Work Study and Ergonomics

The work study and the ergonomics are the two areas of study
having the same objective: design the work system so that for
the operator is safe, and the work is less fatiguing and less
time taking.
Historical Developments: Frederick W. Taylor is generally
considered to be the founder of modern method and time study,
although time studies were conducted in Europe many years
before Taylor's time. In 1760, Jean Rodolphe Perronet, a French
engineer, made extensive time studies in manufacturing
industries.
Frank and Lilian Gilbreth are considered as the
founders of the modern motion study technique, which
may be defined as the study of the body motions used
in performing an operation, for the purpose of
improving the operation by eliminating unnecessary
motions, simplifying necessary motions, and then
establishing the most favourable motion sequence for
maximum efficiency.
Motion and time study received added stimulus
during World War II when Franklin D. Roosevelt,
through the U.S. Department of Labour, attempted to
establish standards for increasing production. The
stated policy advocated greater pay for greater
output but without an increase in unit labour costs,
incentive schemes to be collectively bargained
between labour and management, and the use of time
study for setting production standards.
 Work Study
Definition : Work study may be defined as the analysis
of a job for the purpose of finding the preferred method
of doing it and also determining the standard time to
perform it by the preferred (or given) method. Work
study, therefore, comprises of two areas of study:
method study (Work Method Design) and time study
(work measurement).
Definition: Work study is a generic term for those
techniques, particularly method study and work
measurement, which are used in the examination of
human work in all its contexts, and which lead
systematically to the investigation of all the factors
which affect the efficiency and economy of the
situation being reviewed, in order to effect
improvement.
 THE BASIC PROCEDURE OF WORK STUDY
There are eight steps in performing a complete work study.
They are-
1. Select the job or process to be studied.
2. Record from direct observation everything that happens, using
the most suitable of the recording techniques, so that the data will
be in the most convenient form to be analyzed.
3. Examine the recorded facts critically and challenge everything
that is done, considering in turn: the purpose of the activity; the
place where it is performed; the sequence in which it is done; the
person who is doing it; the means by which it is done.
4. Develop the most economic method taking into account all the
circumstances.
5. Measure the quantity of work involved in the method selected
and calculate a standard time for doing it.
6. Define the new method and the related time so that it can
always be identified.
7. Install the new method as agreed standard practice with the
time allowed.
8. Maintain the new standard practice by proper control
procedures.
 Role of Work Study in Improving Productivity
Method study (also sometimes called Work Method Design) is mostly used
to improve the method of doing work. It is equally applicable to new jobs.
When applied to existing jobs, method study aims to find better methods of
doing the jobs that are economical and safe, require less human effort,
and need shorter make-ready time. The better method involves the
optimum use of best materials and appropriate manpower so that work is
performed in well organized manner leading to increased resource
utilization, better quality and lower costs.

It can therefore be stated that through method study we have a systematic

way of developing human resource effectiveness, providing high
machine and equipment utilization and making economical use of
materials.
 Method Study
Method study, aims to achieve the better method of
doing work, and for this reason method study is
sometimes called Work Method Design.
Definition: Method study can be defined as the
procedure for systematic recording, analysis and
critical examination of existing or proposed method
of doing work for the purpose of development and
application of easier and more effective method.
Method Study Procedure: The following general steps
describe the procedure for making a method study.
1. Select the job - on which method study is to be applied.
2. Obtain information and record.
3. Examine the information critically.
4. Develop the most practical, economical and effective
method by considering real limitations of the situation.
5. Install the new method as standard practice.
6. Maintain the standard practice by regular follow up.
 Selection of Job for Method Study

