Chapter 1

Methods, Standard, and Work Design:

Introduction

Keypoints

• Increasing productivity drives U.S. industry.

• Worker health and safety are just as important as productivity.

• Methods engineering simplifies work.

• Work design fits work to the operator.

• Time study measures work and sets standards.

1.1 Productivity Importance

The only method for a firm or enterprise to grow and expand is through
acquisition. Profitability can be increased through improving productivity. The
term "productivity enhancement" relates to the Increase in output per workhour or
time spent. The United States has long had the greatest productivity rate in the
world. Productivity in the manufacturing industry has increased during the last
century. The United States has grown at a rate of around 4% every year. However,
in recent years Over the last decade, the United States' rate of productivity growth
has been outpaced by that of Japan, Korea, and Germany have all challenged it,
and China may do so shortly.

Methods are among the most important tools that lead to higher productivity. Time
study standards (also known as work measurement) and work design. A typical
metal goods manufacturing enterprise's total cost is Direct labor accounts for 12%,
direct material for 45%, and overhead accounts for 43%. Sales, finance,
production, engineering, and cost are all facets of a firm or industry. Methods,
standards, and job design can be applied in sectors such as maintenance and
management. People frequently focus solely on productivity. Other elements of the
business may benefit from the use of productivity tools. Because the
manufacturing sectors use the most engineers in terms of methods, standards, and
job design efforts, this chapter focuses on the production area. will devote more
attention to that field than any other. However, examples from other disciplines
Maintenance, transportation, and sales are examples of manufacturing industry
jobs. and management, as well as the service business.

Traditional opportunities for engineering, industrial management, business

administration, industrial psychology, and labor-management students (1) Work
measurement, (2) Work techniques and design (4) manufacturing analysis and
control, (5) facilities planning, (6) pay administration, (7) ergonomics and safety,
(8) production and delivery, and (9) quality assurance. control of inventory, and (9)
quality control. However, these opportunities are limited. The industrial industry
are not the only ones affected. Today, just approximately 10% of people in the
United States are Manufacturing industries employ the majority of the workforce.
The remaining 90% work in service industries or in staff positions. An industry's
producing area is critical to its success. Materials are ordered and managed here, as
well as the sequence of operations, inspections, and processes. is decided; tools are
ordered; time values are allocated; work is scheduled, delivered, and tracked; and
consumers are kept satisfied with high-quality products. On time delivery.

Likewise, the methodologies, standards, and work design activities are critical
components of the production teams. People determine more here than anywhere
else. if a product will be produced competitively through efficient workstations,
tooling, and worker-machine connections. This is where They are innovative in
upgrading and sustaining existing methods and goods. Fair labor standards
contribute to excellent labor relations.

The production control manager is primarily concerned with the establishment and
maintenance of keeping production timelines while taking into account both client
needs and the favorable economics available with appropriate scheduling. the
upkeep the management is most concerned with minimizing facility downtime as a
result of Breakdowns and repairs that are unplanned. The relationship of is
depicted in Figure 1.1. all of these domains, as well as the impact of
methodologies, standards, and work design overall output.
Figure 1.1 Typical organization chart showing the influence of methods, standards,
and work design on the operation of the enterprise.

1.2 METHODS AND STANDARDS SCOPE

Methods engineering entails planning, developing, and selecting the appropriate
manufacturing methods, processes, tools, equipment, and skills to make a product
based on the specifications provided by the product. Section of engineering. An
efficient worker-machine interaction emerges when the best method is combined
with the best talents available. When the entire procedure is completed, once a
standard time for the product has been set, it must be decided. Furthermore, there is
the responsibility to ensure that (1) set criteria are met. (2) Workers are fairly
compensated for their output, abilities, obligations and experience; and (3) people
are satisfied with their jobs. They do.

The entire approach consists of describing the problem and dividing the job down
into manageable chunks. into operations; examining each operation to decide
which one is the most cost-effective production techniques for the quantity
involved, taking into account operator safety applying suitable time values; and
then following through to guarantee that the required technique is followed. Figure
1.2 shows
METHODS ENGINEERING
The phrases operation analysis, work design, work simplification, and
methodologies are all used. Engineering and corporate reengineering are terms that
are commonly used interchangeably. In In most circumstances, the person is
referring to a technique for raising output. per unit of time or lowering the cost per
unit output—in other words, productivity increases.

