “Life” by Discovery Channel. Online at

http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/life/episodes.html are 2 - 5 minute clips that are great for starting
a discussion about adaptations and evolution.

Video – NOVA Science Now: Lice and Human Evolution found at

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/lice.html

25
Video – “Carbon Hunters” by Frontline World
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/carbonwatch/2010/05/the-carbon-hunters.html

26
27
CHAPTER 6
KINDS OF ECOSYSTEMS
AND COMMUNITIES
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter Six discusses community change and the various types of communities and ecosystems.
Over time, terrestrial communities progress through a series of predictable changes in a process
known as succession. Succession which begins on bare rock or standing water is primary
succession, and that which occurs after a fire or flood is secondary succession.

The relatively stable, long-lasting climax community that extends over large regions is called a
biome and is determined by yearly rainfall distribution and temperature. Climatograms and
descriptions of seven biomes are presented: desert, grassland, savanna, tropical rainforest,
temperate deciduous forest, temperate rainforest, taiga, and tundra.

The major aquatic ecosystems fall into two categories: marine and freshwater. Marine systems
are classified according to the amount of light they receive and their association with the ocean
floor or coast. They include pelagic or open ocean, benthic or ocean floor, and estuarine or the
area where freshwater meets the ocean. Freshwater ecosystems are divided into two categories:
those with stationary water, such as lakes and ponds, and those with running water such as
streams and rivers.

THE CONCEPTS
The series of regular changes that take place in a community as one kind of organism replaces
another is called succession, and is considered primary when it occurs on bare mineral surfaces
or secondary when it occurs after a disturbance.

Each step in succession is called a seral stage, and the entire sequence of stages from pioneer to
climax is called a sere.

Terrestrial climax communities called biomes extend over wide geographic areas as a result of
yearly precipitation and temperature. There are seven major biomes each having a specific set of
organisms that is adapted to the area climate.

The pelagic ecosystem is composed of free-swimming crustaceans, fish, and mammals that swim
actively as they pursue food.

The benthic ecosystem consists of organisms that live on the ocean floor, such as clams, sponges,
sea anemones, and some fish. The composition of the ocean floor determines the ecosystem and
can include mud, sand, and rocks.

Lakes and ponds are examples of freshwater ecosystems with stationary water. The productivity
of these systems is determined by light, temperature, and oxygen.

28
Streams and rivers are examples of freshwater ecosystems with running water. These systems are
generally high in oxygen and the source of nutrients is terrestrial.

KEY TERMS
abyssal ecosystem limnetic zone secondary succession
alpine tundra littoral zone seral stage
benthic mangrove swamp ecosystem sere
benthic ecosystem marine ecosystem steppe
biochemical oxygen marsh submerged plants
demand (BOD) Mediterranean shrublands succession
biome oligotrophic lake successional stage
boreal forest pelagic swamp
climax community pelagic ecosystem taiga
coral reef ecosystem periphyton temperate deciduous
desert permafrost temperate rainforest
emergent plants phytoplankton tropical dry forest
estuary pioneer community tropical rain forest
eutrophic plankton tundra
euphotic zone prairie zooplankton
freshwater ecosystem primary succession
grassland savanna
lake

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Succession is a series of regular, predictable changes in the structure of a community over
time. Primary succession takes place with bare mineral surfaces or water, whereas
secondary succession begins with the destruction or disturbance of an existing ecosystem.
A climax community is a relatively stable, long-lasting, complex and interrelated group of
many different organisms. A successional community is a stage in the successional process.
Tropical rainforest:, high rainfall, no frost. Desert: low rainfall, high evaporation.
Tundra: permafrost, low rainfall, Taiga: soil freezes in winter, bogs. Savanna: two rainy
seasons, two dry seasons n Mediterranean shrublands: dry summer, wet winter,
Tropical dry forest: monsoon climate, extensive dry periods,. Temperate grassland: low
rainfall, few trees,.
Temperate rainforest: high rainfall, slow evaporation.Temperate deciduous forest:, evenly
distributed rainfall, seasons
4. Tropical rainforest: high diversity, dense vegetation
Desert: sparse vegetation, succulent plants
Tundra: short growing season, treeless
Taiga: coniferous trees, animals adapted to cold winter
Savanna: patches of trees, mound building termites
Mediterranean shrublands: drought resistant plants, animals adapted to heat
Tropical dry forest: drought resistant plants, animals adapted to heat
Temperate grassland: grazing animals, gray wolf
29
Temperate rainforest: large evergreen trees, grizzly bear
Temperate deciduous forest: deciduous trees, migrating birds
5. The two primary factors in determining biomes are temperature and precipitation.

6. As altitude increases, the average temperature decreases. The change in biomes from sea-
level to mountain top is similar to the change from equator to the North Pole.

7. The areas that are most productive are those where light and nutrients are most abundant.
These would include areas where currents bring nutrients up from the bottom of the ocean
or where currents or rivers deposit sediment.

8. Phytoplankton: free-floating photosynthetic primary producers in the euphotic zone.

Zooplankton: free-floating primary consumers found deeper than phytoplankton.
Algae: attached primary producers in shallow, coastal water.
Coral organisms: mutualistic relationship between coral and algae; form calcareous
substrate for other organisms.
Fish: nektonic higher order consumers.

9. Euphotic zone is the upper layer of the open ocean where the sun’s rays can penetrate
therefore photoplankton can only functions in this zone.

10. Freshwater ecosystems differ from marine by having much less salt, greater temperature
variability, and different organisms.

11. An estuary consists of a shallow partially enclosed area where freshwater enters the ocean.
Estuaries are high in transported sediment from up-river and their salinity varies with the
change in tides.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

To illustrate the specific adaptations that organisms have for living in their particular climate or
biome, obtain plants from different ecosystems and have students compare the anatomical
differences. Freshwater aquatic plants include elodea and water lily; desert plants include cactus
and aloe; grassland plants include corn, rye, rice, and various other grasses; and marine plants
include seaweeds and eel grass.

Many students have never experienced biomes other than the one in which they live. Biome
PowerPoint slides are available on the web.

Have students give short presentations on different biomes.

Plan a field trip to areas in different stages of ecological succession. Discuss the adaptations of the
different organisms in each stage.

30
Annual precipitation and temperature data are available from NOAA or from the Internet. Obtain
data from a variety of cities and have students determine the biome of each city.

Have students research and debate the closing of the locks in Chicago to prevent Asian carp
from reaching the Great Lakes. After debate require students to summarize their personal
opinion and possible solutions to the issue.

Have students discuss whether we should add “urban” or “anthropogenic” biomes to the list of
natural biomes. Why or why not? What are some of the characteristics that urban biomes
share? How are they different from natural biomes?

Video – “Deep Jungle” by Nature (2005)Video – “National Parks Collection” by National

Geographic (2009).
Video – “In the Valley of the Wolves” by Nature (2007).
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/in-the-valley-of-the-wolves/introduction/212/
Video – “Survivors of the Firestorm” by Nature (2011)
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/survivors-of-the-firestorm/introduction/6510/

31
CHAPTER 7
POPULATIONS: CHARACTERISTICS
AND ISSUES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
In this chapter the authors introduce concepts, terms, and trends of population growth. A
population, or group of individuals of the same species. The increase in size is called population
growth and, although it is influenced by many factors, it is ultimately determined by subtracting
the number of individuals leaving the population through death and emigration, from the number
entering the population through birth and immigration. Other factors influencing the growth rate
are the ratio between males and females, the age distribution, and the density and spatial
distribution of the population.

Population growth tends to follow a particular pattern consisting of a lag, or slow-growth phase,
an exponential, or increased growth phase, and a stable equilibrium phase. The final stage is the
result of carrying capacity which is the optimum number of individuals that can be supported in a
given area. Most organisms can be divided into two broad categories based on their reproductive
strategies. K-strategists are typically large organisms that have long lives, produce few offspring,
and provide care for the offspring. r-strategists are typically small organisms that have a short
life, produce many offspring, and do not provide much care after birth.

Human population growth continues to increase, especially in less-developed nations where the
gross national product and standard of living are low. The causes of population growth are
complex and include biological reasons, such as the number of children each woman has, social
reasons, such as religion, education and economics, and political factors such as immigration and
national population goals.

The post-World War II baby boom created a bulge in the U.S. population which continues to age
and affect industrial, educational, health, and government services. The U.S. population also
increases as the result of immigration from less developed nations. In countries that are unable to
raise enough food for their people and are unable to buy the food they need, humanitarian efforts
need to focus not on food donations but on helping these nations become self-sufficient.

THE CONCEPTS
Natality is the number of individuals added to the population through reproduction, and is
usually described in terms of the birthrate or the number of individuals born per one thousand.

Mortality is the number of deaths in the population, and is discussed in terms of the death rate or
the number who die per one thousand.

Population growth is the difference between death rate and birthrate, or the net rate of increase in
the population.

32
Sex ratio, age distribution, population density, and the spatial distribution of individuals in a
population influence the rate of population growth.

Population growth tends to go through a period of slow growth or lag phase, followed by a
period of rapid growth, or exponential growth phase, and finally through a leveling off, or stable
equilibrium stage.

Stable population size is determined by carrying capacity which is influenced by the availability
of raw materials and energy, accumulation of waste, and the interactions among organisms.

Demography is the study of human populations, their characteristics, and what happens to them.

The most important determinant of human population growth is the total fertility rate; zero
population growth occurs when the number of births equals the number of deaths.
In general, population growth is higher in less-developed nations because women marry earlier,
few couples use contraception, and children have economic value as workers and caregivers.

Demographic transition is the theory that economies proceed through a series of stages, resulting
in stable populations and high economic development.
The total U.S. population, its average age, and racial composition will continue to increase.

KEY TERMS

age distribution emigration natality

birthrate environmental resistance population
carrying capacity exponential growth phase population density
deathrate extrinsic limiting factors population growth rate
death phase (log phase) post-war baby boom
deceleration gross national income (gni) r-strategists
demographic transition immigration replacement fertility
demography intrinsic limiting factors sex ratio
density-dependent limiting k-strategists stable equilibrium phase
factors lag phase standard of living
density-independent limiting less-developed countries survivorship curve
factors limiting factors total fertility rate
dispersal more-developed countries zero population growth
ecological footprint mortality

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Biotic potential is the ability of each species to produce offspring; it is directly dependent
on the number of individuals, especially females, of reproductive age.