Practically, any activity or a job is a potential project

for improvement but as the work study engineer is to
sell his ideas and maintain his existence in the
organization, he should always attempt to select those
jobs for improvement which are unpopular among
employees or are considered dirty by them.
 By improving such jobs, he would earn goodwill
from the employees as well as the management, and
can expect their full cooperation for other studies in
the future.
Considerations may be given to the following factors
while selecting a job for method study
1. Economic Factors
2. Technical Factors
3. Human Factors
 Economic Factors:
If the economic importance of a job is small, it is not wise to start or
continue a long study. Priorities should be given to those types of job
which offer greater potential for cost reduction. Such jobs are easily
identifiable, as they have
High labour content, i.e. they consume more time
Excessive machine or man idleness
Higher frequency of occurrence, i.e. they have large demand
Bottlenecks in production line
Higher proportion of accidents
Movement of material or men over long distance
High scrap and reprocessing costs
High payment of overtime bills.
 Technical Factors
The method study engineer must have the
necessary technical knowledge about the job to be
studied. Only surface knowledge about the subject
may not lead to the right solution to the real problem.
To illustrate, consider that a particular machine tool
in proving bottleneck. The output from this machine
is not reaching the assembly line in the required
quantity.
Through a preliminary study, it is found that it is running at
lower speed and feed than that recommended for the pair
of work and tool material used. Just increase in speed or
feed may not be the solution of this problem.
It may be possible that the machine itself is not rigid
enough to operate at higher speeds or take a deeper cut.
Just increase in speed may increase the output but the
quality of job may be seriously affected. Technical expertise
in machine tools and metal cutting process would be
essential to solve problem of this kind.
 Human Factors
Emotional reaction of the workers to the method study and
changes in method are important considerations. If the study
of a particular job is suspected to cause unrest or ill feeling, it
should not be undertaken, however useful it may be from the
economic point of view. It is always better to take up first
those jobs which are considered dirty', unsafe, unpleasant,
boring, or highly fatiguing, and improvements brought about
as a result of method study. This would possibly ensure
cooperative from the workers for the other jobs as well.
 Cont
After it is recognized that a problem exists, the first step is to
properly formulate it. From the general statements like Costs
are too high, Increase the production, Reduce shop floor
accidents, it is necessary to determine just what the real problem
is. After it is ascertained that the problem merits consideration, it
is decided whether this is the proper time to solve it, and how
much time can be spent in solving it. The problem may then be
defined broadly giving minimum constraints at this stage, as it
will permit the use of imagination and creativity in finding a
solution. It may sometimes be desirable to divide the complete
problem into a couple of small problems and solve them.
Information Collection Techniques:
The accuracy of data about the method study problem
is important for the development of improved method.
The following techniques are used for the collection
of information / data about the task under
consideration. These are not exclusive of each other,
and for any particular method study problem, some or
all the techniques may be employed.
Observation: It is a common technique used for collecting
information about the present method or the existing problem. The
method study person visits the site where the work is currently
being done and observes various steps in the method being
followed. There are many instances where all the data needed is
obtained by only observing the work or work site.
Discussion: Discussion with those who do or who supervise the
work can frequently provide information not obtainable by
observation. The discussion technique is commonly used where
irregular work is involved or where one is trying to analyze past
work in order to improve efficiency of work to be done in future.
Even where observation by itself may accomplish the
data collection task, discussion may be used for
developing good human relations.
Records: Valuable information can be obtained from
past records concerning production, cost, time,
inventory and sub-contracts. For certain type of
information concerning the past practice, sometimes
this is the only way to obtain authentic data.
Motion Pictures or video Films: Accurate and most
detailed information can be obtained by taking motion
pictures or video film. Information obtained by this
procedure can easily be transmitted / forwarded to all
levels in the organization and if needed, can be used
directly for training purposes. The film can be used to
focus attention at particular point or motion in an
operation.
 Information Recording Techniques:
There are three main types of information recording
techniques. These are:
Process Charts
Diagrams
Templates
A Process Chart is a graphic means of representing the
activities that occur during a manufacturing or servicing job.
There are several types of process charts. These can be divided
into two groups.
(i) Those which are used to record a process sequence (i.e. series of
events in the order in which they occur) but do not depict the
events to time scale.
Charts falling in this group are:
Operation process chart
Flow process chart (man / material / equipment type)
Operator chart (also called Two Handed Process Chart)
(ii) Those which record events in the sequence in which they occur
on a time scale so that the interaction of related events can be
more easily studied. Charts falling in this group are:
Multiple activity chart
SIMO chart
Diagrams: A diagram gives pictorial view of the
layout of workplace or floor on which locations of
different equipment, machines, etc. are indicated. The
movement of subject (man or material) is then
indicated on the diagram by a line or a string. The
diagrams are valuable in highlighting the movement so
that analyst can take steps to simplify or reduce it and
thus effect saving in time or reduction in collisions /
accidents.
Templates and 3-D models: Two-dimensional cut outs made
from thin card sheet representing machinery, furniture, etc. can
be used for developing new layouts and methods. The templates
may have pieces of permanent magnet attached to them, so that
when used on iron board; they remain glued on the board
whenever placed. A scaled 3-D model of a working area helps
easy understanding of lighting, ventilation, maintenance and
safety aspects that may be important in a method. Such models
are often of great value in demonstrating the advantages of the
proposed changes to all concerned.
 Elements of Work:
There are five basic elements of work: Operation,
Inspection, Transportation, Delay, and storage. Table gives
the definitions and symbols by which these elements are
represented. Also given in the Table are examples of each
element.
Sometimes, more than one element occur simultaneously. It is
shown as combined element with combined symbol.
Examples are Operation in combination will inspection, and
Inspection in combination with Transportation.
 Operation Process Chart:

An operation process chart provides the chronological

sequence of all operations and inspections that occur
in a manufacturing or business process. It also shows
materials used and the time taken by operator for
different elements of work. Generally a process chart
is made for full assembly, that is, it shows all the
operations and inspections that occur from the arrival
of raw material to the packaging of the finished
product.
 Flow Process Chart:
A flow process chart is used for recording greater detail than is
possible in an operation process chart. It is made for each
component of an assembly rather than for the whole assembly.
A flow process chart shows a complete process in terms of all
the elements of work. There are two main types of flow charts:
product or material type , and the operator type. The
product type records the details of the events that occur to a
product or material, while the operator flow chart details how a
person performs an operational sequence.
 Operator Process Chart :
It is also called Left Hand-Right Hand chart and
shows the activities of hands of the operator while
performing a task. It uses four elements of hand work:
Operation, Delay (Wait), Move and Hold. Its main
advantage lies in highlighting un-productive elements
such as unnecessary delay and hold so that analyst can
take measures to eliminate or shorten them.
Multiple Activity Chart: Worker-Machine process chart and
gang process chart fall in the category of multiple activity charts. A
worker-machine chart is used for recording and analyzing the
working relationship between operator and machine on which he
works. It is drawn to time scale. Analysis of the chart can help in
better utilization of both worker and machine time. The possibility of
one worker attending more than one machine is also sought from the
use of this chart.

SIMO Chart: A SIMO chart is another Left-Hand Right-Hand

chart with the difference that it is drawn to time scale and in terms of
basic motions called therbligs. It is used when the work cycle is
highly repetitive and of very
CRITICAL EXAMINATION: Critical examination of the information
recorded about the process in charts / diagrams is the most important
phase of the method study. In this, each element of the work, as presently
being done and recorded on the chart is subjected to a systematic and
progressive series of questions with the purpose of determining true
reasons for which it is done.
A popular procedure of carrying out critical examination uses two sets of
questions: Primary questions (answers to these show up the necessity
of carrying out the activity), and Secondary questions (answers to these
allow considerations to alternative methods of doing the activity).
Selection of the best way of doing each activity is later determined to
develop new method which is introduced as a standard practice.
A general-purpose set of primary and secondary questions is
given below:
Primary Questions:
1. Purpose. The need of carrying out the activity is challenged
by the questions-What is achieved? Is it necessary? Why? The
answers to these questions determine whether the particular
activity will be included in the proposals of new method for the
process.
2. Means. The means of carrying out the activity are challenged
by the questions- 'How is it done?' and 'Why that way'?
3. Place. The location of carrying out the activity is challenged by the
questions- 'Where is it done'? and 'Why there'?
4. Sequence. The time of carrying out the activity is challenged by the
questions- 'When is it done'? and 'Why then'?
5. Person. The level of skill and experience of the person performing the
activity is challenged by the questions- 'Who does it'? and 'Why that
person'?
Secondary Questions: The aim of secondary questions is to arrive at
suitable alternatives to the presently used method:
1. Purpose. If the answer to the primary question 'Is the activity
necessary"? is convincingly 'Yes', alternatives to achieve the object of
carrying nut the activity are considered by the question 'What else
could be done?
2. Means. All the alternative means to achieve the object are
considered by the question 'How else could it be done'?
3. Place. Other places for carry ing out the activity are
considered by the question 'Where else could it be done'?
4. Sequence. The secondary question asked under this heading is
'When else could it be clone'?
5. Person. The possibilities for carrying out the activity by other
persons are considered by asking the question- 'Who else should
do it' ?
This phase involves the search of alternative possibilities within the
imposed restrictions of cost and volume of production. For this
the method study man uses his own past experience with same or
similar problems or refers to text books, handbooks, etc.
The answers to the following questions are then sought through
evaluation of the alternatives.
'What should be done'?
'How should it be done'?
'Where should it be done'?
'When should it be done'? and
'Who should do it'?
These answers form the basis of the proposals for the improved method. The
evaluation phase requires the work study man to consider all the possibilities
with respect to the four factorseconomic, safety, work quality and
human factorsthe economic factor being the most important in most
situations.
Economic considerations to any alternative refer to determination of 'How
much will it cost'? and 'How much will it save'? The purpose of evaluating
safety factor is to ensure that the alternative selected shall not make the work
less safe. The evaluation of quality factor shall determine whether the
alternative selected shall make for better product quality or quality control.
And lastly human factors considerations shall ensure that the new method
will be interesting, easy to learn, safe, less monotonous and less fatiguing
to the operator.
Figure shows a sample sheet used for critical examination the use of which
can be quite helpful in this phase of method study.