Methods engineers employ a systematic procedure to create a work center,

manufacture a product, or provide a service (see Figure 1.3). This procedure is
detailed. It summarizes the flow of the text. Each phase is described in greater
depth in a later chapter. Steps 6 and 7 are not formally part of methodology
research, although they are required in a fully functional work center.
1. Select a project. Typically, the initiatives chosen are either new or recent. items or existing items
with a high manufacturing cost but a low profit margin. Furthermore, products that are now
having difficulty sustaining quality and competing are included. Method engineering projects
that are rational.
2. Gather and present the data. Collect any pertinent information on the A product or service. These
include drawings and specifications, as well as quantity objectives, delivery requirements, and
projected life of the goods or service. Once all critical information has been collected, Once
obtained, arrange it in an organized fashion for study and analysis. The creation of process charts
at this time is really beneficial.
3. Analyze the data. Use the major techniques of operations analysis to Choose the choice that will
result in the finest product or service. These key approaches include the goal of operation, part
design, and tolerances. and specifications, materials, manufacturing process, setup, and tools
Working conditions, material handling, plant structure, and work design are all factors to
consider.
4. Develop the ideal method. Choose the most appropriate procedure for each operation, taking into
account the varied limits, inspection, and transportation productivity, ergonomics, and other
factors connected with each alternative Implications for health and safety.
5. Present and install the method. Explain in depth the proposed approach to those in charge of its
operation and upkeep. Consider every aspect of the work center, in order to confirm that the
proposed strategy produces the desired results anticipated.
6. Develop a job analysis. Perform a task analysis of the installed method to ensure that the operators
are properly selected, trained, and rewarded.
7. Establish time standards. Set a reasonable and equitable threshold for the installed procedure.
8. Follow up the methods. Audit the installed method on a regular basis to determine whether the
expected productivity and quality are being realized, whether costs were appropriately
forecasted, and whether additional improvements may be made can be made.
In summary, methods engineering is the systematic examination of all processes. direct and indirect
processes to discover changes that make work easier to accomplish in terms of worker health and
safety, as well as allowing work to be completed in less time spent with less investment per unit
(i.e., more profitability).

WORK DESIGN
The concepts of work design are used in the development or maintenance of the new
approach. must be utilized to adapt the task and workstation to the human
operator's ergonomics. Unfortunately, in the pursuit of greater productivity, job
design is sometimes overlooked. Far too often, overly simple procedures end in
machinelike repetition. jobs for the operators, resulting in an increase in the
prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders.

STANDARDS
Standards are the end result of time study or work measurement. This technique
defines a time standard for performing a specific task based on measurements of the
work content of the defined method, with adequate consideration for tiredness, as well
as personal and unavoidable delays.
The generated standards are utilized to construct a wage payment structure. In
Many businesses, particularly small businesses, engage in wage payment activities.
is carried out by the same group in charge of the methodology and standards work.
Production control, plant layout, purchasing, cost accounting and control, and process
and product design are other disciplines that are strongly tied to Both the methods and
standards functions are available. To function properly, all of these regions rely on
time and cost statistics, information, and operating processes from the methodology
and standards division.

OBJECTIVES OF METHODS, STANDARDS, AND WORK

DESIGN
The primary goals of methodologies, standards, and work design are (1) to increase
(1) to increase production and product reliability while lowering unit cost, allowing
More high-quality goods and services will be created for a larger number of people.
The ability to produce more for less money will result in more jobs for a greater
number of people. hours per year.
Through
By applying these concepts, unemployment and aid rolls can be reduced.
the growing expense of economic support to nonproducers.
Corollaries to the principal objectives are as follows:
1. Minimize the time required to perform tasks.
2. Continually improve the quality and reliability of products and services.
3. Conserve resources and minimize cost by specifying the most appropriate direct and
indirect materials for the production of goods and services.
4. Consider the cost and availability of power.
5. Maximize the safety, health, and well-being of all employees.
6. Produce with an increasing concern for protecting the environment.
7. Follow a humane program of management that results in job interest and satisfaction for
each employee.

1.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

THE WORK OF TAYLOR
Frederick W. Taylor is widely regarded as the creator of modern time. Educate
yourself in this country. However, many time studies have been carried out in
Europe. Taylor's period was many years ago. In 1760, Jean Rodolphe Perronet, a
French engineer, invented the steam engine. substantial time studies on the
production of No. 6 common pins, and 60 years later, Charles W. Babbage, an
English economist, undertook time studies years later. regarding the production of
No. 11 common pins.

Taylor began his time study work in 1881 while affiliated with the Midvale. Steel
company in Philadelphia. Despite the fact that he was born into an affluent
household, he despised his upbringing and began functioning as an apprentice.
After 12 years of effort, he Taylor advocated that management plan out each
employee's job at least one day in advance in order to develop a system based on
the "task."

Taylor gave his famous paper "Shop Management" at the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) meeting in Saratoga in June 1903.

It includes scientific management components such as time study, standardization

of all instruments and duties, employment of a planning department, use of slide
rules, and so on. similar timesaving implements, instruction cards for workers,
bonuses for good performance, differential rates, mnemonic methods for
classifying products, routing systems, and current cost systems. Taylor's techniques
worked wonderfully. received by many industry managers, and by 1917, of the 113
facilities that had placed "scientific management," 59 regarded their installations to
be a complete success. 20 were partially successful, while 34 were failures
(Thompson, 1917).

In 1898, while at the Bethlehem Steel Company (he had resigned his post at
Midvale), Taylor carried out the pig-iron experiment that came to be one of the
most celebrated demonstrations of his principles. He established the correct
method, along with financial incentives, and workers carrying 92-lb pigs of iron up
a ramp onto a freight car were able to increase their productivity from an average
of 12.5 tons/day to between 47 and 48 tons/day. This work was performed with an
increase in the daily rate of $1.15 to $1.85. Taylor claimed that workmen
performed at the higher rate “without bringing on a strike among the men, without
any quarrel with the men and were happier and better contented.”