33
2. Characteristics of a population include natality, mortality, sex ratio, age distribution,
growth rate, density, and spatial distribution.

3. Populations have an inherent tendency to increase in size. Population growth is determined

by the combined effects of birthrate and death rate. Other factors include emigration,
immigration, sex ratio, and age distribution.

4. Population curve graph

5. A death phase occurs when there is a decline in population size. This occurs as the result of
disease, increased predation, low food supply, toxins entering the ecosystem, or any other
limiting factor.

6. Four factors determining carrying capacity are availability of raw materials, availability of
energy, accumulation of waste products, and interactions among organisms.

7. Birthrate is defined as the number of individuals born into a population, whereas

population growth is the result of birthrate and immigration minus death rate and
emigration, or the total net increase in the population size.

8. Population growth of bacteria growing in a petri dish begins with a lag phase, continues
through an exponential growth, and then levels off due to an accumulation of toxic waste.
Human population growth has a long lag phase followed by a sharply rising exponential
growth phase that is still rapidly increasing.

9. Intrinsic: increase in litter size, Extrinsic: competition, Density-dependent: scarce food

resources, Density-Independent: forest fires

10. K-strategists are typically large, long-lived organisms that reach a stable carrying capacity.
r-strategists are generally small, short-lived organisms that reproduce very quickly.

11. As the human population increases it expands its domain and displaces other species from
their habitat. Eventually, habitat becomes less available and the organisms become more
rare. In order to feed the increased human population, there is over-harvesting of many
species which leads to decreases and possibly extinction of the food species.

12. Overproduction is advantageous to ensure population density, dispersal, and colonization

of a habitat. The disadvantage is high mortality due to environmental resistance factors. In
the case of human overproduction, the physical environment, and food animals can be over
utilized.

13. Demographic transition is the hypothesis that economies proceed through a series of stages,
resulting in stable populations and high economic development. The model is based on the
historical, social, and economic development of Europe and North America.

14. I=P x A x T: Human Impact = population x Affluence x Technology

15. The average American footprint is larger than an African’s because of the amount of
resources American’s consume daily. For example, the average American uses 200
gallons of water a day where as some Africans only use 2.5 gallons a day.
34
16. Age distribution affects population growth because the amount of reproductively active
individuals ultimately determines the rate of population growth.

17. There is a strong correlation between the higher status of women with a decrease in
fertility rates. Women who are more educated are more likely to understand and use birth
control as well as postpone marriage and childrearing to complete their education and/or
careers. Economic well-being influences fertility rates because there is no longer a need to
have multiple children to contribute to the parents’ economic well being.

18. Differences in North America include: higher gross national product, higher individual
income, lower infant mortality rate, higher age expectancy, lower birth rate, greater
availability of food, higher consumption of energy, greater access to education, greater
availability of jobs, and greater waste.

19. People who live in overpopulated countries use plants as their main source of food because
they cannot afford the 90-percent energy loss that occurs when plants are fed to animals.
The same amount of grain can support ten times more people at the herbivore level than at
the carnivore level.

20. Africa, Asia, and South America have the highest population growth rates and the lowest
standard of living.

21. Children are valued as workers and provide an income. Children provide for parents in
their old age, and some cultures and religions encourage large families.

22. In the US older individuals are increasing in number because of the lower fertility rate younger
individuals are decreasing. If not for immigration to the US, the US would be at a zero
population growth.

35
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES
Culture fruit flies for one month in a closed container. Record population size as often as
possible, graph the results and discuss the population growth curve and possible reasons for
population decrease. Kits for this type of culture are available from Wards and Carolina
Biological.

Assign readings from Thomas Malthus, the eighteenth century economist who published “An
Essay on the Principle of Population,” which predicted that the world’s burgeoning human
population would overwhelm the Earth’s capacity to feed it.

Discuss with students the effects of immigration on the population of the U.S. and other
developed nations. Is there a connection between the large population of less-developed nations,
their ability to provide food and jobs for the population, and their emigration to more-developed
nations? Is it ethical for the U.S. to place limits on the number of immigrants entering the
country? If the U.S. does not allow immigration, then what happens to the population, economy,
and environment of the less-developed nation?

Discuss the idea of government mandated birth control as practiced in China. What is the
purpose of the regulation? What is its origin? Has it been effective in decreasing population
growth? Would such as a regulation work in the United States? Now examine Brazil’s
demographic shift “Brazil’s Girl Power” by National Geographic
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/gorney-text How is this
demographic shift completely different from China’s? Using your knowledge about fertility
rates how would you design a program to decrease fertility rates in less developed
countries?

Video – “The World in Balance” by NOVA (2008)

36
Video – “Muhammad Yunus” by Nobel Prizes – access biography at
http://fora.tv/2008/01/17/Muhammad_Yunus_Creating_a_World_Without_Pov
erty

Video – “ Peru: Kiva’s Web-Based Microfinance Grows Up” Frontline World (2009)
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/blog/2009/10/peru_kivas_webb.html

“National Geographic’s Population 7 Billion.” In 2011 human population will reach 7 billion.
This special yearlong series of articles, videos, and interactive activities discusses the impact of
the human population. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/seven-billion/kunzig-text

37
38
CHAPTER 8
ENERGY AND CIVILIZATION:
PATTERNS OF CONSUMPTION
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Eight begins with a history of energy consumption from the time of primitive hunter-
gatherers, through the wood-based cultures, and finally to the use of fossil fuels. The use of fossil
fuels is linked to the Industrial Revolution, which ultimately led to massive mechanization,
manufacturing, and transportation.

Highly industrialized countries use most of the world’s energy for three purposes: residential and
commercial uses, industrial uses, and transportation. Electricity represents a large proportion of a
nation’s energy consumption and is produced through the burning of fossil fuels.

Future trends in energy consumption depend on political stability in parts of the world that
supply oil, and the price of that oil, since the behavior of most people is motivated by economics
rather than a desire to conserve energy.

THE CONCEPTS

Human and animal energy was replaced with inexpensive, easy-to handle, and highly efficient
fossil fuel energy during the Industrial Revolution.

Economic growth is directly linked to the availability of inexpensive energy.

The automobile industry played a major role in the economic development of the industrialized
world by creating more jobs, services, and products related to the automobile.

Industrialized nations use energy for three purposes: residential and commercial uses, industrial
uses, and transportation.

Electrical energy which is a large proportion of consumed energy, results from the burning of
fossil fuel, and is the major step in economic development of a country.

KEY TERMS

fossil fuels Industrial Revolution

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Domestication of animals changed energy use by providing additional energy
sources for transportation and farming.

2. A civilization requires energy for heating, cooking, transportation, and industry.

39
3. The invention of the steam engine made mining coal possible as well as
transportation and manufacturing easier however it required large amounts of wood
or “coal” to run the engine.

4.The shift from wood to coal was caused by a decline in the local supplies of wood, mainly in
Europe and North America. Also, coal has more energy per unit weight and was more
easily transported.

5.World War II greatly increased the energy demand for manufacturing and transportation,
resulting in the construction of federally financed oil pipelines from refineries in the
southwest to factories in the east. After the war, the pipelines were sold to private
companies which converted them for the transport of natural gas.

6. Oil was abundant and cheap, invention of the internal combustion engine.

7.The government encourages the consumption of gas and oil by subsidizing transportation
and storage facilities, and by regulating prices.

8. Electric energy is simple and can be used in a variety of ways.

9. Energy cost is affected by the cost and transportation of the resource that is
producing the energy as well as governmental policies and subsidies.

10. Industrialized societies use energy for residential and commercial uses,
transportation, and industry.

11.The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) controls over 75% of the
world’s oil reserves. They have the power to fix production and prices according to their
economic and political needs. As the demand for foreign oil has decreased, OPEC nations
have been unable to repay loans to western banks, thereby causing financial loss to the
lending institutions which in turn “trickles down” through the economy.

12. The taxes paid on gasoline are low in the United States compared to other countries.
Therefore, gasoline usage is higher in the United States.

13.As developing countries increase their energy demands, energy resources will
become more scarce increasing the price especially for resources such as oil and gas.

40
41
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES
Most people take electricity for granted without realizing that it comes with an environmental
price tag. In Northern New England and the Pacific Northwest, hydroelectric dams block

42
anadromous fish passage. Dams such as the ones on the Tennessee River were formed as the
result of flooding massive river valleys, destroying native plant and animal habitat, and in some
cases the loss of a species (the snail darter). Some areas have nuclear-power plants or coal-
burning plants – both with their own set of environmental problems. Discuss with students the
source of electricity in their area and what environmental price they pay for this luxury. Have
them share their experiences of living without electricity. What did they miss most?

Plan a visit to the local utility company to better understand electricity generation, coal burning,
natural gas storage and transportation, or nuclear power generation.

If students have not had biology or botany, they may not fully understand the origin of fossil
fuels. Discuss the conditions that led to the carboniferous period and how fossils are formed.

Have students debate increasing the fuel tax on oil and gasoline.

Video – “Cameroon: Pipeline to Prosperity?” by Frontline World (2010)

http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2010/06/ten-years-ago-this-month.html

43
CHAPTER 9
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Nine discusses the source, efficiency, and feasibility of various forms of energy.
The energy sources most commonly used by industrial nations are non-renewable fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are the remains of once living organisms that were preserved and altered as a result
of geologic forces. They include coal, oil, and natural gas.

The extraction, transportation, processing, and use of each fuel type has its own environmental
issues: coal is a very efficient source of fuel but mining disrupts the landscape; oil extraction
causes less damage, and is a more concentrated energy source; and natural gas is the least
disruptive, and causes the least amount of air pollution.

Nuclear energy is the energy released from the radioactive isotopes of some atoms which have
unstable and spontaneously decomposing nuclei. Two materials commonly used in nuclear reactions
are uranium 235 and plutonium 239.

A nuclear reactor is a device that allows for a controlled chain reaction of splitting nuclei which
releases energy until the fuel is spent. U-235 is commonly used in reactors to heat water to
produce steam that generates electricity. There are several different types of reactors including
breeder reactors, pressurized-water reactors, gas-cool reactors, and boiling-water reactors. All
types contain a core of fuel, a moderator to control the rate of the reaction, and a cooling
mechanism to prevent overheating. Nuclear power currently provides over 16 percent of the
electrical energy consumed worldwide and is on the increase due to the rise of energy prices and
concern over carbon emissions.