Critical Examination Sheet

Description of Element: Reference:

Selected Alternative for

The Present Facts Alternatives
Development

Is it necessary ? Yes/No
Purpose - What is achieved ? What else could be done ? What?
If yes - Why ?

Means - How is it done ? Why that way ? How else could it be done ? How ?

Place - Where is it done ? Why there ? Where else could it be done ? When ?

Sequence - When is it done ? Why then ? When else could it be done ? When ?

Person - Who does it ? Why that person ? Who else could do it ? Who ?
 Developing Better Method:
With the present method or procedure for the job in mind, the
application of critical analysis' highlights the essential part of
the job, for which alternative ways for its carrying out are
developed .
When developing alternative ways for doing a task the following
may be considered.
Where and how to use man' in the process?
What better work procedure be adopted?
What better equipment be used?
What better layout of work station, shop or factory be used?
In deciding whether a particular element of work (operation, inspection, or
transportation) be carried out manually or with the help of a device, method
study engineer must be well aware of things which man cannot do or does in
inferior fashion than machine. Examples of such things are:
a.Exert large amount of force, as needed in metal cutting.
b.Exert force precisely or smoothly at a fixed rate as needed in metal forming.
c.Do high speed computations of complex nature.
d.Perform repetitive tasks without suffering from side effects like boredom,
fatigue, etc.
e.Move at high speeds for hours together.
f.Carry out several tasks simultaneously.
g.Respond fast to frequently changing control signals.
h.Perform satisfactorily in an environment where conditions relating to cold, heat,
noise, dampness, etc. are extreme.
In contrast, machines prove inferior generally when for carrying out a task it
is necessary to:
a.Think creatively or inductively, b. Learn c. Generalize, d. Cope will
unexpected events.
In most cases, the relative roles of man and machine vary from one extreme
end in which entire process is manual to the other extreme in which the
process is completely mechanized with the presence of man only for
monitoring, trouble shooting, maintenance, and the like.
Man is readily available and extremely flexible tool, who has the
capability of doing a large number and type of tasks with learning and
practice that is generally less expensive than the cost of creating devices for
the same purpose. Man is therefore considered a strong competitor for low,
medium and even some high volume production tasks.
When an activity is decided to be carried out manually, the best work
procedure is determined by considering the principles of Motion Economy.
Equipped will the various alternative ways of carrying out essential elements
of task, method study engineer has now to choose the best alternative
method. He decides upon the criteria, which may be additional fixed costs
involved, running cost, production rate, operator's fatigue, operator
learning time, and the like. The weight to each criterion is fixed and
performance is predicted of each alternative with respect to each criteria. The
one which gets the maximum points is selected for adoption as a standard
method.
Detailed specifications of this method are prepared with the description of
procedure, workplace layout and material/equipment to be used.
This is important for
Communication of the proposed work method to those responsible for its
approval.
Communication of the proposed method to those concerned with its
installation, for example instructors and supervisors who are actually
responsible for instructions to operators and setting up the machinery and
work place layouts.
Official record of the work method.
Installation of Improved Method: When the proposals of
the improved method for a job are approved by the
management of the company, the next step is to put this
method into practice. Installation of method requires
necessary prior preparation for which the active support of
everyone concerned is very important.
The activities of the installation phase include:
1. Gaining acceptance of the change by the workers
involved and their representatives. The method change
may affect the routine and paper work of wages, costs,
planning, and even purchase department. It may require
displacement of staff from one section to another of the
organization. Adjustments of this type need to be carried
out very carefully so that the least possible hardship or
inconvenience is caused.
2. Retraining the workers. The extent to which workers need retraining will
depend on the nature of the job and the changes involved. It is much more for
those jobs which have a high degree of manual dexterity and where the
workers have been doing the work by traditional methods. The use of films
demonstrating the advantages of new method as compared to traditional one
are often very useful in retraining the workers.
3. Arranging the requirements of the new method. This involves -
(i) arranging the necessary plant, tools and equipment at all the workplaces,
(ii) arranging building-up of necessary stocks of new raw materials, and
running-down of old stocks,
(iii) checking up the availability and continuity of all supplies and services,
and
(iv) arranging any clerical records which may be required for purposes of
control and comparison.
4. Taking other necessary actions. These will depend upon situation
to situation. For example, if changes in working hours are involved,
necessary instructions should be passed on to auxiliary services such
as transport, canteen, water supply, etc. If change in wages is involved,
information concerning the date of installation must reach the costing
department. Necessary instructions should be passed on to every one
concerned about the time table for the installation of the change in
method.
5. Giving a trial run to the new method. It is important that all
departments affected by the change are represented at the rehearsal. It
is often advantageous to conduct the rehearsal while the old method is
still operating. It should usually take place outside normal working
hours; say at week-end or at holiday time so that there is no
interference with normal production. The suggestions for minor
variations in the proposed method if they are worth while and cost
effective should be accepted and incorporated.
It is obvious that the method analyst has to be extra tactful and keep
restraint throughout the period of installation. The installation is
considered complete when the new method starts running smoothly.
Follow-up: The work of method study man is not complete with the
installation of the improved method; the maintenance of the new method in
its specified form is also part of his activities. The main aim of maintenance
of the new method is to ensure that the workers do not slip back into old
method, or introduce elements which are not part of the proposed method.
For effective maintenance it is important to define and specify the new
method very clearly. An operator chart giving adequate details of the tools,
equipment, and workplace layout and operator-motion pattern is often
helpful.
The workers have tendency to drift away from the method laid down. The
purpose of the method-maintenance is to check this tendency. But if it is
found that the change from the method specified is in fact an improvement
which can be made in the method, this should be officially incorporated.
 Motion Study
Motion study is a technique of analyzing the body motions employed in
doing a task in order to eliminate or reduce ineffective movements and
facilitates effective movements. By using motion study and the principles
of motion economy the task is redesigned to be more effective and less
time consuming.
The Gilbreths pioneered the study of manual motions and developed basic
laws of motion economy that are still relevant today. They were also
responsible for the development of detailed motion picture studies, termed
as Micro Motion Studies, which are extremely useful for analyzing
highly repetitive manual operations. With the improvement in technology,
of course, video camera has replaced the traditional motion picture film
camera.
In a broad sense, motion study encompasses micro motion
study and both have the same objective: job simplification so
that it is less fatiguing and less time consuming. While motion
study involves a simple visual analysis, micro motion study
uses more expensive equipment. The two types of studies may
be compared to viewing a task under a magnifying glass
versus viewing the same under a microscope. The added detail
revealed by the microscope may be needed in exceptional
cases when even a minute improvement in motions matters,
i.e. on extremely short repetitive tasks.
Therbligs: On analysing the result of several motion studies
conducted, Gilbreths concluded that any work can be done by using a
combination of some or all of 17 basic motions, called Therbligs
(Gilbreth spelled backward). These can be classified as effective therbligs
and ineffective therbligs. Effective therbligs take the work progress
towards completion. Attempts can be made to shorten them but they
cannot be eliminated. Ineffective therbligs do not advance the progress
of work and therefore attempts should be made to eliminate them by
applying the Principles of Motion Economy. Table gives different
therbligs along with their symbols and descriptions.
 SIMO Chart
It is a graphic representation of an activity and shows the sequence of
the therbligs or group of therbligs performed by body members of
operator. It is drawn on a common time scale. In other words, it is a
two-hand process chart drawn in terms of therbligs and with a
time scale, see Fig.
Making the Simo Chart. A video film or a motion picture film is shot
of the operation as it is carried out by the operator. The film is
analyzed frame by frame. For the left hand, the sequence of therbligs
(or group of therbligs) with their time values are recorded on the
column corresponding to the left hand. The symbols are added against
the length of column representing the duration of the group of
therbligs. The procedure is repeated for the right hand and other body
members (if any) involved in carrying out the operation.
It is generally not possible to time individual therbligs. A certain
number of therbligs may be grouped into an element large enough to
be measured as can be seen in figure.
Uses of SIMO Chart: From the analysis shown about the
motions of the two hands (or other body members) involved in
doing an operation, inefficient motion pattern can be identified
and any violation of the principle of motion economy can be
easily noticed. The chart, therefore, helps in improving the
method of doing an operation so that balanced two-handed
actions with coordinated foot and eye motions can be achieved
and ineffective motions can be either reduced or eliminated. The
result is a smoother, more rhythmic work cycle that keeps both
delays and operator fatigue to the minimum extent.
 Cycle graph and Chrono cycle graph
These are the techniques of analyzing the paths of motion made by an
operator and were originally developed by the Gilbreths. To make a
cycle graph , a small electric bulb is attached to the finger, hand, or any
other part of the body whose motion is to be recorded. By using still
photography, the path of light of bulb (in other words, that of the body
member) as it moves through space for one complete cycle is
photographed. The working area is kept relatively less illuminated while
photograph is being taken. More than one camera may be used in
different planes to get more details. After the film is developed, the
resulting picture (cycle graph) shows a permanent record of the motion
pattern employed in the form of a closed loop of white continuous line
with the working area in the background. A cycle graph does not
indicate the direction or speed of motion.
It can be used for:
1. Improving the motion pattern, and
2. Training purposes in that two cycle graphs may be shown with one
indicating a better motion pattern than the other.
 Chrono cycle graph
The chrono cycle graph is similar to the cycle graph, but the power supply to
the bulb is interrupted regularly by using an electric circuit. The bulb is thus
made to flash. The procedure for taking photograph remains the same. The
resulting picture (chrono cycle graph), instead of showing continuous line of
motion pattern, shows short dashes of line spaced in proportion to the speed
of the body member photographed. Wide spacing would represent fast moves
while close spacing would represent slow moves. The jumbling of dots at one
point would indicate fumbling or hesitation of the body member. A chrono
cycle graph can thus be used to study the motion pattern as well as to
compute velocity, acceleration and retardation experienced by the body
member at different locations. Figures show a cycle graph and a chrono cycle
graph.
Principles of Motion Economy: These principles can be
considered under three different groups.
Those related to the use of the human body.
Those related to the workplace arrangement, and
Those related to the design of tools and equipment.
1. Principles related to the use of human body:
(i) Both hands should begin and end their basic divisions of
activity simultaneously and should not be idle at the same
instant, except during the rest periods.
ii) The hand motions should be made symmetrically and
(

simultaneously away from and toward the centre of the body.