After considerable study, Taylor designed shovels to fit the different loads: short-
handled shovels for iron ore, long-handled scoops for light rice coal. As a result,
productivity increased, and the cost of handling materials decreased from 8
cents/ton to 3 cents/ton.
The resulting “highspeed steel” more than doubled machine cutting productivity
and remains in use today all over the world. Later, he developed the Taylor
equation for cutting metal. Not as well known as his engineering contributions is
the fact that in 1881, he was a U.S. tennis doubles champion. Here he used an odd-
looking racket he had designed with a spoon curved handle. Taylor died of
pneumonia in 1915, at the age of 59. For more information on this multitalented
individual, the authors recommend Kanigel’s biography (1997).

In the early 1900s, the country was going through an unprecedented inflationary
period. The word efficiency became passé, and most businesses and industries
were looking for new ideas that would improve their performance. Brandeis
claimed that the railroad companies could save $1 million/day by introducing the
techniques advocated by Taylor. Thus, Brandeis and the Eastern Rate Case (as the
hearing came to be known) first introduced Taylor’s concepts as “scientific
management.”

These developments spread in spite of the many favorable installations started by

Taylor. At the Watertown Arsenal, labor objected to such an extent to the new time
study system that in 1910 the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) started an
investigation of time study. Several derogatory reports on the subject influenced
Congress to add a rider to the government appropriations bill in 1913, stipulating
that no part of the appropriation should be made available for the pay of any person
engaged in time study work. This restriction applied to the government-operated
plants where government funds were used to pay the employees. It wasn’t until
1947 that the House of Representatives passed a bill that rescinded the prohibition
against using stopwatches and the use of time study. It is of interest that even today
the use of the stopwatch is still prohibited by unions in some railroad repair
facilities. It is also interesting to note that Taylorism is very much alive today, in
contemporary assembly lines, in lawyer’s bills that are calculated in fractional
hours, and in documentation of hospital costs for patients.

MOTION STUDY AND THE WORK OF THE

GILBRETHS
The modern motion-study film was created by Frank and Lilian Gilbreth. strategy
for improving a process by minimizing superfluous bodily motions moves,
simplifying essential motions, and then determining the most advantageous motion
sequence for maximum efficiency. He was able to do this after incorporating
method enhancements through motion studies, including an adjustable scaffold that
he had built, as well as operator training. Increase the average number of bricks
laid each working hour to 350. prior to According to Gilbreth's research, 120 bricks
per hour was regarded an acceptable rate of performance for a bricklayer.

In addition, the Gilbreths developed the cyclegraphic and chronocyclegraphic

analysis techniques for studying the motion paths made by an operator. The
cyclegraphic approach is connecting a small electric lamp to the finger, hand, or
portion of the body being investigated and photographing the action. When the
operator is executing the operation. The generated image provides a permanent
record of the motion pattern used and may be evaluated for potential problems.
Improvement.

As an interesting side note, the reader may wish to read about the extreme lengths
to which Frank Gilbreth went to achieve maximum efficiency even in his personal
life. His eldest son and daughter recount vignettes of their father shaving with
razors simultaneously in both hands or using various communication signals to
assemble all the children, of which there were 12. Hence the title of their book
Cheaper by the Dozen (Gilbreth and Gilbreth, 1948)! After Frank’s relatively early
death at the age of 55, Lillian, who had received a Ph.D. in psychology and had
been a more than equal collaborator, continued on her own, advancing the concept
of work simplification especially for the physically handicapped. She passed away
in 1972 at the distinguished age of 93 (Gilbreth, 1988).

EARLY CONTEMPORARIES
Carl G. Barth, a colleague of Frederick W. Taylor, created a production slide. The
rule for establishing the most efficient combinations of speeds and feeds for cutting
metals of varied hardnesses, taking into account the depth of cut, tool size, and the
tool's life. To work on the Santa Fe, Harrington Emerson used scientific
procedures. Railroad and published a book, Twelve Principles of Efficiency, in
which he made an argument for efficiency. Attempt to educate management on
practices for effective functioning. He restructured everything. the corporation
implemented its shop practices, normal costs, and a bonus plan and moved its
accounting operations to Hollerith tabulating machines. This work resulted in
annual savings of more than $1.5 million and the awarding of Efficiency
engineering is his methodology.
In 1917, Henry Laurence Gantt developed simple graphs that would measure
performance while visually showing projected schedules. For the first time, this
tool allowed you to compare actual performance. versus the initial design, and to
change daily programs based on capacity, backlog, as well as client requirements.
Gantt is also noted for developing a wage payout system that rewarded employees
for exceeding expectations. There was no failure penalty, and the supervisor
received a bonus for each worker. who outperformed the norm. Gantt emphasized
interpersonal relationships and promoted Scientific management as something
more than an inhumane "sped-up" of labor. During WWII, motion and time studies
were given a boost. Franklin D. Roosevelt, through the U.S. The Department of
Labor campaigned for creating production standards. The stated policy pushed for
greater pay for increased output without increasing unit labor costs, incentive plans
to be collectively bargained between labor and management, and the usage of to
establish manufacturing standards, time studies or historical records are used.