THE CONCEPTS

Non-renewable resources are those materials that are either not replaced or not replaced faster
than they are used, whereas renewable resources are continuously present.

A resource is a naturally occurring substance that can potentially be extracted using current
technology, and a reserve is a known deposit from which materials can be extracted profitably
with existing technology under present economic conditions.

Fossil fuels are the remains of once living organisms that were preserved and altered as a result
of geologic forces.

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel, and is extracted through mining, which disrupts the
landscape, and causes water and air pollution, black lung disease, and waste heaps.
44
Oil is in limited supply, is more easily extracted than coal, but its use causes water and air
pollution.

Natural gas is the least disruptive of the fossil fuels, produces little air pollution, but is dangerous
and expensive to transport.Nuclear energy is released from disintegrating atomic nuclei of
radioactive isotopes, and has the potential to provide energy for electricity, medical uses,
engineering work, and military weapons.

All nuclear reactors are composed of a fuel core, a cooling mechanism, and a moderator to
control the rate of the reactions.

Nuclear fuel is mined, enriched, or concentrated, and fabricated, or converted into powder,
before it is placed in a reactor.

Nuclear power concerns include accidents, exposure to radiation in soil, water, and air, thermal
pollution, radioactive waste disposal, and the costs of construction, decommissioning, and clean-
up.

45
KEY TERMS
acid mine drainage non-renewable resource radioactive
black lung disease nuclear chain reaction radioactive half life
boiling water reactor nuclear fission renewable resource
decommissioning nuclear reactor reserves
fissionable overburden surface mining
gas-cooled reactor plutonium-239 underground mining
heavy water reactor pressurized-water reactor uranium-253
ionizing radiation radiation

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The energy sources most commonly used by industrialized nations are fossil fuels: coal, oil,
and natural gas.

2. Reserves are known deposits from which materials can be extracted profitably with
existing technology under present economic conditions. Resources are naturally occurring
substances of use to humans that can potentially be extracted using current technology.

3. Economic conditions, technological advancement, and new deposits discovered changes

the amount of oil reserves.

4. Coal is formed when large quantities of plant material from swamps is trapped in
sediment and subjected to heat and pressure.

5. Depending on the amount of time the organic plant material is trapped in the earth
determines the type of coal. Lignite is the lowest quality because of its high moisture
content. Bituminous or soft coal has a low moisture content but is abundant whereas
anthracite has the highest carbon content (energy) however is rare.

6. Oil and natural gas are formed from marine organisms that accumulate on the ocean
floor and are buried in sediment. These organisms’ breakdown released oil into the
sediment which depending on the type of sediment traps the oil.

7. The US and China have the largest reserves of coal. The Middle East and Euroasia has
the largest oil reserves and a large portion of the natural gas reserves.

8. The extraction of coal has a huge environmental impact by transforming landscapes and
releasing coal dust. Burning coal releases millions of metric tons of material, carbon
dioxide, mercury and acid deposition into the atmosphere.

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9. Secondary oil recovery methods are used to extract the remaining oil from an emptying
well examples include water injection. Tertiary oil recovery techniques continue to
extract the remaining oil in a well. These methods are expensive and will only be used if
extraction is profitable (i.e. the price of oil is high).

10. Environmental issues related to oil are oil spills.

11. Natural gas releases less carbon dioxide than oil as well as less air pollutants.

12. Global warming caused by release of greenhouse gases by burning of fossil fuels has
caused people to look to nuclear power as a “greener” solution.

13. Radiation is the product of the disintegration of a radioactive isotope.

14. A nuclear chain reaction occurs when the neutrons released from a splitting nucleus strike
the nuclei of other atoms causing those atoms to split. This results in more neutrons being
released which causes other atoms to split; thus causing a chain reaction.

15. A nuclear power plant generates electricity when the nuclei of radioactive atoms
disintegrate and release energy which is used to heat water and produce steam. The steam
turns a turbine that generates electricity.

16. The steps in the nuclear fuel cycle include uranium mining, milling to concentrate the ore,
enrichment to increase the percent of U-235, fabrication which converts it to powder, and
use in the reactor. The spent fuel can then either be reprocessed or undergo waste
storage.

17. Radiation damages the DNA and other molecules of cells.

18. People can protect themselves from radiation by putting distance between themselves and
the source and/or wearing protective shielding clothing.

19. The accident at Chernobyl was the result of a nuclear reactor meltdown in association with
a test and several safety violations and mistakes. The immediate consequences were 31
deaths, 500 persons hospitalized, and 116,000 people evacuated. Delayed effects include an
increase in thyroid cancer in exposed children and fetuses.

20. The major environmental problems associated with nuclear power is the disposal of high-
level radioactive waste, exposure to radioactivity during mining, processing, and
transportation, and the threat of accidents.

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21. Stage One decommissioning requires the fuel rods and water in the reactor to be disposed
of properly. This removes about 99% of the radioactivity of the site.

22. There are three options for Stage Two decommissioning: decontaminate and dismantle
plant, secure plant until radioactive material disintegrate, or entomb contaminated portions
of plant.

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SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Collect the petroleum based products you cannot live without (lip gloss, deodorant, shaving
cream lotion, crayons, sun screen, Tupperware, bike helmet, plastic cups,…
http://www.anwr.org/features/oiluses.htm for a list or read labels) and bring them in a bag to
class. Surprise students when pulling out each item -- This shows students that we are
dependent on oil in more ways that just transportation.

The best way to understand nuclear power is by visiting a nuclear power reactor. Plan a tour of
one in your area. Most have education centers on site for the public.

Have students debate on whether the U.S. should reinvest in nuclear power.

Have student discuss the NIMBY (Not in my Back Yard) concept. What type of energy
extraction and/or production process would they feel comfortable living near? Why or why not?
Remind them of the advantage they receive from that resource – are they willing to live without
that advantage? Then whose neighborhood should be impacted for their advantage?

Video – “Cameroon: Pipeline to Prosperity?” by Frontline World (2010)

http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2010/06/ten-years-ago-this-month.htm

Video – “The Cost of Yellowcake: Mining Uranium on Tribal Lands” by Frontline (2008)
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/fellows/india_2008/

50
“Nuclear Power” by John Grossenbacher Testimony before the US House Committee of Science
and Technology Hearing on Opportunities and Challenges for Nuclear Power (April 23, 2008)
access article online at
http://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/hearings/042308_ch
arter.pdf or view testimony online at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9nzSlCiVWqE.

“Statement of Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing” by Phillip Finck Before the House Committee on
Science, Energy Subcommittee Hearing on Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing (June 16, 2005) – access
statement at http://www.anl.gov/Media_Center/News/2005/testimony050616.html.

“Plan Could Reduce Waste Sent to Yucca Mountain” by David Kestenbaum

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4705689.

“Rethinking Nuclear Fuel Recycling” by Frank N. von Hippel in Scientific American (May 2008)
– access article online at http://www.scientificamerican.com/report.cfm?id=nuclear-future.

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52
CHAPTER 10
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

CHAPTERT OVERVIEW

Renewable energy sources replace themselves or are continuously present as a feature of the
solar system. Biomass conversion converts plant material into energy sources including wood,
solid waste, ethanol, anaerobic digestion, etc. Hydroelectric power is generated at plants near
artificially created water reservoirs which displace residents and cause a loss of the natural
ecosystem.

Solar energy systems can either passively transform light to heat when it is absorbed by a
surface, or actively pump the heat through a system of pipes to the area to be heated.
Tidal power is generated when ocean water flows from a high level to a lower one. Wind energy
is growing and is suited for some areas however it must be coupled with other more reliable
energy sources. Geothermal power is generated from the heat energy of the Earth’s molten core.

THE CONCEPTS

Renewable resources furnish about 12.9% of the world’s commercially traded energy, and
includes hydroelectric power, tidal power, geothermal power, wind power, solar energy, biomass
conversion, fuelwood, and solid waste.

Biomass is a very important source of energy for less developed countries and can be wood,
grass, agricultural waste, and dung. Direct combustion is used most often however biofuels are
produced and anaerobic digesters are used to produce energy. Environmental concerns of
biomass are loss of habitat, air pollution, release of carbon dioxide, and decrease in food
production.

Hydroelectric power harnesses the flow of water to generate energy. There are no emissions
in hydroelectric power however large amounts of land are flooded, dams hinder the migration
of fish, and change water quality up and down stream.

Solar energy supplies a continuous supply of energy and is used passively, actively, and
converted to energy via solar cells. There is very little environmental impact with production
of solar energy however solar collectors requires large areas of land and the product of solar
cells requires a lot of energy.

Even though it must be coupled with other sources of energy, wind energy is a promising
renewable alternative. However, wind turbines do have environmental impacts such as
affecting birds and bats as well as possible noise and visual pollution.

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Geothermal energy is produces heat or generates energy by using the heat from magma
however the steam may contain smelly gases and the minerals in the steam are toxic to fish if
discharged into local waters. Tidal power uses technology to generate electricity from the
rising and falling of tides but the technology may negatively impact estuarine ecosystems.

Energy conservation is as important as energy sources to meet to global energy demands.

KEY TERMS

active solar energy

biomass
geothermal energy
passive solar energy

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Renewable energy sources can replenish themselves continuously.

2. 12.9% if the world’s energy comes from renewable energy.

3. Biomass provides the majority of global renewable energy.

4. Lumber and paper mills and sugar cane processing plants are industries that make use of
their waste by burning it.

5. The burning of municipal waste for energy is more common in Europe then in North
America because Europe has strict restrictions on land used for landfills.

6. Ethanol is produced by fermenting sugars in plants such as corn or sugar cane.

7. The negative environmental impacts of biomass are loss of habitat, air pollution, release of
carbon dioxide, and decrease in food production.

8. There are no emissions in hydroelectric power however large amounts of land are flooded,
dams hinder the migration of fish, and change water quality up and down stream.

9. A passive solar system is a design that allows for the entrapment and transfer of heat from
the sun to a building without the use of moving parts or machinery. An active system is one that
traps sunlight energy as heat energy and uses mechanical means to move it to another location.

10. Sunlight can be used to create steam that turns turbines and generates energy or
photovoltaic cells can generate energy by capturing sunlight.

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11. People oppose wind energy because it must be coupled with another energy source as
well as the possible visual and noise pollution.