Momentum should be employed to assist the worker wherever
possible, and it should be reduced to a minimum if it must be
overcome by muscular effort.
Continuous curved motions should be preferred to straight line
motions involving sudden and sharp changes in the direction.
The least number of basic divisions should be employed and
these should be confined to the lowest practicable classifications.
These classifications, summarized in ascending order of time and
fatigue expended in their performance, are:
Finger motions
Finger and wrist motions.
Finger, wrist, and lower arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, and upper arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, upper arm motions and body motions.
 Cont.
Work that can be done by the feet should be arranged so that it is done
together with work being done by the hands. It should be recognized,
however, that it is difficult to move the hand and foot simultaneously.
The middle finger and the thumb should be used for handling heavy loads
over extended periods as these are the strongest working fingers. The index
finger, fourth finger, and little finger are capable of handling only light
loads for short durations.
The feet should not be employed for operating pedals when the operator
is in standing position.
Twisting motions should be performed with the elbows bent.
To grip tools, the segment of the fingers closed to the palm of the hand
should be used.
2. Principles related to the arrangement and conditions of
workplace:
Fixed locations should be provided for all tools and materials so as
to permit the best sequence and eliminate searchand select.
Gravity bins and drop delivery should be used to
reduce reachand movetimes. Use may be made of ejectors for
removing finished parts.
All materials and tools should be located within the normal working
area in both the vertical and horizontal plane ( see Figure ), and as
close to the point of use as possible.
Work table height should permit work by the operator in alternately
sitting and standing posture.
Glare-free adequate illumination, proper ventilation and proper
temperature should be provided.
Dials and other indicators should be patterned such that maximum
information can be obtained in minimum of time and error.
3. Principles related to the design of tools and equipment:
Use colour, shape or size coding to maximize speed and minimize
error in finding controls.
Use simple on/off, either/or indicators whenever possible. If simple
on/off indicator is not sufficient, use qualitative type indicator, and use
quantitative type indicator only when absolutely essential.
All levers, handles, wheels and other control devices should be
readily accessible to the operator and should be designed so as to give
the best possible mechanical advantage and utilize the strongest
available muscle group. Their direction of motion should conform to
stereo-typed reactions.
Use quick acting fixture to hold the part or material upon which the
work is being performed.
Use stop guides to reduce the control necessary in positioning
motions.
Operating, set-up and emergency controls should be grouped
according to the function.
Design of Workplace Layout:
The design of workplace layout involves the following
Determination of work surface height
Design of operator chair (if work is to be done in sitting posture), or
allowing the use of anti-fatigue mats for standing operator
Determination of location of tools, materials, controls, displays and other
devices. We shall consider these briefly.

Work Place Height:

This should be decided from the standpoint of comfortable working posture
for the operator. Generally, it is equal to the elbow height of operator
whether work is done in standing or sitting posture. However, for work
involving lifting of heavy parts, it is useful to lower the work surface height
by as much as 20 cm. This would reduce the fatigue to the trunk of operator.
Similarly, it may be useful to raise the work surface height when work
involves visual examination of minute details of fine parts. This would
reduce the eye fatigue to the operator. Alternatively, the work surface may
be inclined by 15 degrees or so. Work surface height may also be made
adjustable in situations where operator is permitted to do work in
alternatively sitting and standing postures.
Determination of location of tools, materials, controls, displays
and other devices.
We all know that greater the distance through which operator
moves his body member while doing work, larger is the
requirement of muscular effort, control and time. This means that
all tools, materials, controls, etc need to be located within close
reach of the operator. In this context, two areas can be identified:
normal working area and maximum working area. Figure identifies
these areas in horizontal and vertical planes.
Within these areas, all tools, materials, controls, displays and other
devices must be located on the basis of any of the following
principles.
(i) Importance Principle. According to this principle, the most
important item or group of items is first located within the normal
area in the best position. The next important component item or
group of items is then selected and located in the best location
within the remaining area. In this way, all the items are located.
(ii) Frequency of Use Principle. According to this principle, the item
with the greatest frequency of use has the highest priority for
location at the optimum position. From within the remaining items to
be located in the remaining area, the same principle can then be
applied repetitively.
(iii) Functional Principle. This principle provides for grouping of
items according to their function. For instance, all controls that are
functionally related may be grouped together and located at one
place.
(iv) Sequence of Use Principle. According to this principle, items are
located according to sequence of their use. For illustration, let us
consider the case of assembly. As we know, an assembly is made by
assembling the sub-assemblies in a specific order. From motion
economy or production efficiency point of view, it would be better if
sub-assemblies and other items are located in the sequence in which
they are to be used in assembly.
Further, for better productivity, it is important that location of all
tools, materials and controls be fixed so that their "search" and
select" is minimized.
Design of Operator Chair:
A seated posture is better than standing posture from the standpoint of stress
reduction on the feet and the overall energy expenditure. A well-designed
seat should
Provide trunk stabilization so that a good posture is maintained,
Permit change of posture, and
Not unduly press the thigh tissues.
This requires the use of ergonomic considerations and anthropometric
dimensions of operator so that appropriate dimensions are chosen for the
following features of chair
(i) Seat Height, (ii) Seat Depth, (iii) Seat Width, (iv) Seat Inclination, (v)
Arm Rests, (vi) Back Rest, (vii) Foot Rest
It is necessary to provide adjustability, particularly with respect to seat
