UNIT 3 DEFECTS IN STEEL

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objdves
3.2 Definitions
3.2.1 Carbon Steel
3.22 Effects of Carbon
3.2.3 General Properties of SteeI
3.2.4 Mild Steel
3.3 Types of Steel Reinforcement
3.4 Manufacturing Defects in Steel
3.4.1 Geometry Deformation
3.4.2 NOD-uniformCross-sectional Area
3.4.3 ChemicalComposition
3.4.4 Mechanicahpelties
3.4.5 Defective Weight per M e
3.4.6 Defective Twisting
3.4.7 DefectiveManufacture
3.5 Defects in Steel Reinforcement during Construction
3.6 Corrosion of Steel
3.7 Effects of the Concrete Environment on Corrosion
3.8 Procedures for Identifying Corrosive Environments and Active Corrosion in
Concrete
3.9 Steel Manufacturing Process
3.10 Simole Field Tests for Structural Steel
3.11 Chromium in Stee1 (Chrome Steel)
3.12 Summary
3.13 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
You have a good knowledge about iron i.e. the three categories of cast iron, wrought iron
and steel, their manufacturing methods and general properties. Steel is widely used for
construction purposes. Steel as reinforcement is used in combination with conmete for
reinforced concrete structures.
In this unit we will study various topics related to the defects in steel. As far as steel is
concerned, the defects come under two types.
I a) manufacturing defects, and
I b) corrosion defects.

I For understanding the manufaduring defects a detailed study of various types/classes of

steel and their relevant engineering properties is required. For corrosion, the actual
chemical actions involved are required to be understood.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
know the types of steel used in construction with their application,
explain various defects due to manufacturing inadequacy, and
discuss the various factors including environmental/ atmospheric responsible
for causing corrosion.
Defects in Buildings

The tetrn steel is employed in general sense to those alloys of iron and carbon whose total
carbon content does not exceed 2% and steels are graded according to the presence of
carbon present. The smaller the amount of carbon steel contains, the nearer will its
properties resemble those of wrought iron and greater the quantity of carbon it possesses, it
tends to make its characteristics similar to cast iron. In ordinary steel, the mechanical
properties, are chiefly affected by modification of the carbon percentage. Steels always
contain, in minute quantities, some or all of the other elements like manganese, silicon,
sulphur, phosphorous etc; which have beneficial effects on the performance of steels.
3.2.1 Caribon Steel
Steel consisting of iron and carbon only is called "carbon steel" which is ordinary steel.
Where small quantities of other elements such as nickel, chromium, vanadium are also
present, in addition to carbon, it is known as alloy steel. Carbon steels are roughly divided
into two categories viz; soft steels with less than 0.45% of carbon and hard steel with over
0.5% carbon. The lesser the carbon the softer the steel. The proportion of carbon is varied
in the steels depending on the purpose for which they are required.
3.2.2 Effects of Carbon
Carbon which is the most important constituent of steel gives its strength and hardness, but
increase of cwbon percentage correspondingly decreases ductility, malleability and
toughness. The tensile strength, hardness yield point and elastic limit of carbon steel
increase with the carbon content upto about 1% of carbon. The higher the percentage of
carbon the lower the melting point.
3.2.3 General Properties of Steel
Steels are highly elastic, ductile, malleable, forgeable and weldable. They can be hardened
and tempered and are fused at lower temperature than wrought iron and can retain
magnetic praperties. Steels have much higher tensile and compressive strength than
wrought iron and can withstand wear and tear much better. Steel plates sustain greater
injury when punched than wrought iron, therefore holes should be drilled in steel plates as
far as possibb.
3.2.4 Mild Steel
Mild steel is 4 soft carbon steel and may contain 0.2 to 0.5% of carbon. Ordinary mild
steels possess excellent ductility. It is an elastic material and can be easily cut, machined,
punched or dolled, welded, forged and rolled. This steel cannot be hardened or tempered
and cannot t~$used for making any cutting tools. Its high ductility enables the material to
be bent when cold. Mild steels will recover from deflection when relieved of stresses if
they have not exceeded the yield point and where the yield point has been exceeded it will
elongate upto about 25 to 30% of its length before it breaks. Mild steel is used for all
kinds of stnraural steel works such as joists, channels, angles, bolts, rivets, sheets, etc.
Before we proceed further on the above lines, let us recapitulate the basic coda1
requirements d the steel reinforcement for usage in the concrete construction.