EMERGENCE OF WORK DESIGN

Work design is a relatively recent science that deals with creating tasks,
workstations, and working environments that are better suited to the human
operator. The United States Human factors are more often known in the United
States, although foreign terms are ergonomics is a term taken from the Greek terms
for labour. (erg) as well as laws (nomos).

Following the original work of Taylor and the Gilbreths in the United States, the
During World War I, military troops were chosen and trained, as were industrial
workers. The Harvard Graduate School's psychology experiments at Western
Electric (see The Hawthorne studies in Chapter 9) made significant contributions
to the work. The design field. During and after World War I, in Europe, the British
Industrial Fatigue Board conducted numerous studies on human performance under
diverse settings. The British later expanded this to heat stress and other
circumstances. The Admiralty and the Medical Research Council. World War II,
with the complexity of military equipment and aircraft, led to the development of
the U.S. military engineering psychology laboratories and a real growth of the
profession. With the launch of Sputnik in 1957 only exacerbated the expansion of
human factors, particularly in the aerospace and military industries are two of the
most important. Since the 1970s, the growth has migrated to the industrial sector,
and, more recently, into computer equipment, user-friendly software, and the office
environment. Obviously, the growth of computers and technology will keep human
factors specialists and ergonomists busy designing better workplaces and products
and improving the quality of life and work for many years to come.

ORGANIZATIONS
Since 1911, there has been a concerted effort to keep industry informed about
developments. The most recent advancements in the methodology pioneered by
Taylor and Gilbreth. Technical Organizations have made significant contributions
to the advancement of time science. Work design and technique engineering must
be up to date. The Taylor Society was created in 1915 to advance management
science, and in 1917 it was incorporated. Those interested in manufacturing
processes founded the Society of Industrial Engineers. The origins of the American
Management Association (AMA) can be traced back to The National Association
of Corporate Schools was founded in 1913 by a group of training directors. Its
many departments fund seminars and publications on productivity enhancement,
work measurement, wage incentives, labor simplicity, and other topics. clerical
standards. With the assistance of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
The Gantt Memorial Medal is awarded yearly by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) for the most meritorious contribution to industrial
management as a community service.

In the year 2000, the Society for the Advancement of Management (SAM) was
founded. The Taylor Society and the Society of Industrial Engineers merged in
1936 to form the Society of Industrial Engineers. This group stressed the
significance of time studies and methodologies. The payment of a salary. Industry
has long employed SAM's time study assessing films. period of years. The Taylor
key and the Gilbreth medal are awarded by SAM each year for significant
contributions to the growth of management science. for outstanding achievement in
the field of motion, skill, and fatigue research. In SAM and AMA joined forces in
1972.

The Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE) was established in 1948 with the goal of
keeping industrial engineering on a professional level. level; cultivating a high
level of honesty among industrial members supporting and assisting education and
research in the engineering profession industrial engineers' areas of interest;
fostering the exchange of ideas and sharing information among members of the
industrial engineering profession (e.g., publishing the journal IIE Transactions);
serving the public interest by identifying and resolving issues individuals certified
to practice as industrial engineers; and encouraging industrial engineers'
professional registration. The Society of Work Science of the IIE (the outcome of
the 1994 merger of the Work Measurement and Ergonomics Divisions) keeps the
membership up to date on all areas of this area of work. This culture Phil Carroll
Award and M. Achievement Award M. Ayoub in job measurement and
ergonomics. individuals certified to practice as industrial engineers; and
encouraging industrial engineers' professional registration.

In the field of work design, the Ergonomics Research Society was created in the
United Kingdom in 1949. It started the Ergonomics was the first professional
journal published in 1957. The professional association in the United States The
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society was founded in 1957. In the 1960s, The
society expanded rapidly, with membership rising from 500 to 1000. 3,000. There
are currently over 5,000 members grouped into 20 separate groups. technical
groups. Their key objectives are to: (1) define and support human
factors/ergonomics as a scientific field and in practice, through the interchange of
ideas; and (2) promote human factors/ergonomics as a scientific discipline. (2)
educate and inform business, industry, and government on human
factors/ergonomics; and (3) promote human factors/ergonomics. The use of
factors/ergonomics to improve one's quality of life. Furthermore, society Human
Factors, an archival journal, is published, and yearly conferences are held. where
members can gather and exchange ideas. With the growth of national professional
associations, the International Ergonomics Association was created in 1959 to
coordinate ergonomic efforts on an international scale. Currently, there are 42
separate societies with over 15,000 members worldwide.

PRESENT TRENDS
Methods, standards, and job design practitioners have recognized that Gender, age,
health and well-being, physical size and strength are examples of such criteria.
There is a direct relationship between aptitude, training attitudes, job satisfaction,
and motivation response. It has an impact on productivity. Furthermore,
contemporary observers recognize that workers, understandably, object to being
treated as machines.