height, in order that the same seat (or chair) is useable by many operators
doing same job.
Standing for long periods of time on a cemented floor is fatiguing. If
operator has to work only in standing posture, it is essential to provide
resilient anti-fatigue floor mats. Such mats allow small muscle contractions
in the legs and force the blood to keep circulating.
 Work Measurement
Work measurement refers to the estimation of standard time for
an activity, that is the time allowed for completing one piece of
job by using the prescribed method. Standard time can be
defined as the time taken by an average experienced worker for
the job with provisions for delays beyond the worker's control.
There are several techniques used for estimation of standard
time in industry. These include time study, work sampling,
standard data, and predetermined motion time system.
Applications: Standard times for operations are useful for
several applications in industry, like
1. Estimating material, machinery, and equipment requirements.
2. Estimating production cost per unit as an input to
3. Preparation of budgets
4. Determination of selling price
5. Make or buy decision
6. Estimating manpower requirements.
7. Estimating delivery schedules and planning the work
8. Balancing the work of operators working in a group.
9. Estimating performance of workers and using that as the basis
for incentive payment to those direct and indirect or labour
who show greater productivity.
TIME STUDY. It is the most versatile and the most widely used
technique of work measurement.
Definition: Time study is a technique to estimate the time to be
allowed to a qualified and well-trained worker working at a
normal pace to complete a specified task by using specified
method. This technique is based on measuring the work
content of the task when performed by the prescribed method,
with the allowance for fatigue and for personal and unavoidable
delays.
Time Study Procedure: The procedure for time study can best be
described step-wise, which are self explanatory.
Step 1: Define objective of the study. This involves statement of the use
of the result, the precision desired, and the required level of
confidence in the estimated time standards.
Step 2: Verify that the standard method and conditions exist for the
operation and the operator is properly trained. If need is felt for
method study or further training of operator, the same may be
completed before starting the time study.
Step 3: Select operator to be studied if there are more than one operator
doing the same task.
Step 4: Record information about the standard method, operation,
operator, product, equipment, and conditions on the Time Study
observation sheet.
Step 5: Divide the operation into reasonably small elements, and
record them on the Time Study observation sheet.
Step 6: Time the operator for each of the elements. Record the
data for a few number of cycles on the Time Study observation
sheet. Use the data to estimate the total number of
observations to be taken.
Step 7: Collect and record the data of required number of cycles
by timing and rating the operator.
Step 8: Calculate the representative watch time for each element
of operation. Multiply it by the rating factor to get normal
time.
Normal time = Observed time x Rating factor
Calculate the normal time for the whole operation by adding the normal
time of its various elements.
Step 9: Determine allowances for fatigue and various delays.
Step 10: Determine standard time of operation.
Standard time = Normal time + allowances
Selection of job for Time Study
Time Study is conducted on a job
which has not been previously time-studied.
for which method change has taken place recently.
for which worker(s) might have complained as having tight time
standards.
Selection of Worker for Time Study:
The selection of worker for time study is a very important
factor in the success of the study. If there is only one
person on the job, as usually is, then there is no choice.
But if more than one person is performing the same
operation, the time study man may time one or more of
the workers. If all the workers are using the same method
for doing the job and there is different in the rate of their
doing it, it is necessary to select a suitable worker for the
study.
The worker on which time study should be conducted must
have necessary skill for the job.
have sufficient experience with the given method on the
job (that is, he should have crossed the learning stage).
be an average' worker as regards the speed of working.
be temperamentally suited to the study (those who can't
work in normal fashion when watched, are not suitable
for the study).
have knowledge about the purpose of study.
 Time Study Equipment
The following equipment is needed for time study work.
Timing device
Time study observation sheet
Time study observation board
Other equipment
Timing Device. The stop watch ( see Fig. ) is the most widely used
timing device used for time study, although electronic timer is also
sometimes used. The two perform the same function with the
difference that electronic timer can measure time to the second or
third decimal of a second and can keep a large volume of time data
in memory.
Time Study Observation Sheet. It is a printed form with spaces
provided for noting down the necessary information about the
operation being studied, like name of operation, drawing number,
and name of the worker, name of time study person, and the date
and place of study. Spaces are provided in the form for writing
detailed description of the process (element-wise), recorded time
or stop-watch readings for each element of the process,
performance rating(s) of operator, and computation. Figure
shows a typical time study observation sheet.
Time Study Board. It is a light -weight board used for holding the
observation sheet and stopwatch in position. It is of size slightly larger
than that of observation sheet used. Generally, the watch is mounted at
the center of the top edge or as shown in Figure near the upper right-
hand corner of the board. The board has a clamp to hold the
observation sheet. During the time study, the board is held against the
body and the upper left arm by the time study person in such a way
that the watch could be operated by the thumb/index finger of the left
hand. Watch readings are recorded on the observation sheet by the
right hand.
Other Equipment. This includes pencil, eraser, device like tachometer
for checking the speed, etc.
 Dividing Work into Short Elements: Timing a complete task
as one element is generally not satisfactory. For the purpose of
time study the task is normally broken into short elements and
each element is timed separately, for the following reasons:
(1) To separate unproductive part of task from the productive one.
(2) To improve accuracy in rating. The worker may not work at
the same speed throughout the cycle. He may perform some
elements faster and some slower. Breaking of task into short
elements permits rating of each element separately which is
more realistic than just rating once for the complete cycle.
(3) To identify elements causing high fatigue. Breaking