3.3 TYPES OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcing ~ s l w i r e or
s fabrics used for concrete shall be any of the following
conforming to accepted standards:
i) Mild steel and Medium tensile steel bars (As per IS:432- 1982)
ii) I%gh Strength deformed steel barslwires (As per IS:1786- 1985)
iii) Hard drawn steel wire fabric (As per IS:1566-1982)
In addition to me above, the rolled steel sections made from steel conforming to
IS:226-1975 we also used in the composite construction with concrete or for purely the
steel fiibricatiw works.
3.3.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties
The Codal reqbirements with regard to physical and mechanical properties of mild steel
and medium Nnsile steel bars are enumerated in table 3.1 for ready reference. The
 tolerance with respect to rolling and cutting shall be as per the Codes indicated above. The Defects in Steel
High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) Steel Bars for use as reinforcement in concrete
shall be in the grades of Fe 415, Fe500 and Fe550. Unlike mild sleel, these high yield
strength steel do not exhibit well defined yield point as can be seen from stress-strain
diagram as shown in Figure 3.1. In such cases, 0.2% proof stress is taken as yield stress -

St rain

F i r e 3.1 :Mild Steel Bar

which corresponds to the point of intersection of the curve and a straight line drawn from a
strain of 0.002 parallel to the tangent to the stress strain curve at the origin (Figures 3.1
& 3.2). The figures following the symbol for Iron i.e. Fe indicates the specified minimum
0.2% proof stress or yield stress in ~ / m m i.e.~MPa). density of steel shall be taken as
0.785 kg/sq.cm of the cross sectional area per metre length.

0.063 04OL
Strain

F i r e 3.2: Cdd Worked Ddormed Bars

3.4 MANUFACTURING DEFECTS IN STEEL

As we have seen in previous paras, the structural reinforcement should conform to
IS:1786-1985. Torsteel is produced in India in two grades namely Tor40 (Fe 415 grade)
and Tor-50 (Fe 500 grade) by controlled cold twisting of tested quality hot rolled deformed
bars. The following are the general manufactural defects observed in the steel marketed as
CTD/HYSD bars.
3.4.1 Geometry Deformation
The geometry of bars may vary indefinite and bond strength may not be realistic and may
further be reduced under dynamic loadings.
3.4.2 Non-uniform Cross-sectional Area
There is possibility that CS areas are signif~cantlydifferent along lengths. For use as
reinforcing steel in R.C. construction, the least CS area only is taken as effective and not
Lhe theoretical average. Thus while procuring and using CTD bars, the average weight per
metre will be the basis for the sale but while in using the same the least area of C.S. only
will be effective, resulting in corresponding reduction of the safety margin.
.3.4.3 Chemical Composition
Chemical composition of bars may not be as per the standards specified in code
13~1786-1985.
33
Defects in Buildings 3.4.4 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties like 0.2%proof strength, tensile strength and percentage of
elongation etc., may not be as per the specificationsindicated in the IS:1786-1985.
3.4.5 Defwtive Weight per Metre
The weight per metre may vary from standard weights specified in the code, beyond the
permitted tol&rances.
3.4.6 Defective Twisting
Over twistedhnder twisted. In case of over twisting, the material is rendered brittle and
minute cracks are formed. The margin between 0.2%proof strength and tensile strength
gets reduced 8nd will not satisfy the required design specifications. On the other hand,
under twisted bars do not attain full 0.2% proof strength as expected.
3.4.7 Defective Manufacture
In hot rolled nibbed bars produced without proper temperature control during hot rolling,
longitudinal Cracks may develop for want of proper fusion of material during passage of
time in differqnt roll passes. Sometimes, the bars are hot twisted instead of cold twisting.
Unfortunately, such manufactural defects are not identifiable by visual inspection.