12. There are many ways to conserve energy. For example, switch to highly efficient
fluorescent light bulbs, buy energy efficient appliances, install low emissive glass
windows, etc.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Most utility companies have consumer education personnel who will come to your home and
evaluate your consumption needs and suggest conservation techniques. Invite such personnel to
your classroom for a presentation.

At this point in the text you should summarize the section on energy. Discuss with students the
advantages and disadvantages of each of the energy sources covered. As an exercise or
assignment, have students design a chart comparing each energy source with respect to cost,
environmental harm, human health hazards, feasibility, public sentiment, current usage, and
future trends. Again discuss NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) and ask which renewable energy
source would they be willing to live near.

Have student’s debate the viability of ethanol or fuel cells.

Have student’s journal about their energy consumption and then list “realistic” areas they can
reduce their footprint.

Video – “Solar Energy: Saved by the Sun” by NOVA (2008)

Chocking on Growth Part IV: Chinese Dam Criticized for Human Costs by NY Times (2007)
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/19/world/asia/19dam.html
“Warning: The Hydrogen Economy May be More Distant Than It Appears” by Michael Behar in
Popular Science (January 2008) – access article online at
http://www.michaelbehar.com/popsci/warninghydrogen.html.
“Green Dreams” by Joel K. Bourne, Jr. in October 2007 National Geographic – access the article
online http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/10/biofuels/biofuels-text.

“Ethanol: Train Wreck Ahead” by Robbin Johnson and Ford Runge in Issues in Science and
Technology – access article online at http://www.issues.org/24.1/p_johnson.html.

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Video – “Tortillanomics: Food or Fuel” By Frontline World (2008)
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/fellows/mexico_2008/

Video – “The Next Big Thing” by NOVA ScienceNow (2011)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tech/what-is-the-next-big-thing.html

Visit Local Harvest http://www.localharvest.org/buylocal.jsp

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CHAPTER 11
BIODIVERSITY ISSUES
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter Eleven examines the importance of biodiversity and human contributions to biodiversity
loss. Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity is very valuable to our health and survival,
however, there are many threats to biodiversity including habitat loss, introduction of exotic
species, pest control, and climate change.

Humans exploit ecosystems for food, shelter, and water. Forests are utilized for fuel and building
materials, and are cleared for farmland. Arid and semiarid areas are used as rangeland for
domesticated animals. Aquatic ecosystems such as coastal oceans, lakes, and rivers are used for
drinking water, industry, and food, and are subject to sediment, thermal, chemical, and biological
pollution, over-harvesting of many fish species, and pressure from the introduction of exotic
species.

Many terrestrial areas are managed for specific, desirable wildlife which requires habitat
management, and species protection.

THE CONCEPTS

Our species is dependent on a diversity of organisms and ecosystems. Services provided by

ecosystems and species diversity include cultural uses, waste treatment, food and raw materials,
soil formation, etc.

Almost all ecosystems on Earth, except those classified as wilderness, are modified for human
use, and include forests, rangeland, oceans, lakes, and rivers. This modification threatens
biodiversity through habitat loss, introduction of exotic species, and pest control.

Forest management practices include clear-cutting, patch-work clear-cutting, selective

harvesting, and reforestation.

Desertification occurs when arid or semiarid land is overgrazed or farmed improperly, and
results in a loss of vegetation in the area. Overexploitation or harvesting faster than an organism
can reproduce threatens many species especially over harvested fish species.

Introduction of exotic or non-native species, pest control, and climate change can threaten the
balance of ecosystems and lead to the extinction of organisms.

There are international efforts to stop biodiversity loss. In the U.S., the Endangered Species Act
has given some protection to threatened and endangered species.

Additionally, there are several sustainable wildlife management techniques being used to
enhance many populations and ecosystems.

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KEY TERMS

biodiversity endangered species patchwork clear-cutting

bush meat extinction reforestation
clear-cutting genetic diversity selective harvesting
cover habitat management species diversity
deforestation migratory birds threatened species
desertification mutations
ecosystem diversity overexploitation

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. We change ecosystems by replacing them with agricultural ecosystems, we alter species

mixtures by introducing plants and animals, and we reduce populations by harvesting trees
and animals for our use.

2. The impact of humans is greater today because the population is greater than it has ever
been, and our technology is more harmful to the environment.

3. Mutations, migration, selective breeding, population size, and sexual reproduction.

4. Habitat loss due to agriculture, urban development, logging, and other activities. Over-
exploitation of fish, wildlife, and forestry resources. Introduction of exotic species that
reduce or eliminate native species. Campaigns against organisms considered to be pests.

5. Over-exploitation by fishers. Destructive harvesting practices such as trawls.

6. Problems associated with forest exploitation are exposure of soil to increased erosion, loss
of animal habitat and biodiversity, stream-bank erosion, stream siltation, increased water
temperature, and a loss of scenery.

7. Desertification is the process of converting arid and semiarid land to desert because of
improper use by humans. It is caused by overgrazing, unsuccessful farming practices, and
removal of vegetation for fuelwood.

8. * Develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity.
* Identify components of biological diversity important for its conservation.
* Monitor biological diversity.
* Identify activities, which have adverse impacts on the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity.
* Establish a system of protected areas.
* Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems and promote the recovery of threatened
species.
* Develop or maintain necessary legislation for the protection of threatened species and
populations.

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* Integrate consideration of the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources
into national decision-making.

9. Six techniques used by wildlife managers include game and habitat analysis, population
census methods, stocking areas with game species, predator control, establishing refuges,
and habitat management.

10. Special problems associated with waterfowl management include protection of summer
nesting areas, prevention of pond and lake drainage, the development of refuges as havens
from hunters, and the protection of food and shelter in the overwintering areas.

11. Extinction is the death of a species or the elimination of all the individuals of a particular
kind. Natural extinction can occur in areas where there is a low population density, a small
habitat area, a specialized niche, and low reproductive rates. Human-accelerated extinctions
occur wherever humans become the dominant organism.

12. Production of food and raw materials

Soil formation
Recreation
Nutrient cycling and waste treatment
Water services
Climate regulation
Refuges for biodiversity
Disturbance regulation and erosion control
Genetic resources
Atmospheric gas balance
Pollination and pest control

13. Actions that can be taken to prevent extinctions include legislation to protect species that
are in danger of becoming extinct, the preservation of the habitat required by the
endangered species, and education of the local population about the need to protect
endangered species.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Most areas have access to natural resource managers, either at the state, local, or private level
who can be invited to the class room for a discussion of local natural resource issues. Depending
on where you live, this might include cattle or sheep ranchers, wildlife refuge managers, state or
private foresters, marine resource officers, and commercial fishermen. Many of these groups or
agencies produce newsletters that can be obtained and shared with the class. Likewise, local
environmental groups may be willing to discuss similar issues.

Have students give a 3-5 minute presentation on an invasive species and its effects on the
ecosystem. Or debate efforts to reduce the invasive species (i.e. lionfish roundups or closing
the Illinois River to Lake Michigan.)

Debate whether aquaculture is the solution to the destruction of wild fish populations.

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FURTHER READING AND VIEWING

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“Rainforest Pharmacist,” by Christopher Hallowell. Audubon. January, 1999.

Video – “Silence of the Bees” by Nature. (2007).

Video – “Warnings From the Ice” by NOVA (2008).

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/silence-of-the-bees/introduction/38/
Video – “Crash: A Tale of Two Species” by Nature (2008)
“Still Waters: The Global Fish Crisis” by Fen Montaigne in April 2007 National Geographic –
access the article online http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/04/global-fisheries-
crisis/montaigne-text.
Video – “Salmon: Running the Gauntlet” by Nature (2011).
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/salmon-running-the-gauntlet/introduction/6546/

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CHAPTER 12
LAND-USE PLANNING
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Twelve discusses the issues related to various forms of land use and its planning. The
chapter begins with a history of the development of cities and the changes over time in the
relative amounts of land used for crops, livestock, forests, and urban centers. Location to water
was the leading element in urban development specifically for drinking water, transportation, and
industry. As cities grew they converted surrounding farmland to suburbia, and in areas that were
unplanned the result was urban sprawl and floodplain and wetland mismanagement.

In some cases land-use decisions are irreversible, such as when a highway is constructed. In the
case of multiple land use, several different uses for land can take place at the same time. Most
urban areas are recognizing the need to designate some land for recreational use, but sometimes
disagreement occurs when designating land for specific recreational uses.

Steps in the development of a land-use plan include gathering biological, geological, and
sociological information, projecting future human needs, and developing mechanisms for
implementation. Included in land-use planning decisions are zoning, regional planning, and
urban transportation planning.

THE CONCEPTS
Land is a nonrenewable resource because once it is used for certain activities it cannot be used
for other purposes.

Increased population growth caused an increase in unplanned development of most urban areas
that has resulted in urban sprawl, ribbon sprawl, and tract development.

Problems associated with unplanned urban growth include transportation, loss of sense of
community, loss of farmland and open space, air and water pollution, floodplain problems, and
wetlands misuse.

Land-use planning is the construction of an orderly list of priorities for land use and includes
zoning, local and regional planning, and transportation planning.

KEY TERMS

brownfields land-use planning tract development

brownfields development leap from development
megalopolis urban growth limit
floodplains nature centers urban sprawl
floodplain zoning outdoor recreation wetlands
ordinances ribbon sprawl zoning
infrastructure

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ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Land use planning is necessary because land and neighboring resources are nonrenewable
and humans depend on those resources (such as water and soil) for survival. As well as the
an area’s geographical location can pose threats to unplanned development (such as floods,
earthquakes, etc,)

2. Urban centers developed near waterways because they needed a means of transportation,
drinking water, and waste disposal. They are still located on waterways, but roads and
railway systems have also allowed cities to develop off waterways.

3. People move from rural areas to cities in the 1800s because the need for farm labor decreased
and industrial jobs were available in the cities. Additionally, cities offered greater variety in
cultural, social, and artist attractions.

4. People move to suburbs because industrial pollution and urban crowding turned the core of
many cities into undesirable living areas. Also, the development of automobiles and
improved roadways enabled people to travel more easily from their homes in suburbia to
their jobs in the city.

5. The physical consequences of urban sprawl are loss of farm and natural land, increase in
air pollution due to the dependence on the automobile for transportation, and increase in
energy use. The social consequences of urban sprawl are loss of sense of community,
decay of city centers, and loss of open space.