of task into short elements permits giving appropriate

rest allowances to different elements.
(4) To have detailed job specifications. This helps in
detection of any variation in the method that may
occur after the time standard is established.
(5) To prepare standard data for repeatedly occurring
elements.
The following guidelines should be kept in mind while
dividing a task into elements.
(1) The elements should be of as short duration as can be
accurately timed. (This in turn, depends on the skill of
the time study man, method of timing and recording,
and many other factors. Generally, with the stop watch,
elements of duration less than 0.03 to 0.05 minute are
difficult to time accurately. The elements should not
normally be longer than 0.40 min.).
(2) Manually performed elements should be separated from
machine paced elements. (Time for machine paced elements can
be determined by calculation). Machine elements are not rated
against a normal. This rule also helps in recognition of delays.
(3) Constant elements should be separated from variable elements.
(Constant elements are those elements which are independent of
the size, weight, length, or shape of the work piece. For
example, the time to pick screw driver from its place and bring it
to the head of a screw is constant, whereas the time to tighten or
loosen the screw is a variable, depending upon the length and
size of the screw).
(4) The beginnings and endings of elements should be easily
distinguishable. These should preferably be associated with
some kind of sound.
(5) Irregular elements, those not repeated in every cycle, should
be separated from regular elements. For example, if the jig is
cleaned off after every ten parts produced, "cleaning" is an
irregular element, and its time should be spread over ten cycles.
(6) Unnecessary motions and activities should be separated from
those considered essential.
(7) Foreign or accidental elements should be listed separately.
Such elements are generally of non-repetitive type.
Number of cycles to be timed.
The following general principles govern the number of cycles to get the
representative average cycle time.
(1) Greater the accuracy desired in the results, larger should be the number
of cycles observed.
(2) The study should be continued through sufficient number of cycles so
that occasional elements such as setting-up machine, cleaning of machine
or sharpening of tool are observed for a good number of times.
(3) Where more than one operator is doing the same job, short study (say
10 to 15 cycles) should be conducted on each of the several operators than
one long study on a single operator.
It is important that enough cycles are timed so that reliable average is
obtained.
Following techniques are used to determine the number of cycles
to be timed.
(i) Use of Tables: On the consideration of the cost of obtaining
the data and the desired accuracy in results, most companies
have prepared their own tables for the use of time study people,
which indicate the number of cycles to be timed as a function of
the cycle time and the frequency of occurrence of the job in the
company. For example, one Company uses the table for such
purposes.
Table: Number of Cycles to
Time in Time Study