Workers are afraid of methodologies and time studies because they see how
ineffective they are. a rise in output. To them, this implies fewer labor and, as a
result, less pay. pay. Some people are afraid of time study today because of bad
encounters with efficiency gurus. Many workers associate mobility and time study
with the acceleration of labor and the use of incentives to encourage staff to
produce more. Even today, some unions are opposed to the formation of
measurement standards, the setting of hourly base rates based on work appraisal,
and the use of measurement standards. of incentive wage payment. These unions
feel that the amount of time given to complete a task and the amount an employee
should be paid are concerns that should be addressed. Collective bargaining
arrangements should be used to resolve these issues. Today's practitioners must
have a "humane" attitude. They must be healthy.schooled in the study of human
behavior and adept in the art of communication. They must also be good listeners,
respecting the thoughts and thinking of others. Others, particularly the worker at
the bench. They must give credit where credit is due.

Additionally, motion and time practitioners Always remember to utilize the

inquisitive mindset recommended by the Gilbreths, Taylor, and the other pioneers
in the field. The belief that there is "always a better way" must be pursued in the
development of new products. strategies for increasing production, quality,
delivery, worker safety, and worker well-being. Today, the government is
meddling more in the regulation of

Methods, standards, and work design are all examples of work design. Military
equipment contractors and subcontractors, for example, are feeling growing
pressure to prove direct labor. MIL-STD 1567A (published in 1975; amended in
1983 and 1988) established standards. MIL-STD is applicable to any company that
receives a contract worth more than $1 million. 1567A, which calls for a work
measurement strategy and procedures, a plan to establish and maintain engineering
standards of known accuracy and traceability, and a plan to establish and maintain
engineered standards of known accuracy and traceability. strategy for method
improvement in accordance with standards, plan for implementation the standards
as a source of information for budgeting, estimating, planning, and performance
All of these proposals require examination and extensive documentation. This
condition, however, was removed in 1995.

Similarly, in the field of work design, Congress passed the OSHAct, which
established the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), a
research organization charged with providing guidelines and standards for worker
health and safety. safety, as well as the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), to maintain these requirements. With an increasing
number of people with varying capacities, Congress The Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted in 1990. This rule includes a huge influence
on all employers with 15 or more employees, including recruitment, hiring,
promotions, training, laying off, and firing permitting leaves, and allocating
employment. The use of computerized techniques will also continue to grow, for
example, predetermined time systems such as MOST. Many companies have also
developed time study and work sampling software, using electronic data collectors
for compiling the information required. Table 1.1 illustrates the progress made in
methods, standards, and work design.

SUMMARY
The unrealized potential is acknowledged by industry, business, and government.
The best hope for dealing with inflation and competitiveness is to increase
productivity. The most important factor in increasing productivity is consistent
application. of the principles of methodology, standards, and job design. Only in
this manner is it possible Increased output from both people and machines. The
government of the United States has devoted itself to a paternalistic concept of
providing for the disadvantaged—housing for the poor, medical care for the
elderly, jobs for minorities, and so on. so forth. To cover rising labor and
government taxes We need to get more out of our productive elements if we want
to stay in business— Both humans and machines are involved.
Chapter 2
Problem-Solving Tools
KEY POINTS

• Select the project with the exploratory tools: Pareto analyses, fish diagrams,
Gantt charts, PERT charts, and job/worksite analysis guides.

• Get and present data with the recording tools: operation, flow, worker/machine,
and gang process charts, and flow diagrams.

• Develop the ideal method with quantitative tools: worker/machine relationships

with synchronous and random servicing and line balancing calculations

A successful methodologies engineering program will follow a systematic

procedure, beginning with from project selection to project execution project (as
shown in Figure 1.3). The first and possibly most important step—whether
Designing a new work center or upgrading an existing operation—is the
identification of the problem in a clear and logical form. The first five instruments
are primarily employed in the first stage of method analysis. Pick a project. From
Japanese quality came Pareto analysis and fish diagrams. circles in the early 1960s
(see Chapter 18), and they were quite effective in improving their situation. In their
manufacturing operations, they are focusing on quality and cost reduction. Gantt
charts and PERT charts
In the 1940s, charts were developed in response to a demand for better project
planning. and command of large-scale military undertakings. They can also be
highly helpful in recognizing difficulties in the workplace. Processing procedures
that need to be improved, quality control issues caused by the method, or product
performance issues when compared to the competition are examples of technical
considerations. Human factors may include tasks that are very repetitious, resulting
in work-related musculoskeletal injuries, jobs with a high accident rate, jobs that
are overly tiring, or jobs that are dangerous. about which workers regularly
complain.

In the analyst's office, the first four exploratory techniques are most commonly
employed. The fifth tool, a job/workplace analysis guide, aids in the identification
of issues within a specific area, department, or worksite and is ideally prepared as
part of a physical audit. walk-through and on-site observations.

The following five tools are used to record the current method, and they are as
follows:The second step of method analysis is to collect and report data. Relevant
fact information such as manufacturing quantities, delivery timelines, and
operational periods, facilities, machine capabilities, specific materials, and unique
tools—may vary. have a significant impact on the problem's resolution, and such
data It must be recorded. (The data are also useful in the third step of the
approaches.) data analysis)

The final three tools are more beneficial as a quantitative approach in the fourth.
Develop the ideal method as part of the methods analysis process. Once the facts
are provided, They are reviewed attentively, clearly and properly, so that the most
practicable, A cost-effective approach can be devised and implemented. They
should as a result, be utilized in conjunction with operational analysis
methodologies explained in Chapter 3. It is worth noting that the majority of the
instruments from all four groups are interchangeable. The operational analysis
phase of development can be easily used.