6. Tract development is the building of similar residence structures in a large space. Often
these tracts are separated by farmland or open space which is called leap frog
development. Ribbon sprawl is when commercial and industrial buildings line the major
highways.

7. A megalopolis is the development of one large urban area as the result of several cities
growing together.

8. The automobile gives people a transportation method to more further from their job
and the encouragement of home ownerships including tax laws and government
policies increased demand for single family homes in the suburbs. Additionally, until
recently little attention was placed on planning for rapid growth.

9. The dominance of the automobile does have negative consequences including more
time spent in traffic, increase funds spent on roads, and loss of green space.

10. Suburbs are mostly designed for the auto transportation therefore do not have sidewalks,
bike paths, green space, etc. where one could meet and talk to neighbors. Additionally,

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services centralized and must be reached by car therefore there are no neighbor post
offices, shops, etc.

11. Suburbs have high infrastructure and high energy cost because transportation by
automobile is not very energy efficient as well as single family large homes require more
energy to maintain that multifamily city units.

12. Unplanned suburban growth does not always take into account the need for parks and
open space for recreation. Dependence on the automobile increases non-point air
pollution and the impervious surface needed to support auto transportation increases
storm water runoff that fills waterways with pollutants.

13. Land uses suitable for floodplains include agriculture, recreation, and wildlife refuges.

14. Wetlands provide a nursery for many commercially important fish and shellfish, they
also act as a sponge to filter nutrients from stormwater runoff and they provide safe
areas for flood waters and storm surges.

15. Understanding an area’s geology and resource base is important to determine the uses
of an area that does not cause major damage to property or loss of life.

16. Evaluate unique geologic or biologic features of the land, preserve cultural and
historical features, conserve open space and environmental features, recognize the cost
of altered land use, plan for mixed use, plan for transportation options, manage growth
by setting limits, and encourage development in already developed areas.

17. State and national zoning can protect areas that cross local and state borders like
waterways and provide limitations on development in sensitive areas. Local
governments, environmental groups, etc. can purchase land to protect or use as green
space and zoning officials can limit uses of land.

18. Cities must deal with transportation, open and recreation spaces, and inner city decay.

19. Preserve open space, encourage development of existing urban areas, se compact
building design, create a variety of house choices, foster distinctive neighborhoods,
mix land use, create walkable neighborhoods, provide a variety of transportation
methods, encourage community collaboration, and make decision fair and cost-
effective.

20. Forest service: management of tree harvesting and recreational uses , National Park
Service: preservation of land, US Fish and Wildlife: preservation of land, and Bureau
of Land Management: leasing to farmers and miners.

21. Conflict often happens over preservation versus recreation on public lands.

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SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Invite a person from the land-use planning office in your community to talk to your class about
current issues.

Using a topographic map of your area, identify the wetlands, floodplains, and other sensitive
areas in your community. How are these lands being used? Are they being used correctly? How
can problems in these areas be remedied?

Participate in a county and/or city commissioner meeting that is discussing land use. Or have
students read an environmental impact study on a local development.

Have students debate a local land use issue (i.e. Beach Renourishment, industrial development,
etc..)

Separate students in groups and have them list important components of an ideal community.
Then determine your community’s land use plan. Have students discuss in groups on ways
their community can reach the goal of their ideal community.

Discuss with your class the current urban transportation planning in your area. Is there sufficient
public transportation? Is car pooling encouraged? Does traffic flow properly? How can these
problems be fixed?

Have students debate the use of snow mobiles in Yellowstone National Park.

Video – “Pale Male” by Nature (2007)

Multimedia Videos – “Building, Land Use, and Environmental Videos” by St Louis County
(2011) http://www.stlouiscountymn.gov/GOVERNMENT/OnlineServices/LandUseVideos.aspx

“Our Vanishing Night” by Kennedy Warne in February 2007 National Geographic – access the
article online at http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/11/light-pollution/klinkenborg-text.

65
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CHAPTER 13
SOIL AND ITS USES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Thirteen discusses the formation, properties, misuse, and conservation of soil. A mixture
of organic and inorganic components, soil is a thin covering over the land which supports plant
life. It is formed through the physical and chemical weathering of parent material and the
decaying of organic matter that becomes mixed with the top layer of soil. The properties of soil
include the size of the particles, or texture, the ability to clump together, or structure, and the
profile which is development of recognizable layers in the soil.

The misuse of soil generally leads to its erosion which is the transportation of soil by water or
wind. Erosion removes about 25.4 billion tons of soil each year and occurs wherever vegetation
has been removed. The most productive layer of soil is the topsoil, and when it is lost, soil
fertility decreases.

Soil conservation measures are necessary to reduce the loss of topsoil and minimize the effects
of moving water and high winds. The authors review six different agricultural techniques
designed to prevent soil erosion. Contour farming is tillage at right angles to the slope; strip
farming is the use of strips of alternating crops; terraces are level areas constructed at right
angles to the slope; waterways are vegetated depressions on sloping land for the collection of
water; windbreaks are plantings of trees that protect bare soil from the wind; conservation tillage
is a series of techniques which reduce the amount of cultivation used on a field.

THE CONCEPTS

Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic material, living organisms, air, and water that together
support plant life.

Soil is formed by the physical fragmentation and chemical change of the parent material in a
process known as weathering.

Soil properties include texture, structure, and the composition of the various horizons in a
profile.

Erosion occurs any time there is an absence of vegetation, and can be caused by flowing water
and wind.

Techniques to prevent erosion of topsoil include contour farming, strip farming, terraces,
windbreaks, waterways, and conservation tillage.

KEY TERMS
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asthenosphere leaching soil profile
chemical weathering lithosphere soil structure
conservation tillage litter soil texture
contour farming loam strip farming
crust mantle terraces
erosion mechanical weathering waterways
friable parent material weathering
horizon plate tectonics windbreak
humus reduced tillage
land soil

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Land is the part of the world not covered by the oceans, while soil is a mixture of minerals,
organic material, living organisms, air, and water. Soil is a thin covering over the land.

2. The five major components of soil are mineral, organic material, living organisms, air, and
water.

3. Soil is formed by the physical fragmentation and chemical changes in the parent material
through a process known as mechanical and chemical weathering.

4. Physical processes include freeze and thaw, glaciers, wind, and moving water. Chemical
weathering includes hydrolysis and the growth of lichens.

5. Other characteristics that determine a soil’s usefulness include the size of the particles, or
texture, the way the soil clumps together, or structure, its moisture content, biotic content,
and chemical composition.

6. Soil composed of particles of various sizes, has spaces for both air and water, and allows
excess water to drain out. Soil composed of uniformly small particles, has less space for
air, and water will not drain out. Since roots require both air, water, and good drainage, the
soil with the various-sized particles would be better able to support crops. Soil with only
large particles has a tendency to lose all of the water it receives.

7. A soil profile is a series of horizontal layers of different chemical composition, particle

size, and amount of organic material.

8. Erosion is the wearing away and transportation of soil by water or wind.

9. Soil conservation practices include contour farming in which tilling is performed at right
angles to the slope of the land, strip farming in which strips of closely sown crops like
wheat are alternated with strips of row crops like corn, and terracing in which level areas
are constructed at right angles to the slope to retain water.

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10. Other uses of soil include grazing, wood production, wildlife production, and recreational
purposes.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

There are many activities for demonstrating soil properties and soil life cited in general biology
and ecology lab manuals. Presented here are a few old favorites. There are also several soil-
testing kits (pH, nutrients, etc.) available from your local nursery which can be demonstrated in
the classroom.

Water-holding ability of soils: Prepare three funnels with gauze taped or tied to the bottom of
the mouth and place each one over a graduated cylinder. Pack one funnel with sand, one with
clay, and one with humus-rich soil. Pour equal amounts of water into each funnel and watch the
water run through the soil. Measure the amount of “runoff” water collected in each cylinder.
Which soil permits water to run through most quickly? Which soil retains the water?

Capillarity of soil: Prepare three funnels with gauze taped or tied to the bottom of the mouth.
Pack one with dry sand, one with dry clay, and one with dry humus-rich soil. Fill three graduated
cylinders with equal amounts of water and make sure that the stem of each funnel reaches the
water in each cylinder. Place each funnel on a graduated cylinder and watch the rate of water
absorption in each preparation. Through which kind of soil does water rise fastest?

Soil for best plant growth: Obtain three plant pots. Fill one with sand, one with clay, and one
with rich loam. Sow soaked seeds of fast-growing plants, such as mustard, oats, or radish in each
pot. Compare the growth of seedlings in each kind of soil. Water sparingly but equally for about
two weeks. In what ways do the texture and composition of soil affect plant growth?

Have students read Grape of Wrath. Discuss how the soil mismanagement led to human
suffering. Ask students if they can think of other resource mismanagement that may have a
human cost in the future.

Contact your local cooperative extension or agriculture extension and have someone come speak
to your class about current projects and/or new sustainable farming techniques.

Video – Ancient Discovery: Ancient Farming Techniques by Discovery (2011)

http://videos.howstuffworks.com/discovery/29693-assignment-discovery-ancient-farming-
techniques-video.htm

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Center for Environmental Farming Systems (2011) http://www.cefs.ncsu.edu/

70
CHAPTER 14
AGRICULTURAL METHODS
AND PEST MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Fourteen reviews the various forms of agriculture and pest management, and their
associated environmental problems. Three agricultural methods are discussed: slash and burn in
which a small area is cleared and the vegetation burned; manual labor that is used when the site
or crop is unsuitable for mechanization; and mechanized farming that is used when there is an
abundance of money and level land. The last technique leads to monoculture in which large
tracts of land are planted with the same crop. This method is efficient but can lead to increased
soil erosion and reduced soil fertility.

Fertilizers can be used to replace human labor and can be attributed to 25 percent of the world’s
crop yield. Soil chemicals that plants need in large supply are called macronutrients, and include
potassium, phosphorous, and nitrogen. Chemicals that are needed in small supply are called
micronutrients.

Pesticides can be categorized into broad groups based on their effects, and include insecticides,
herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides. Problems associated with pesticides include biological
amplification, resistance of pests to pesticides, and human health concerns. As a result of the
problems and costs of chemicals, some farmers are using organic farming methods and
integrated pest management that uses a series of pest control methods, rather than relying on
pesticides alone.

There are many alternate forms to conventional agriculture emerging. Sustainable agricultural
techniques attempt to provide crops without sacrificing the health of the land or related
ecosystems. Sustainable techniques include organic farming, precision agriculture, integrated
pest management, and genetically modified foods.