Number of cycle per year

Cycle Time
(1-100) (100-10,000) (more than 10,000)
0.1 minute 50 60 120
.2 40 50 100
.3 30 40 80
.5 25 30 60
.7 20 25 50
1 minute 15 20 40
3 10 12 25
5 8 10 20
8 6 8 15
12 minute 5 6 12
20 4 5 10
30 3 4 8
48 2 3 6
1 hour 2 3 5
2 1 2 4
3 2 2 3
8 1 1 2
(ii) Statistical methods: On the basis of the requirements of the particular
situation involved, accuracyand confidencelevelare decided (An accuracy
of a confidence level of 95% is considered reasonable in most cases). A
preliminary study is conducted in which some (say N)cycles are timed.
Standard deviation o of these (N)observations is calculated as
(iii) Mundel Method: In this method the following steps are followed.
Step 1. Take a few good watch readings of the work cycle. (Generally, 10
readings are taken if cycle time is less than 2 minutes, otherwise 5
readings).
Step 2. Find the ratio, where H and L are respectively the highest and the
lowest value of the leading.
Step 3. Corresponding to the value of the ratio, determine the number of
observations from the table.
Table: No. of Observations, (Mundel Method): The number of
observations for 5% precision and 95% confidence level. If 10%
precision and 95% confidence level is to be used, divide the number of
observations given in this table by 4.
Number of observations required 5% precision and 95% confidence level
Number of observations required 5% precision and 95% confidence
level

0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28

Sample 5 4 8 12 17 23 30 38 47 27 68 80 93

Sample 10 2 4 7 10 13 17 22 27 33 39 46 53

0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50

Sample 5 107 121 137 154 171 190 210 230 250 273 296

Sample 10 61 69 78 88 98 108 120 132 144 156 170

 Normal Performance
There is no universal concept of Normal Performance. However, it is generally
defined as the working rate of an average qualified worker working under
capable supervision but not under any incentive wage payment scheme. This
rate of working is characterized by the fairly steady exertion of reasonable
effort, and can be maintained day after day without undue physical or mental
fatigue.
The level of normal performance differs considerably from one company to
another. What company a calls 100% performance, company B may call 80 %,
and company C may call 125% and so on. It is important to understand that
the level that a company selects for normal performance is not critical but
maintaining that level uniform among time study persons and constant with
the passage of time within the company is extremely important.
 Cont.
There are, of course, some universally accepted benchmark examples of
normal performance, like dealing 52 cards in four piles in 0.5 minute, and
walking at 3 miles per hour (4.83 km/hr). In order to make use of these
benchmarks, it is important that a complete description about these be fully
understood, like in the case of card dealing, what is the distance of each pile
with respect to the dealer, technique of grasping, moving and disposal of the
cards.
Some companies make use of video films or motion pictures for establishing
what they consider as normal speed or normal rate of movement of body
members. Such films are made of typical factory jobs with the operator
working at the desired normal pace. These films are found to be useful in
demonstrating the level of performance expected from the operators and also
for training of time study staff.
 Performance Rating

During the time study, time study engineer carefully observes

the performance of the operator. This performance seldom
conforms to the exact definition of normal or standard.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to apply some 'adjustment' to
the mean observed time to arrive at the time that the normal
operator would have taken to do that job when working at an
average pace. This 'adjustment' is called Performance Rating.
 Determination of performance rating is an important step
in the work measurement procedure. It is based entirely
on the experience, training, and judgment of the work-
study engineer. It is the step most subjective and therefore
is subject to criticism.
Performance Rating can be defined as the procedure in
which the time study engineer compares the performance
of operator(s) under observation to the Normal
Performance and determines a factor called Rating Factor.
 System of Rating:
There are several systems of rating the performance of
operator on a job.
These are:
Pace Rating
Westinghouse System of Rating
Objective Rating
Synthetic Rating
A brief description of each rating method follows.
Pace Rating: Under this system, operator's performance is
evaluated by considering his rate of accomplishment of the
work. The study person measures the effectiveness of the
operator against the concept of normal performance and then
assigns a percentage to indicate the ratio of the observed
performance to normal or standard performance.
In this method, which is also called the speed rating method,
the time study person judges the operators speed of
movements, i.e. the rate at which he is applying himself, or in
other words "how fast" the operator performs the motions
involved.
Westinghouse System of Rating: This method considers four
factors in evaluating the performance of operator: skill, effort,
conditions, and consistency.
Skill may be defined as the proficiency at of an individual in
following the given method. It is demonstrated by co-
ordination of mind and hands. A person's skill in a given
operation increases with his experience on the job, because
increased familiarity with work brings speed, smoothness of
motions and freedom from hesitations.
Objective Rating: In this system, speed of movements and job
difficulty are rated separately and the two estimates are
combined into a single value. Rating of speed or pace is done
as discussed earlier, and the rating of job difficulty is done by
selecting adjustment factors corresponding to characteristics of
operation with respect to (i) amount of body used, (ii) foot
pedals, (iii) eye-hand co-ordination, (iv) handling requirements
and (v) weight handled or resistance encountered.
 Cont...
Mundel and Danner have given Table of % values (adjustment
factors) for the effects of various difficulties in the operation
performed.
For an operation under study, a numerical value for each of the
six factors is assigned, and the algebraic sum of the numerical
values called job difficulty adjustment factor is estimated.
The rating factor R can be expressed as
R= Px D
Where: P = Pace rating factor, and
D = Job difficulty adjustment factor.
Synthetic Rating: This method of rating has two main
advantages over other methods. These are (i) it does not rely on
the judgment of time study person and (ii) it gives consistent
results.
The time study is made as usual. Some manually controlled
elements of the work cycle are selected. Using a PMT system
(Pre-determined motion time system), the times for these
selected elements are determined. The times of these elements
as determined are compared with the actual observed times and
the performance factor is estimated for each of the selected
elements.
Performance or Rating Factor, R = P / A
Where P = Predetermined motion time of the element,
and
A = Average actual observed time of the element.
The overall rating factor is the mean of rating factors
determined for the selected elements. This is applied
uniformly to all the manually controlled elements of the
work cycle.
Example: A work cycle has been divided into 8 elements and time study has
been conducted. The average observed times for the elements are given in the
following Table:
Element No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Element Type M M P M M M M M
Average actual time 0.14 0.16 0.30 0.52 0.26 0.45 0.34 0.15
(minutes)

M = Manually Controlled, P = Power Controlled

Total observed time of work cycle = 2.32 min.
Suppose we select three elements 2, 5 and 8 (These must be manually
controlled elements). By using some PMT system, suppose we determine the
times of these elements as