3.5 DEFECTS IN STEEL REINFORCEMENT DURING

CONSTRUCTION
Improper concreting can make a way for all possible corrodents to attack the
reinforcement. Hence it is imperative Q carryout relevant IS Code tests on as mentioned
below on vari~usconstituents of concrete, namely, Cement, Steel, Aggregate, Water and
Concrete befdre going ahead with construction.
Cement
Various IS Code specified tests like Fineness Test : Initial and final settling time tests,
soundness test, consistency test, compressive strength test, etc., have to be carried out for
erlsuring the quality of the material in conformity with IS code specifications.
Steel
Various IS code specified tests like bend test, tensile strength test, compression test,
shearing test, beep test, fatigue test, impart or shock test, torsion test, hardness test etc.,
have to be carried out on steel before adopting the same for constructim.
Aggregates
Crushing value sieve analysis, abrasion test, attrition test, impact resistance test, bulkage
test, silt conteot test, moisture content test etc., are to be carried before adopting the
material for RCC construction.
Water
pH test and other IS code standards conforming to potable water requirements have to be
satisfied befoe adopting the same for concrete mixing.
Concrete
Compressive strength test, flexure test etc., are required to be carried out to satisfy the
concrete being used for the construction is as per design specifications.
All necessary precautions in placing and tying of reinforcement, providing laps, kinks,
anchorage, spillicings, covers, spacers, binding wires etc., as mentioned in IS standards
have to be scr$pulously adopted.

3.6 CONROSION OF STEEL

Concrete ncrnlally provides reinforcing steel with an excellent protection against
corrosion due to the environmental forces. It is all pervasive in the atmosphere, more so,
where there is moisture. Corrosion eats into concrete, steel and the very foundation of
man's attempt to build. It can destroy not just the homes but bridges, d a b industrial
plants and any other construc.tion where structural steel or reinforced concrete with steel
are used. The effects are slow, but the results are catastrophic. Thus, there exists a
compelling need for a Civil Engineer to know adequately about the corrosion to safeguard
his structural designs and constructions. You will see, in the following paras, a detailed
account of the corrosion phenomenon.
The high alkaline environment in concrete results in the formation of a film whichI
passivates the steel and protects it from deterioration caused by corrosion, etc. In addition,
concrete can be proportioned to have a low permeability which minimizes the
penetration/ingress of harmful constituents. Low permeability also increases the electrical
resistivity of concrete which impedes the flow of electrochemicalcoposion currents.
Because of these inherent protective attributes, corrosion of steel does not occur in good
quality concrete elements or structues. Corrosion of steel, however, can occur if the
concrete is not of adequate quality, the structure was not properly designed for the service
environment, or the environment is saline like in coastal areas or with alternate splashing
sea water or brackish ground water and gaseous emissions in industrial regions.
3.6.1 Principles of Corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical process. The corrosion process is similar to the action
which takes place in a flashlightbattery. An anode, where electrochemical oxidation takes
place, a cathode, where electrochemical reduction occurs, an electrical conductor, and an
aqueous medium must be present. Any metal surface on which corrbsion is taking place is
a composite of anodes and cathodes electrically ~ 0 ~ e c t through
ed the body of the metal
itself. Reactions at the anodes and cathodes are broadly referred to as ''halfcell reactions."
At the anode, which is the negative pole, iron is oxidized to ferrous tons.