THE CONCEPTS

The majority of the world’s food is grown on large, mechanized farms that use energy rather
than human muscle for tilling, planting, fertilizer and pesticide application, and harvesting of
crops.

Monoculture, planting large areas of the same crop year after year has increased food
production however it does have drawbacks such as soil erosion, loss of genetic diversity, and
reliance on pesticides and fertilizers.

There are four types of pesticides: insecticides control insects, herbicides control unwanted
plants, fungicides control fungi, and rodenticides control rodents.

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Problems associated with pesticides include biomagnification, resistance of pests to pesticides,
and human health concerns.

To reduce the harmful effects of pesticides, many farmers use sustainable farming techniques and
genetically modified foods that are pest resistant.

KEY TERMS

alternative agriculture herbicides persistent pesticides

auxins insecticides pest
bioaccumulation integrated pest pesticides
biomagnifications management pheromone
biotechnology macronutrient polyculture
carbamates micronutrient precision agriculture
chlorinated hydrocarbons monoculture rodenticide
fungicides nonpersistent pesticides sustainable agriculture
genetic engineering nontarget organisms target organism
genetically modified foods weeds
Green Revolutionorganophosphates

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Shifting agriculture uses the natural nutrients in the soil.

2. Shifting or slash and burn agriculture requires farmers to move their gardens and abandon
land to allow it to fallow or regenerate nutrients.

3. Better soils and sources of labor are needed practice intensive agriculture.

4. Machines work best when a field is the same crop therefore mechanization leads to
monoculture.

5. Fertilizers are used in mechanized farming because the lack of crop rotation depletes
certain essential soil nutrients. A problem associated with fertilizer use is increased
nutrients in waterways which lead to increased aquatic plant growth.

6. Advantages: increase production of food, less labor intensive, and reduce price of food
Disadvantages: energy expensive, impacts o ecosystem by pesticides and fertilizers, and
loss of genetic diversity.

7. Macronutrients are needed by plants in large amounts and are the main ingredients in
commercial fertilizers whereas micronutrients are needed in trace amounts.

8. Soil organic matter provides nutrient to plants and reduces soil erosion.
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9. Pesticides are used to control pests that would otherwise destroy the crop. They are also
relatively cheap and easy to spread.

10. Persistent pesticides are stable chemical compounds that are long-lasting in the
environment. They can be applied once and be effective for a long time, but tend to
accumulate in the soil and in nontarget animals. Nonpersistent pesticides decompose to
harmless products in a few hours or days and do not accumulate in the environment. They
are disadvantageous because they require more applications.

11. Biomagnification is the phenomenon of acquiring increasing levels of a substance in the

bodies of higher trophic-level organisms.

12. Pests can become resistant to pesticides by natural selection. There are examples of insects
that develop the adaption to breakdown pesticide chemicals so they can survive and
reproduce ultimately leading to a population of pesticide resistant insects.

13. Sustainable farming differences form conventional methods in they strive to conserve
water and soil, reduce the use of commercial pesticides and fertilizers, promote
biodiversity, and sustain quality of life for farmers and their families.

14. Understanding the biology of the pest can lead to nonchemical methods for controlling that
pest.

15. Nonchemical pest controls include the use of natural predators or parasites, the development
of resistant crops, the use of natural pesticides, the modification of farming practices,
and the use of sex attractants.

16. A section of DNA is modified or replaced in a genetically modified organism (GMO).

17. Herbicide resistant plants have had DNA inserted that makes them resistance to herbicides
and insect resistant plants have DNA inserted that causes insects to die that eat it.

18. Sustainable farms are often small family farms because the entire family unit can
participate in the economic activity and small family farm have more variety of crops that
they can sell directly to the consumer.

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SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

If you have not discussed Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, now may be a good time to do so. The
book discusses the problems associated with biological amplification, specifically with regard to
the effects of DDT on birds of prey. The history of this revelation is important to the study of
environmental science.

In order to better understand how herbicides and insecticides work, review the life cycle of some
common insect pests, and the stage that is targeted by particular pesticides. Also review the basic
anatomy of plants, how herbicides affect plant physiology and growth, and the difference
between broadleaf weeds and grass crops, such as wheat. A textbook on introductory plant
physiology should help answer these questions.

Your state cooperative extension office should be able to supply you with ample information on
pests specific to the area and the pesticides used on them. Ask for fact sheets on the crops grown
in your area, specific weeds, diseases, insects, and rodents, and the pesticides used to control
them. Also, inquire about integrated pest management and organic farming practiced in your
area. Many areas will have sustainable farms close by that are willing to let you visit. For
example a pig farm that generates its electricity from pig waste.
http://www.newsobserver.com/2010/01/18/289746/finding-power-in-pig-waste.html

Have students debate the reintroduction of DDT in Africa to battle malaria, the environmental
impact of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), and/or whether tuna and other fish with
high levels of mercury should have warning labels.

Audio – Golden Rice by Living on Earth (2009)

http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=09-P13-00005&segmentID=3

Video – Spider Silk Gene Goats by The Science Channel (2008)

http://science.discovery.com/videos/kapow-superhero-science-spider-silk-gene-goats.html

Center for Environmental Farming Systems (2011) http://www.cefs.ncsu.edu

Local Harvest www.localharvest.org

Audio – “Feeding A Hotter; More Crowded Planet” by Talk of the Nation (2011)
http://www.npr.org/2011/08/12/139579616/feeding-a-hotter-more-crowded-planet

75
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CHAPTER 15
WATER MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter Fifteen is concerned with the nature and use of water, the sources of pollution, and its
treatment. Water is important because all organisms are composed of 60-percent water. Also,
water acts as a solvent, can store heat, and is an important sink for greenhouse gases. Water is
constantly recycled by evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and underground storage
known as aquifers. Water is used for domestic use, such as bathing and drinking, agricultural
use, such as irrigation, and industrial use, such as for cooling.

Water pollution is directly linked to water use. Several types of water pollution are reviewed.
Municipal water pollution consists of industrial waste and household sewage. Industrial water
pollution consists of petroleum products, metals, acids, and organic material. Thermal pollution
occurs when industry uses water for cooling purposes. Sources of groundwater pollution include
agricultural products, underground storage tanks, landfills, septic tanks, and surface
impoundments.

Water-use planning issues include preserving scenic waters and wildlife habitats, groundwater
mining, stormwater control, salinization, water diversion, and managing urban water use.
Wastewater treatment is used to clean water before it is released. It consists of a physical settling
out process or primary treatment, biological degradation or secondary treatment, and a chemical
process or tertiary treatment.

THE CONCEPTS

The hydrologic cycle is a process whereby water cleanses itself and includes solar evaporation,
precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and groundwater storage.

Water that accumulates in underground porous strata is called an aquifer. They can be confined
or unconfined.

Water use can be classified into four categories: domestic use, agricultural use, in-stream use,
and industrial use.

Sources of water pollution include municipal, industrial, thermal, and marine.

Water-use planning issues include an increased reuse of existing supplies, salinization,

groundwater mining, water diversion, and managing urban water use.

KEY TERMS
activated sludge sewage industrial water uses secondary sewage
treatment in-stream uses treatment

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aquiclude irrigation sewage sludge
aquifer limiting factors storm-water runoff
aquitard nonpoint source tertiary sewage treatment
artesian wells point source thermal pollution
biochemical oxygen porosity trickling filter system
demand (BOD) potable waters unconfined aquifer
confined aquifer primary sewage water diversion
domestic water treatment
eutrophication runoff
evapotranspiration salinization
fecal coliform bacteria saltwater intrusion
groundwater
groundwater mining
hydrologic cycle

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. In the hydrologic cycle, the sun causes water to evaporate from surfaces and to transpire
from plants. The water is then condensed in the upper atmosphere where it turns to
precipitation that falls back to the surface. The precipitation either infiltrates the soil and is
stored in underground reservoirs or it runs-off to enter a river system.

2. Water withdrawal is the amount of water taken from a source. Water that is incorporated
into a product or lost to the atmosphere is said to be consumed.

3. Industry and municipalities use water to transport waste materials, and both need to
maintain an adequate and suitable supply of water at all times. In-stream use does not
consume water, nor does it add waste products to it.

4. Land use is directly related to water quality and quantity because some uses can withdraw
water, disrupt flow, and contribute to siltation, pollution, and salinization. Examples
include the location of industry near a body of water or the construction of a dam.

5. Biological oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required to decay a certain amount of
organic matter. It is one way to determine how polluted a body of water is. If too much
organic matter is added to the water, all of the available oxygen will be used up. Anaerobic
bacteria begin to break down wastes that, in turn, produce chemicals that have a foul odor
and taste.

6. Additional nutrients act as fertilizer and increase the rate of growth of aquatic plants. As
the organic matter decays, oxygen levels decrease through the process of decomposition.
7. Pollution that comes from a single effluent pipe or series of pipes is called point source
pollution. Diffuse pollutants, such as agricultural runoff, road salt, and acid rain, are
collectively called nonpoint source pollution.

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8. Most industries dispose of their waste through municipal sewage treatment systems. As of
1972, industries are no longer allowed to use water and return it to its source in poor
condition. The water must be cleaned before it is returned to its source.

9. Thermal pollution occurs when an industry removes water from a source, uses it for
cooling purposes, and then returns the heated water to its source. Methods of controlling it
include cooling ponds, cooling towers, and dry towers.

10. Primary sewage treatment removes larger particles by filtering water through large screens,
then settling it in ponds or lagoons. Secondary treatment follows primary treatment and
involves holding the wastewater until bacteria have degraded the organic material. Tertiary
treatment involves a variety of techniques to remove dissolved pollutants left after primary
and secondary treatments.

11. Agricultural waste includes animal manure, excess feed, and fertilizer and pesticide
spillage.

12. Storm-water runoff from streets and buildings is often added directly to the sewer system
and sent to the municipal wastewater treatment facility. In rural areas, storm-water runoff
either infiltrates the soil or runs into river systems.

13. Groundwater mining means that water is removed from an aquifer faster than it is replaced.

14. When irrigated plants extract the water they need, salts are left behind and cause the natural
water to become more concentrated.