Elements No. 2 5 8

PMT System times 0.145 0.255 0.145

(min)
Rating factor for element 2 = 0.145 / 0.16 = 90.62 %.
Rating factor for element 5 = 0.255 / 0.26 = 98.08 %.
Rating factor for element 8 = 0.145 / 0.15 = 96.66 %.
The mean of the rating factors of selected elements = 95.12 % or say 95 %
is the rating factor that will be used for all the manual elements of the work
cycle.
The normal time of the cycle can than be calculated as.
Element No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Element Type M M P M M M M M
Average actual time 0.14 0.16 0.30 0.52 0.26 0.45 0.34 0.15
(min)
PMT system time (min) 0.145 0.255 0.145

Performance Rating 95 95 100 95 95 95 95 95

Factor

Normal Cycle Time = 0.95(0.14+0.16+0.52+0.26+0.45+0.34+0.15)

+1.00(0.30) =1.92+0.30 =2.22 minutes
It is to be noted that power controlled (or machine-paced) elements are
always given 100% rating.
 Allowances
The readings of any time study are taken over a relatively
short period of time. The normal time arrived at, therefore,
does not include unavoidable delay and other legitimate lost
time, for example, in waiting for materials, tools or
equipment; periodic inspection of parts; interruptions due to
legitimate personal needs, etc. It is necessary and important
that the time study person applies some adjustment, or
allowances, to compensate for such losses so that fair time
standard is established for the given job.
Allowances are generally applied to total cycle time as some
percentage of it, but sometimes these are given separately for
machine time as some % and for manual effort time some other
%. However, no allowances are given for interruptions which
may be due to factors which are within the operator's control or
which are avoidable.
Most companies allow the following allowances to their
employees.
Constant allowances (for personal needs and basic fatigue)
Delay Allowance (for unavoidable delays)
Fatigue Allowance (for job dependent fatigue)
Personal Allowance
Special Allowance
12

10

Column 1
6
Column 2
Column 3

0
Row 1 Row 2 Row 3 Row 4
Delay Allowance: This time allowance is given to operator
for the numerous unavoidable delays and interruptions that
he experiences every day during the course of his work.
These interruptions include interruptions from the
supervisor, inspector, planners, expediters, fellow workers,
production personnel and others. This allowance also covers
interruptions due to material irregularities, difficulty in
maintaining specifications and tolerances, and interference
delays where the operator has to attend to more than one
machine.
Fatigue Allowance: This allowance can be divided into two
parts: (i) basic fatigue allowance and (ii) variable fatigue
allowance. The basic fatigue allowance is given to the
operator to compensate for the energy expended for carrying
out the work and to alleviate monotony. For an operator who
is doing light work while seated, under good working
conditions and under normal demands on the sensory or
motor system, a 4% of normal time is considered adequate.
This can be treated as a constant allowance.
Personal Allowance: This is allowed to compensate for the
time spent by worker in meeting the physical needs, for instance
a periodic break in the production routine. The amount of
personal time required by operator varies with the individual
more than with the kind of work, though it is seen that workers
need more personal time when the work is heavy and done
under unfavourable conditions.
The amount of this allowance can be determined by making all-
day time study or work sampling. Mostly, a 5 % allowance for
personal time (nearly 24 minutes in 8 hours) is considered
appropriate.
Special Allowances: These allowances are given under certain
special circumstances. Some of these allowances and the
conditions under which they are given are:
Policy Allowance: Some companies, as a policy, give an
allowance to provide a satisfactory level of earnings for a
specified level of performance under exceptional circumstance.
This may be allowed to new employees, handicap employees,
workers on night shift, etc. The value of the allowance is
typically decided by management.
Small Lot Allowance: This allowance is given when the actual
production period is too short to allow the worker to come out of
the initial learning period. When an operator completes several
small-lot jobs on different setups during the day, an allowance as
high as 15 percent may be given to allow the operator to make
normal earnings.
Training Allowance: This allowance is provided when work is
done by trainee to allow him to make reasonable earnings. It may
be a sliding allowance, which progressively decreases to zero
over certain length of time. If the effect of learning on the job is
known, the rate of decrease of the training allowance can be set
accordingly.
Rework Allowance: This allowance is provided on certain
operation when it is known that some percent of parts made are
spoiled due to factors beyond the operator's control. The time in
which these spoiled parts may be reworked is converted into
allowance.
 Work Sampling
Work Sampling (also sometimes called ratio delay study) is a
technique of getting facts about utilization of machines or
human beings through a large number of instantaneous
observations taken at random time intervals. The ratio of
observations of a given activity to the total observations
approximates the percentage of time that the process is in that
state of activity.
Use of Work Sampling for Standard Time Determination:
Work sampling can be very useful for establishing time
standards on both direct and indirect labour jobs. The procedure
for conducting work sampling study for determining standard
Step 1 . Define the problem:
Describe the job for which the standard time is to be
determined.
Unambiguously state and discriminate between the two
classes of activities of operator on the job: what are the
activities of job that would entitle him to be in 'working"
state.
This would imply that when operator will be found
engaged in any activity other than those would entitle
him to be in "Not Working" state.
Step 2. Design the sampling plan:
Estimate satisfactory number of observations to be made.
Decide on the period of study, e.g. two days, one week,
etc.
Prepare detailed plan for taking the observations.
This will include observation schedule, exact method of
observing, design of observation sheet, route to be followed,
particular person to be observed at the observation time, etc.
Step 3. Contact the persons concerned and take them in
confidence regarding conduct of the study.
Step 4. Make the observations at the pre-decided random
times about the working / not working state of the operator.
When operator is in working state, determine his
performance rating. Record both on the observation sheet.
Step 5. Obtain and record other information. This includes
operator's starting time and quitting time of the day and total
number of parts of acceptable quality produced during the
day.
Step 6. Calculate the standard time per piece.
 Predetermined Motion Time System:
A predetermined motion time system (PMTS) may be
defined as a procedure that analyzes any manual
activity in terms of basic or fundamental motions
required to perform it. Each of these motions is
assigned a previously established standard time value
and then the timings for the individual motions are
synthesized to obtain the total time needed for
performing the activity.
Applications of PMTS are for
(i) Determination of job time standards.
(ii) Comparing the times for alternative proposed methods so as to
find the economics of the proposals prior to production run.
(iii) Estimation of manpower, equipment and space requirements
prior to setting up the facilities and start of production.
(iv) Developing tentative work layouts for assembly lines prior to
their working in order to minimize the amount of subsequent
re-arrangement and re-balancing.
(v) Checking direct time study results.