2.1 EXPLORATORY TOOLS PARETO ANALYSIS

An economist's technique can be used to define problem areas. To explain the
concentration of wealth, Vilfredo Pareto. Items in Pareto analysis are of interest are
identified and quantified on a standard scale before being ordered As a cumulative
distribution, the values are listed in descending order. Usually, 20% of the As a
result, rated items account for 80 percent or more of total activity; as a result, The
strategy is sometimes referred to as the 80-20 rule. For example, 80 percent of the
Only 20% of the inventory items have whole inventory. Approximately 80% of
accidents are caused by work (Figure 2.1), About 20% of occupations, contribute
for 80% of worker remuneration costs. Conceptually, the techniques analyst
focuses the most attention on the Few jobs are responsible for the majority of the
issues. In many circumstances, a lognormal transformation can be used to convert
the Pareto distribution to a straight line. whereby additional quantitative
evaluations can be undertaken (Herron, 1976).

FISH DIAGRAMS
Fish diagrams, often known as cause-and-effect diagrams, were created by
Ishikawa in the early 1950s, while working on a quality control project for The
Kawasaki Steel Company. The procedure entails defining an occurrence of a The
effect, like the "fish head" and then identifying related components, or causes, as
"fish bones" attached to the backbone and the fish head. The primary causes are
usually subdivided. into five or six broad categories—human, machines, methods,
materials, environmental, and administrative—each of which is further broken into
subcauses. Fish diagrams have worked quite successfully in Japanese quality
circles, where input is expected from all levels of workers and managers. Such
diagrams may prove to be less successful in U.S. industry, where the cooperation
between labor and management may be less effective in producing the desired
solutions and outcomes (Cole, 1979).

GANTT CHART
The Gantt chart was most likely the earliest project planning and control technique.
arose throughout the 1940s in response to the necessity to better manage complex
defense programs and systems. A Gantt chart simply displays the expected
completion date. times for various project operations as bars displayed against time
on the horizontal axis Figure 2.3a. In Figure 2.3a, for example, by Mock-up work
is behind schedule as of the conclusion of the third month. A Gantt chart shows the
forces. the project manager creates a plan ahead of time and delivers a short
overview of the progress of the project at any given time.

The Gantt chart can also be utilized for sequencing machine activity on the plant
floor. The machine-based chart can include repair or maintenance activity by
crossing out the time period in which the planned downtime will occur. For
example, in the job shop in Figure 2.3b, in the middle of the month, lathe work is
behind schedule, while production on the punch press is ahead of schedule.

PERT CHARTING
Program Evaluation and Review Technique is abbreviated as PERT. Also known
as a PERT chart. A network diagram, also known as a critical path method, is a
planning and control tool that graphically depicts the best approach to achieve
some preset goal. Generally speaking, objective in terms of time. The US used this
strategy.

In using PERT for scheduling, analysts generally provide two or three time
estimates for each activity. For example, if three time estimates are used, they are
based on the following questions:

1. How much time is required to complete a specific activity if everything works

out ideally (optimistic estimate)?

2. Under average conditions, what would be the most likely duration of this
activity?
3. What is the time required to complete this activity if almost everything goes
wrong (pessimistic estimate)?

With these estimates, the analyst can develop a probability distribution of the time
required to perform the activity.

Events (represented by nodes) on a PERT chart are time positions that Show the
beginning and end of a specific activity or series of processes. An activity is
defined as any action or combination of operations in a department. This is known
as an arc. Each arc has a time stamp connected to it. The amount of time (days,
weeks, or months) required to finish the activity. No-cost activities Dummies are
items that do not require any time or money but are required to maintain a correct
sequence. activities and are depicted as dotted lines (see Figure 2.4). Dummy
activities are commonly used to show precedence or interdependence. because the
rules state that no two activities can be identified by the same node; In other words,
each activity has an own set of nodes.

The minimal time required to accomplish the full project corresponds to the
longest path from the first to the last node. In Figure, this is referred to as the
crucial path. 2.4, the longest path from node to node is the shortest time required to
accomplish the project. Node 1 to node 12. While there is usually one such path in
any project, there are more than one. One path can represent the shortest time
required to accomplish the job.
Although the critical path can be discovered through trial and error, there is a
formal technique for discovering the critical path utilizing several time concepts.
These are (1) the earliest starting (ES) for each activity such that all precedence
relationships are upheld and (2) the earliest finish (EF) for that activity, which is
the earliest start plus the estimated time for that activity, or

EFij = ESij + tij

where i and j are the nodes.

These times are typically found by a forward pass through the network, as shown
in the network table in Table 2.1. Note that for an activity that has two predecessor
activities, the earliest start is computed as the maximum of the previous earliest
furnishes

ESij = max ( EFij)

Similar to the earliest start and finish times are the latest start (LS) and latest finish
(LF) times which are found through a backward pass through the network. The
latest start time is the latest time an activity can start without delaying the project.
It is found by subtracting the activity time from the latest finish time.