15. Metropolitan areas must provide a water supply for human and industrial needs, wastewater
collection and treatment, and storm-water collection and management.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Discuss water quality issues specific to your area. These may include groundwater
contamination, saltwater intrusion, the safety of municipal drinking water, the increased use of
bottled water, acid precipitation, local industrial uses, and agricultural uses.

The best way to understand the fate of wastewater is to follow its route from its source (probably
a municipal reservoir or well), to your home, to the wastewater treatment plant, and back to its
source. Plan a visit to a wastewater treatment facility as well as drinking water treatment plant in
your community.

Another activity related to wastewater treatment is to measure the BOD of your community
water source before and after its use. This will require locating and testing the source of city
drinking water, followed by locating and testing the point of treated wastewater effluent. BOD
kits are available from most the biological supply houses. Other tests, such as pH, temperature,
dissolved oxygen, and phosphates, can also be performed. Are there any differences in the water

79
above and below the point of extraction and treatment? Or before and after it is used for
municipal purposes? What do the differences mean?

Obtain a topographic map of your area to illustrate the concept of a watershed. Find the source of
your communities’ drinking water. Determine the geographic boundaries of your watershed. Are
there any industries or agricultural practices contributing to the watershed? Are they upstream or
downstream from your community? This could be given as a research assignment.

Web Source – Water Webster (2011) -- http://waterwebster.org/index.htm

Audio – The Worldwide “Thirst” for Clean Drinking Water on Fresh Air (2011)
http://www.npr.org/2011/04/11/135241362/the-worldwide-thirst-for-clean-drinking-water

80
CHAPTER 16
AIR QUALITY ISSUES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Sixteen begins with a review of global wind patterns and the various layers of the
atmosphere affecting air pollution. Primary air pollutants are those released directly into the
atmosphere and include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, sulfur dioxide, and oxides
of nitrogen. Photochemical smog develops when hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen are
trapped by thermal inversions.

Control of air pollution is achieved by fuel efficient automobiles, catalytic converters,

smokestack scrubbers, and filters. Acid rain results from emissions of sulfur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen that form acids and fall in the form of precipitation. It can cause damage to limestone
structures and ecosystems.

Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons, and are thought to
increase the temperature of the Earth by trapping heat within the Earth’s atmosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons are also thought to lead to the destruction of the ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere, which can increase the amount of sunlight and subsequently damage living tissues.

THE CONCEPTS

Primary air pollutants are released directly into the atmosphere and include carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, particulates, sulfur dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen.

Secondary air pollutants are compounds that result from the interaction of various primary air
pollutants and include photochemical smog and ozone.

Acid deposition is the accumulation of acid-forming particles on a surface, and is classified as

wet when it is in the form of precipitation and dry when its precursor settles on a surface.

Global warming is believed to be caused by an accumulation of greenhouse gases, such as

carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and nitrous oxide.

KEY TERMS

acid deposition greenhouse gases particulate matter

acid rain hazardous air pollutants photochemical smog
air toxics hydrocarbons primary air pollutants
carbon dioxide (CO2) methane radon
carbon monoxide (CO) nitrogen dioxide (NO2) secondary air pollutants

81
carcinogenic nitrogen monoxide (NO) sulfur dioxide (SO2)
criteria air pollutants nitrous oxide thermal inversion
decibels oxides of nitrogen volatile organic compounds (VOC)
greenhouse effect ozone

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The two primary gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen.

2. The troposphere is the bottom layer of the atmosphere and is were weather takes place
whereas the stratosphere continues the ozone layer.

3. Air pollutants can dilute in the air, be carried away by wind, be washed away by rain, or
react with oxygen to produce harmless molecules.

4. Primary air pollutants include carbon monoxide from the burning of organic materials,
hydrocarbons from automobile exhaust, particulates from industrial plants, sulfur dioxide
from electric generation facilities using high sulfur fuels, and oxides of nitrogen from
internal combustion engine exhaust.

5. The 6 criteria air pollutants and their primary sources are:

carbon monoxide—burning of fossil fuels (Automobiles are the primary source.);
nitrogen dioxide—secondary air pollutant formed from nitrogen monoxide released from
automobiles;
sulfur dioxide—burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels, primarily coal in power plants;
volatile organic compounds (hydrocarbons)—evaporation or incomplete burning of
hydrocarbons, primarily automobiles;
ozone—a secondary air pollutant formed by the interaction of volatile organic carbons and
nitrogen oxides released from cars; and
lead—primary sources today are industrial processes (Formerly, leaded gasoline was a
primary source.).

6. Secondary air pollutants are compounds that result from the interaction of various primary
air pollutants. Photochemical smog forms when hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen are
trapped by thermal inversion and react with ultraviolet light.

7. Photochemical smog is a secondary pollutant caused by the interaction of nitrogen oxide,

nitrogen dioxide, and hydrocarbons with ultraviolet light. It is caused by exhaust from
internal combustion engines and is intensified in valleys that produce temperature
inversions.

8. Smog density varies from city to city depending on the surrounding geography and
weather patterns of each city.

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9. EPA regulations including the Clean Air Act set air quality standards, emission controls
on motor vehicles, and regulating power plant emissions have reduced air pollution. .
10. Acid rain is the deposition of wet acidic solutions or dry acidic particles from air.
11. Detrimental consequences of acid rain include abnormal bone development in fish,
damage to limestone structures and monuments, damage to metal surfaces, and
death of many kinds of trees and other vegetation.
12. The stratospheric ozone is important because it absorbs large amounts of UV.
Intense UV radiation is harmful to life on planet earth.
13. Elimination of CFCs that were reducing the amount of ozone in the stratosphere
has slowed the process of ozone depletion.
14. The primary greenhouse gases are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
and methane (NH4). Carbon has increased in the atmosphere due to the burning
of fossil fuels and destruction of forest which are carbon sinks. Increasing the
number of domesticated ruminants (such as cows) as well as the increase of rice
cultivation adds methane to the atmosphere.

15. Increase amounts of greenhouse gases allows light and heat to pass through the
atmosphere to the Earth’s surface but hinders its re-radiation back into space.
16. Global warming will likely cause sea level rise, acidification of sea water, shifts
in biomes, increase range of tropical diseases, habitat destruction, and disruption
in the water cycle.
17. Humans can reduce their carbon footprint by increasing the energy efficiency of
their home and improved fuel efficiency.
18. Buildings often have poor air quality because the air is not circulating with
outside air therefore any pollutants are not diluted.
19. Noise is any unwanted sound.

83
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

One of the activities in the above resource involves using lichens as an indicator of air quality.
Shrubby and leaf-like lichens prefer clean air, whereas smaller, crusty lichens can tolerate some
air pollution. Also, lichens accumulate metals and other elements from the rainwater and are
therefore analyzed to determine the effects of pollution. The reference for this activity is “Lichen
Looking” in the Outdoor Biological Instructional Series (OBIS) from the Lawrence Hall of
Science, University of California, Berkeley, California.

Evaluate your region’s air quality. What are the sources of air pollution? Does your region have
air quality warnings during certain times of year? If so, why?

Evaluate your region’s venerability to sea level rise. Will there be areas affected?

Have students complete the Carbon Calculator at

http://www.nature.org/greenliving/carboncalculator/index.htm What are some ways they can
reduce their carbon footprint? Is buying carbon offsets the solution?

Audio -- Science Friday Interviews on Climate Change

http://www.sciencefriday.com/topics/c070200/

85
CHAPTER 17
SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Seventeen focuses on the policies associated with solid waste management and disposal.
The amount of municipal solid waste has increased with the growing population and the
increased amount of disposable consumer products. The problems associated with solid waste
include the growing amount of waste, the lack of suitable sites for the various disposal methods,
air pollution, and groundwater leaching.

Methods of disposal include landfills, incineration, source reduction, and recycling. Landfills are
the primary method of waste disposal today. Historically, it was the cheapest means of disposal
but has become an area of environmental debate for many communities. Modern sanitary
landfills are sealed and monitored, but are very costly.

Incineration was the most popular method of disposal prior to 1940 but their numbers have
decreased due to air quality and residual ash concerns. Source reduction is the most fundamental
way to reduce waste. Examples of this method include making products in a concentrated form,
reducing the amount and weight of the packaging, and composting. Recycling has diverted about
30% of solid waste from landfills.

THE CONCEPTS

The disposable lifestyle that began in the 1 950s has created an increased amount of solid waste,
resulting in a shortage of landfill space and increased air and water pollution.

The four methods of waste disposal are landfills, incineration, source reduction, and recycling.

Future management of waste disposal will require integration of landfill, incineration, source
reduction, and recycling.

KEY TERMS

agricultural waste mass burn recycling

composting mining waste solid waste
incineration mulch source reduction
industrial solid waste municipal solid waste
leachate municipal solid waste landfill

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

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1. The solid waste problems of today began with the post-World War II economic boom in
which consumers were encouraged to buy and toss away products. Four decades of
throwaway living has led to increased amounts of solid waste for which there are no
methods of healthful disposal.

2. Integrated waste management includes landfill, incineration, source reduction, and

recycling.

3. Modern landfills require very specific sites, massive construction, complex technology,
constant monitoring, and a large investment of capital.

4. Concerns associated with incineration include foul odors, noxious gases, gritty smoke, and
ash disposal.

5. Examples of source reduction include reduced amount of packaging, reduced packaging

weight, product concentration, and municipal composting.

6. Every recycling or reduction effort from each of us could have the cumulative result of a
significant reduction in municipal solid waste.

7. Recycling could be encouraged by legislating container laws, tax incentives, and the
development of products manufactured from recycled materials.

8. There are three common methods of large scale composting:

-Windrow systems involve placing compostable materials in long rows and periodically
mechanically mixing the material.
-Aerated piles are large piles of compostable materials that have air pumped into them. -
Enclosed vessels involve controlled environments and mechanical methods of mixing the
materials.
Composting is an important ingredient in solid waste management because it converts a
waste into a useable product and prevents these wastes from taking up space in landfills.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

A visit to your community landfill or incinerator is the best method to illustrate the problem of
solid waste in the United States. In addition, visit your recycling facility to find out which
materials are recyclable and which are not. Also discuss the current market for recyclable
material in your area.

Food waste is an increasing issue in industrial countries. Ask students how they can reduce
food waste. Found out if your community has a compost plan or incentives for composting.
Many towns will sale personal composters cheaply to their residents.

Have students track their waste (weight or by bag) for one week. Discuss ways to reduce
household solid waste. After they have implement the waste reduction behaviors have them
track their waste for another week. Was there a difference? How much space was saved?

