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SQL Ii

This document discusses string operations and constraints in SQL. It covers string matching operators like LIKE and pattern matching examples. It also discusses various string functions. Aggregate functions like COUNT, AVG, MIN, MAX and SUM are explained along with GROUP BY and HAVING clauses. Adding, dropping and checking constraints during and after table creation is demonstrated.

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chundurigeethika8
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22 views

SQL Ii

This document discusses string operations and constraints in SQL. It covers string matching operators like LIKE and pattern matching examples. It also discusses various string functions. Aggregate functions like COUNT, AVG, MIN, MAX and SUM are explained along with GROUP BY and HAVING clauses. Adding, dropping and checking constraints during and after table creation is demonstrated.

Uploaded by

chundurigeethika8
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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String Operations

• SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character strings. The


operator like uses patterns that are described using two special characters:
• percent ( % ). The % character matches any substring.
• underscore ( _ ). The _ character matches any character.
• Find the names of all instructors whose name includes the substring “dar”.
select name
from instructor
where name like '%dar%'
• Match the string “100%”
like ‘100 \%' escape '\'
in that above we use backslash (\) as the escape character.
String Operations (Cont.)

• Patterns are case sensitive.


• Pattern matching examples:
• ‘Intro%’ matches any string beginning with “Intro”.
• ‘%Comp%’ matches any string containing “Comp” as a substring.
• ‘_ _ _’ matches any string of exactly three characters.
• ‘_ _ _ %’ matches any string of at least three characters.

• SQL supports a variety of string operations such as


• concatenation (using “||”)
• converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
• finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.
Ordering the Display of Tuples
SELECT column-names FROM table-name WHERE condition ORDER BY
column-names

• List in alphabetic order the names of all instructors


select distinct name
from instructor
order by name
• We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending order, for
each attribute; ascending order is the default.
• Example: order by name desc
• Can sort on multiple attributes
• Example: order by dept_name, name
String Operations (Cont.)

• The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can
be numbers, text, or dates.
• •The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.
• •It is a comparison operator
• •Example: Find the names of all instructors with salary between $90,000
and $100,000 (that is, ≥$90,000 and ≤ $100,000)
• •select name from instructor where salary between 90000 and 100000
Null Values
• It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of
their attributes
• null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist or signifies
'no value'.
• is null can be used to check for null values.
• Is not null can be used to check for not null values.
• Example: Find all instructors whose salary is null.
select name
from instructor
where salary is null
Aggregate Functions

• These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of


a relation, and return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values

Count(*): Returns total number of tuples


Count(column): Return number of non null values over the column
Count(Distinct column): Return number of distinct non null values over the
column
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)

• Find the average salary of instructors in the Computer Science department


• select avg (salary)
from instructor
where dept_name= ’Comp. Sci.’;
• Find the total number of instructors who teach a course in the Spring 2010 semester
• select count (distinct ID)
from teaches
where semester = ’Spring’ and year = 2010;
• Find the number of tuples in the course relation
• select count (*)
from course;
• Find the average salary of instructors in each department
• select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary
Aggregate Functions from instructor
group by dept_name;
– Group By

avg_salary

avg_salary
Aggregation (Cont.)

• Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must appear in


group by list
• /* erroneous query */
select dept_name, ID, avg (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name;
Aggregate Functions – Having Clause
Find the names and average salaries of all departments whose average salary is greater than 42000

select dept_name, avg (salary)


from instructor
group by dept_name
having avg (salary) > 42000;

Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the


formation of groups whereas predicates in the where
clause are applied before forming groups
Null Values and Aggregates

• Total all salaries


select sum (salary )
from instructor
• Above statement ignores null amounts
• Result is null if there is no non-null amount
• All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null values
on the aggregated attributes
• What if collection has only null values?
• count returns 0
• all other aggregates return null
CONSTRAINTS

To add check constraint:


ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINTS constraint name CHECK (SEX IN ('M','F’));
Example: ALTER TABLE EMP ADD CONSTRAINTS SDF CHECK (SEX IN ('M','F'));

To add foreign key


ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT constraintname FOREIGN KEY (attribute)
REFERENCES Referenced_table(attribute);
ALTER TABLE MA ADD CONSTRAINT KL FOREIGN KEY (DEPID) REFERENCES V_DEP(DNO);
To add unique key
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD attributename domain UNIQUE
ALTER TABLE TEST ADD C3 INT UNIQUE
CONSTRAINTS
The constraints from the table
SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME FROM ALL_CONSTRAINTS WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'V_EMP';
To add primary key constraint
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY(attribute);
ALTER TABLE EMP ADD CONSTRAINT Con PRIMARY KEY(EMP_NO);
To drop constraint
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
ALTER TABLE V_EMP DROP CONSTRAINT SYS_C0024414;
CONSTRAINTS
To Add constraint during table creation
create table dependents(
DID number primary key,
MID varchar2(20) references v_emp(emp_no),
SEX char(1) check (sex in ('m','f'))
NAME varchar2(20) not null);

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