LSij = LFij – tij

Where two or more activities emanate from one node, the latest finish time is the
minimum of the latest start times of the emanating activities.

LFij = min (LSij)

The network table for the network diagram in Fig 2.5 is given in Table 2.1. Float is
formally defined as

Float = LS – ES

Or

Float = LF – EF

Note that all activities with float equal to zero define the critical path, which for
this example, is 27 weeks.
Several strategies can be utilized to reduce the duration and expense of a project.
Estimates for several possibilities are possible. Table 2.2, for example, identifies
the typical times and costs, as well as the crash times and costs, that would occur in
the The project depicted in Fig. 2.4 was shortened. Using this table and the
network diagram, and assuming that time and cost per hour have a linear
relationship, During the week, the various options listed in Table 2.3 can be
computed. It is worth noting that after 19 weeks, a second crucial path is formed
via nodes. 1, 3, 5, and 7, and any further collisions would have to take both
pathways into account.

JOB/WORKSITE ANALYSIS GUIDE

The job/worksite analysis guide (see Figure 2.5) highlights issues on the job or at
the workplace. particular area, department, or worksite. Before gathering
quantitative data, the analyst walks through the area, observing the worker, the
task, and the environment. workplace, and the surrounding working environment.
Moreover, the analyst determines any administrative issues that may have an
impact on the worker's conduct or display. All of these variables contribute to an
overall picture of the scenario. can assist the analyst in employing other, more
quantitative data collection tools and data analysis. Figure 2.5 illustrates the use of
the A hot-end operation in a television manufacturing facility job/worksite analysis
guide. Lifting large loads, heat stress, and Noise pollution.
2.2 RECORDING AND ANALYSIS TOOLS OPERATION
PROCESS CHART
The operation process chart depicts the chronological order of all operations.
inspections, time allowances, and materials used in manufacturing or business
From the arrival of raw materials until the packaging of the finished product, the
process is described.
occurs when a portion being researched is deliberately altered, or when it is being
studied or planned prior to productive activity being undertaken on it. When a part
is inspected, its conformance to a standard is determined. It should be noted that
some analysts choose to outline simply the operations, producing an outline
process chart as a result.

In general, the operation process chart is constructed such that vertical flow lines
and horizontal material lines do not cross. If it becomes necessary to cross a
vertical and a horizontal line, use conventional practice to show that no juncture
occurs; that is, draw a small semicircle in the horizontal line at the point where the
vertical line crosses it (see Figure 2.6).
Time values, based on either estimates or actual measurements, may be assigned to
each operation and inspection. A typical completed operation process chart
illustrating the manufacture of telephone stands is shown in Figure 2.7. The
completed operation process chart helps analysts visualize the present method,
with all its details, so that new and better procedures may be devised.
Consequently, methods analysts find this tool extremely helpful in developing new
layouts and improving existing ones.

FLOW PROCESS CHART

The flow process chart, in general, has far more detail than the operation process
chart. As a result, it is typically applied to individual components of an assembly
rather than full assemblies. The flow process chart is particularly useful for
capturing non-production hidden costs such as distances traveled, delays, and
temporary storages. After identifying these nonproduction periods, analysts can
take actions to reduce them and hence their expenses.

To determine the distance moved, the analyst need not measure each move
accurately with a tape or a 6-ft rule. A sufficiently correct figure usually results by
counting the number of columns that the material moves past and then multiplying.
this number, less 1, by the span. Moves of 5 ft or less are usually not recorded;
however, they may be if the analyst feels that they materially affect the overall cost
of the method being plotted. Then check the section periodically to see when the
marked parts are brought back into production. By taking a number of cases,
recording the elapsed time, and then averaging the results, analysts can obtain
sufficiently accurate time values.

The flow process chart, like the operation process chart, is not an end in and of itself; it is merely
a means to an end. This tool facilitates the elimination or reduction of the hidden costs of a
component. Since the flowchart clearly shows all transportations, delays, and storages, the
information it provides can lead to a reduction of both the quantity and duration of these
elements.

FLOW DIAGRAM

Although the flow process chart gives most of the pertinent information related to a
manufacturing process, it does not show a pictorial plan of the flow of work. Sometimes this
information is helpful in developing a new method. For example,
before a transportation can be shortened, the analyst needs to see or visualize where room can be
made to add a facility so that the transportation distance can be shortened. Likewise, it is helpful
to visualize potential temporary and permanent storage areas, inspection stations, and work
points.

The best way to provide this information is to take an existing drawing of the plant areas
involved and then sketch in the flow lines, indicating the movement of the material from one
activity to the next.
A pictorial representation of the layout of floors and buildings, showing the locations of all
activities on the flow process chart, is a flow diagram. When constructing a flow diagram,
analysts identify each activity by symbols and numbers corresponding to those appearing on the
flow process chart.

The direction of flow is indicated by placing small arrows periodically along the flow lines.
Different colors can be used to indicate flow lines for more than one part.

Figure 2.12 illustrates a flow diagram made in conjunction with a flow process chart to improve
the production of the Garand (M1) rifle at Springfield Armory. The flow diagram is a helpful
supplement to the flow process chart because it indicates backtracking and possible traffic
congestion areas, and it facilitates developing an ideal plant layout.