87
Discuss garbology with students. Have students sort trash in the student center or another area
to determine how many recyclables are being sent to the landfill.
http://today.duke.edu/2011/04/garbology

Have student debate whether cities and towns should ban plastic grocery bags.

Video -- “Ghana: Digital Dumping Ground” by Frontline World. 2009

http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/ghana804/video/video_index.html

Video – “Dirty Jobs: Pots from Poo” by Discovery

(http://videos.howstuffworks.com/discovery/30984-dirty-jobs-pots-made-from-poo-video.htm

88
CHAPTER 18
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS:
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND WASTES

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter Eighteen begins by identifying sources of hazardous materials in our environment, and
by defining terminology, such as corrosiveness, ignitability, reactivity, and toxicity that are used
to describe hazardous substances. Setting regulations for the handling, storage, and disposal of
hazardous substances involves many issues including: identification of what is toxic or
hazardous; the determination of threshold limits; and the determination of severity and
persistence of the toxin.

Prior to 1976, disposal of hazardous waste was unregulated, and as a result, it was often buried or
dumped without concern for environmental or health risks. The Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), also called the Superfund, was
established to clean up hazardous-waste sites and to protect the public from the dangers of such
sites.

The EPA fosters a pollution prevention hierarchy for the management of hazardous waste. The
hierarchy involves source reduction, waste recycling, waste treatment, and as a last resort,
disposal on land or incineration.

THE CONCEPTS
The benefits gained from using hazardous materials must be weighed against the environmental
and health risks associated with their use.

Hazardous materials are defined by the EPA as having one or more of the following
characteristics: ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity, or toxicity.

The issues involved in regulating the use and disposal of hazardous substances include
identification of the material, determination of exposure limits, and determination of toxicity and
persistence of the substance.

The management of hazardous waste involves prevention, waste minimization, recycling,

treatment, and land disposal.

KEY TERMS
acute toxicity hazardous wastes reactivity
chronic toxicity ignitability Resource Conservation and
Comprehensive incineration Recovery Act (RCRA)
Environmental Response, land disposal Superfund

89
Compensation and National Priority List synergism
Liability Act (CERCLA) nonpersistent pollutant threshold levels
corrosiveness persistent pollutant toxic
hazardous pollution prevention toxicity
hazardous substances or hierarchy waste minimization
materials

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Hazardous materials include ignitable, corrosive, reactivity, toxicity, and infectious.

2. Hazardous waste is by-products of industrial, business or household activities that there

is no immediate use.

3. The US EPA defines hazardous waste by being harmful to humans or to the

environment.

4. Acute toxicity is a serious effect, such as a burn, illness, or death, that occurs shortly after
exposure to a hazardous substance. Chronic toxicity is a serious effect, such as an illness or
death, that occurs after prolonged exposure to small doses of a toxic substance.

5. Synergism is when harmless substances combine to create toxic materials.

6. Persistent pollutant: DDT, Nonpersistent pollutant: Phenol

7. The threshold level is the minimum amount of the chemical or toxin and it is determined
by scientific studies on similar organisms.

8. Hazardous material can entire the body via breathing, ingestion or absorb through the
skin.

9. Hazardous waste can enter the environment by direct evaporation, escape through
piping or by being improperly disposed.

10. RCRA is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. It defines hazardous and toxic
materials and regulates their production. RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act, day to day management of hazardous waste (cradle to grave); not flexible;
prospective; process driven.

11. CERCLA is the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(Superfund). It is the 1980 law that addressed the issue of cleanup of hazardous-waste
sites. CERCLA: Comprehensive environmental response, compensation and Liability
Act; past mismanagement of hazardous waste, flexible, retrospective, money driven.

12. CERCLA is often known as the Superfund because a large part of the act was dealing
with funding of cleanup of hazardous waste dumps,
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13. The National Priority List is a listing of hazardous-waste dumpsites in the United States
that require urgent attention under the Superfund Program.

14. The goals of the Small Business Liability Relief, Brownfield Revitalization Act is to
release liability for toxic sites from owners who recently purchased toxic land if they
follow the recommendations to protect humans and the environment from the
hazardous material on the land.

15. The three industries that release the most toxic material to the environment are mining,
power generation, chemical and metal manufacturing industries.

16. The first step in the pollution prevention hierarchy is to reduce the amount of
pollution at the source. Second is to recycle wastes wherever possible. Third is to treat
wastes to reduce their hazard or volume. Fourth is to dispose of the waste on land or
incinerate the waste as a last resort.

17. Hazardous waste can be reduced at it source by changing process of manufacturing to

reduce waste, use waste in another process, use cleaning solutions, and allow water to
evaporate to reduce amount of waste.

18. Hazardous waste can be recycled by burning them as fuel, be used by other industries,
and by incorporated into building materials.

19. Five technologies for managing wastes are: thermal treatment, or incineration;
neutralization, which mixes the toxins with a neutral element; immobilization, which
converts it to a solid form; waste separation, which separates components of the waste; and
air stripping, which removes volatile chemicals from the waste.

20. Injection in deep wells and released into aquatic environments are the two most
common disposal means of hazardous waste.

21. The Basel Convention of the United Nations attempted to minimize hazardous waste
globally and control transboundary movement of hazardous waste.

22. The primary sources of nuclear waste is mining uranium, nuclear weapons, and nuclear
energy waste.

23. Transuranic waste comes mostly from the production of nuclear weapons and it is
radioactive waste that has a half life greater than 20 years.

24. High level radioactive waste consists of spent fuel rods and other highly radioactive
materials. It is often temporarily stored at the nuclear plants in containers. Long term
storage is often deep in stable geological formation.

91
25. Low level radioactive waste such as medical waste and protective clothing worn by
people who work with radioactive material is buried at special landfill sites.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

Discuss with students their personal responsibility in the production of hazardous waste. What
products do they use that contribute to the amount of hazardous waste in their community?

Have students investigate how local industries manage their hazardous waste. Is it recycled? Is it
treated? Is it landfilled in your state, or is it in someone else’s “backyard”?

Most large universities have personnel responsible for campus hazardous waste. Have someone
from that department speak to the class. Have them demonstrate the various methods of disposal
and transportation techniques used and the paperwork involved.

Video -- “Ghana: Digital Dumping Ground” by Frontline World. 2009

http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/ghana804/video/video_index.html

Article – “Poisoned Killer Whales? Blame Salmon” by Marla Cone of Scientific America (2009)
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=salmon-to-blame-for-poisoned-killer-whales

93
CHAPTER 19
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
AND DECISION MAKING
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The last chapter of the book discusses the structure of the U.S. government and the development
of policies and laws. Making policies at the federal level requires an understanding of the roles
of the legislative, judicial, and executive branches of government.

Before 1970, the U.S. had few environmental programs. After the first Earth Day, the Congress
tackled many environmental problems such as air-quality standards, cleaning up rivers,
protecting coastal areas, and regulating pesticides. International cooperation is becoming more
important in environmental policies and laws.

Environmental or “green” politics has become a major political movement in many areas, and is
not restricted to developed nations. Economic progress in the Third World raises major
environmental issues, and in order to avert problems, the environment will need to become a
foreign policy tool.

THE CONCEPTS

The United States government is structured into three separate branches: the legislative, judicial,
and executive.

The first Earth Day was April 22, 1970, and it is believed to have initiated the modern
environmental movement.

There is a growing interest in international environmentalism which is leading to increased

cooperation among both developed and undeveloped nations.

KEY TERMS

environmental terrorism executive branch legislative branch

policy judicial branch

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The major responsibility of the legislative branch is to develop and approve policies and
laws. The major responsibility of the judicial branch is to interpret laws. The major
responsibility of the executive branch is to lead members of Congress and the people they
represent toward respect for and appreciation of the quality of their surroundings.

94
2. Enforcement policies have focused on a “command and control” approach in which
restrictive and highly specific legislation are implemented by centralized authorities and
used to achieve narrowly defined ends.

3. Environmental law is governed by administrative law, which defines how governmental

organizations develop and implement regulatory programs. All actions of federal agencies
must comply with the 1946 Administrative Procedure Act.

4. “Eco-conflicts” between the industrialized North and the developing South may pose a
comparable challenge to world peace. Issues include transboundary water supply, pollution,
acid precipitation, and global climate change.

5. The modern environmental movement had its start with Earth Day I in 1970. As a result of
this demonstration, the government made great strides in tackling many environmental
issues. The Reagan Administration and economic hard-times resulted in reduced interest in
environmental issues in the mid-1980s. A renewed interest in the environment began with
the second Earth Day held in 1990. Also at this time, the number of and membership in
nongovernment environmental organizations increased. By 1995, however, these
organizations had become large and bureaucratized, and lost many members. This was
offset by an increase in small, local, grassroots organizations and international
organizations. Anti-environmental backlash began to grow in 1995, and led to such groups
as the “wise-use” movement. Today, there is increased interest in global environmentalism.

6. Many developing nations have resource-poor or ineffective governments which lead to the
private sector controlling the resource and policies. NGOs with different goals are joining
together to advance environmentally sound economic development.

7. International conventions and treaties include the 1972 United Nations Conference in
Stockholm, the 1982 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, the Antarctic
Treaty of 1961, the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, and the
1989 Accord on Chlorofluorocarbon Emissions.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES

As an assignment, have students draft a letter to their congressman or senator concerning an

environmental issue that is important to them.

Visit your state’s House of Representatives and/or Senate to see how the system works.

Discuss with students the process used by Congress to create laws. A synopsis of the process is
listed below. Discuss the influence that interest groups and lobbyists have on this process.
Introduction: a bill is introduced to the House or Senate by a sponsoring representative or
senator.

95
Committees: the bill is referred to the House and Senate Committees that deal with specific
kinds of legislation. Here it either receives support or “dies.”

Hearings: the subcommittee invites testimony from interested witnesses.

Markup: the original bill is changed through amendments proposed by subcommittee members.

Floor Action: amendments are accepted or rejected and a vote for final passage is taken.

Have students bring in newspaper articles or summarize news stories that are related to
environmental laws and regulations.
Have students debate on whether U.S. should join a current international treaty. Also
have them debate joining the same treaty but from a developing country’s perspective
like China or India.

Book – “The World is Flat” by Thomas Friedman (2005)

Book -- “Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection by Anna Lowenhaunt Tsing
(2004)

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