WORKER AND MACHINE PROCESS CHARTS

The worker and machine process chart is used to study, analyze, and improve one workstation at
a time. The chart shows the exact time relationship between the working cycle of the person and
the operating cycle of the machine. These facts can lead to a fuller utilization of both worker and
machine time, and a better balance of the work cycle.
The practice of having one employee operate more than one machine is known as machine
coupling. Because organized labor may resist this concept, the best way to sell machine coupling
is to demonstrate the opportunity for added earnings.

The productive time plus the idle time of the worker must equal the productive time plus the idle
time of each machine that the worker operates. Accurate elemental time values are necessary
before the worker and machine chart can be constructed. However, the analyst must also
compare the cost of the idle machine with that of the idle worker. It is only when total cost is
considered that the analyst can safely recommend one method over another. Economical
considerations are presented in the next section.

GANG PROCESS CHARTS

The gang process chart is, in a sense, an adaptation of the worker and machine chart. A worker
and machine process chart helps determine the most economical number of machines one worker
can operate. s. A better operation of the same process is shown on the gang process chart in
Figure 2.16. The savings of 16 h per shift was easily developed through the use of this chart.

2.3 QUANTITATIVE TOOLS, WORKER AND MACHINE RELATIONSHIPS

Although the worker and machine process chart can illustrate the number of facilities that can be
assigned to an operator, this can often be computed in much less time through the development
of a mathematical model. A worker and machine relationship is usually one of three types: (1)
synchronous servicing, (2) completely random servicing, and (3) a combination of synchronous
and random servicing.
SYNCHRONOUS SERVICING

Assigning more than one machine to an operator seldom results in the ideal case where both the
worker and the machine are occupied during the whole cycle. Such ideal cases are referred to as
synchronous servicing, and the number of machines to be assigned can be computed as
where n = number of machines the operator is assigned

L = total operator loading and unloading (servicing) time per machine

m = total machine running time (automatic power feed)

For example, assume a total cycle time of 4 min to produce a product, as measured from the start
of the unloading of the previously completed product to the end of the machine cycle time.
Operator servicing, which includes both the unloading of the completed product and the loading
of the raw materials, is 1 min, while the cycle time of the automatic machine cycle is 3 min.
Synchronous servicing would result in the assignment of

N = 1 + 3 /1 = 4 machines

Graphically, this assignment would appear as shown in Figure 2.17, with the operator moving to
the second machine once the first machine is serviced. If the number of machines in this example
is increased, machine interference takes place, and we have a situation in which one or more of
the facilities sit idle for a portion of the work cycle.

RANDOM SERVICING

Completely random servicing situations are those cases in which it is not known when a facility
needs to be serviced or how long servicing takes. Mean values are usually known or can be
determined; with these averages, the laws of probability can provide a useful tool in determining
the number of machines to assign a single operator.

COMPLEX RELATIONSHIPS

Combinations of synchronous and random servicing are perhaps the most common type of
worker and machine relationships. Here the servicing time is relatively constant, but the
machines are serviced randomly. Furthermore, the time between breakdowns is assumed to have
a particular distribution.

LINE BALANCING

The problem of determining the ideal number of workers to be assigned to a production line is
analogous to that of determining the number of workers to be assigned to a workstation; the gang
process chart solves both problems. Perhaps the most elementary line balancing situation, yet
one that is very often encountered, is one in which several operators, each performing
consecutive operations, work as a unit.

SUMMARY
The various charts presented in this chapter are valuable tools for presenting and solving
problems. Just as several types of tools are available for a particular job, so several chart designs
can help solve an engineering problem. Analysts should understand the specific functions of each
process chart and choose the appropriate one for solving a specific problem and improving
operations. Pareto analyses and fish diagrams are used to select a critical operation and to
identify the root causes and contributing factors leading to the problem. Gantt and PERT charts
are project scheduling tools. The Gantt chart provides only a good overview, and the PERT chart
quantifies the interactions between different activities. The job/worksite analysis guide is
primarily used on a physical walkthrough to identify key worker, task, environmental, and
administrative factors that may cause potential problems. The operation process chart provides a
good overview of the relationships between different operations and inspections on assemblies
involving several components. The flow process chart provides more details for the analysis of
manufacturing operations, to find hidden or indirect costs, such as delay time, storage costs, and
material handling costs. The flow diagram is a useful supplement to the flow process chart in
developing plant layouts. The worker/machine and gang process charts show machines or
facilities in conjunction with the operator or operators, and are used to analyze idle operator time
and idle machine time. Synchronous and random servicing calculations and line balancing
techniques are used to develop more efficient operations through quantitative methods. These 13
tools are very important for methods analysts. The charts are valuable descriptive and
communicative aids for understanding a process and its related activities. Their correct use can
aid in presenting and solving the problem, and in selling and installing the solution. Quantitative
techniques can determine the optimum arrangement of operators and machines. Analysts should
be acquainted with sufficient algebra and probability theory to develop a mathematical model
that provides the best solution to the machine or facility problem. Thus, they are effective in
presenting improved methods to management, training employees in the prescribed method, and
focusing pertinent details, in conjunction with plant layout work.