The ~ e +is+subsequently changed to oxides and hydroxides of iron by a number of

complex reactions. The volume of the reaction products is several times the volume of the
iron, (almost seven times) which gives rise to increasinglbulging tensile stresses in
concrete, resulting in cracking, spalling of concrete cover and rust straining, etc. Thus
corrosion is a continuous, irreversible process caused by various factors as discussed
below:
3.6.2 Availability of Oxygen in Concrete
The availability of oxygen is one of the main contributory factors for corrosion of steel. A
number of investigations indicate that if the steel passivity is destroyed, conditions will be
conducive to the corrosion of steel reinforcement in those parts of a concrete structure that
are exposed to periods of intermittent wetting and drying. In wet concrete, dissolved
oxygen will primarily be diffusing in solution, while in a partly dry concrete, the diffusion
of gaseous oxygen is much faster.
3.63 The Importance of Chloride Ions
The intrusion of chloride ions in reinforced concrete can cause steel corrosion, if oxygen
and moisture are also available to sustain the reaction. Chloride inns may be introduced
into concrete in a variety of ways. Some are intentional inclusion as an accelerating
admixture or accidental inclusion as contaminants on aggregates; or penetration by deicing
salts, industrial brines; marine spray fog, or mist, etc.
3.6.4 Electrochemical Role of Free Chloride Ions
There are three modem theories to explain the effects of chloride ions on steel corrosion:
a) The Oxide Film Theory: It is believed that an oxide film on a metal surface is
responsible for passivity and thus protection against corrosion. This theory postulates that
chloride ions penetrate the oxide film on steel through pores or defects in the film easier
than do other ions (eg. S04). Alternatively, the chloride ions may colloidally disperse the
oxide film, thereby making it vulnerable to penetration of corrodants.
b) The Adsorption Theory: Chloride ions are adsorbed on the metal surface in
competition with dissolved oxygen or hydroxyl ions. The chloride ion promotes the
hydration of the metal ions and thus facilitates the dissolution of the metal ions.
c) The Transitory Complex Theory: Amrd'ig to this theory, chloride ions compete
with hydroxyl ions for the ferrous ions produced by corrosion. A soluble complex of iron
chloride fornls. This complex can diffuse away from the anode destroying the protective
layer of Fe(OH)2, permitting corrosion to continue. Since corrosion is not stifled, more
iron ions continue to migrate into the concrete away from the corrosion site and to react
with oxygen to form higher oxides which result in a fourfold volume increase. It is the
Defects in Building expansion of iron oxides as they are transformed to higher oxidation states that produce
internal stress, which eventually cracks the concrete.
3.6.5 Corrosion Rate and pH
The corrosion rate of iron is reduced as the pH increases. Since concrete has a pH higher
than 12.5, it is dsually an excellent medium for protecting steel from corrosion. Only under
conditions whei-e salts are present or the concrete cover has carbonated, does the steel
become vulnerable to corrosion. In the process of carbonation, the atmospheric
carbon-di-oxide reacts with the alkaline.materials in the concrete and converts them into
carbonates. Thus, alkalinity of concrete is reduced in tern of pH values. When pH value
falls below 9, the process of corrosion commences.
3.6.6 Passihty and Transpassivity
Passivity of a metal is generally characterised by a thin and tightly adherent oxide film on
the metal surface, which tends to protect the metal against further corrosion. The exact
composition of the thin and normally invisible film has been difficult to determine.
However, investigationsreveal that it is made up of chemical combinations of oxygen and
hence called axygen film.
When a potential is applied to an iron electrode, the rate of current flow depends on the
state of passivity. Concrete is generally passive, such that little current flows when a
potential is aflplied;however, if the potentials is progressively increased, eventually the
.
current will flow. This is because, at this point, oxygen is evolved and the electrode
reaction involves the electrolysis of water.

This phenomenon is called "transpassivity". Neither steel nor concrete is durable in a low
pH (acidic) environment.
3.6.7 Strw Corrosion Cracking
Stress corrosion is defined as the process in which the damage caused by stress and
corrosion acting together greatly exceeds that produced when they act separately.
In stressed steel, a small imperfection caused by corrosion can lead to a serious loss in
tensile strength as the corrosion continues at the initial anode area.
3.6.8 Effects of Temperature on Steel
It is found that there will not be any appreciable reduction in strength in steel
reinforcement upto a temp. of 300 OC. However, the experiments indicate that at this
temperature, the bond between steel and concrete gets disturbed and concrete starts
spalling exoosing the reinforcement to outside environment which may ultimately lead to
corrosion of reinforcement.
Tl~emechanical properties of Cold Twisted Deformed bars such as Torsteel are unaffected
upto 300 '6. Beyond this, there will be continuous reduction in proof and tensile strength
of the material. At about 600 OC, the reduction will be almost 50%rendering the same
structurally unsound. The graphs showing the reduction in proof strength of steel at
elevated temperature is shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4.
 Defects i l l Steel

0.0 J I I I I I
0 7Op LOO 600 800

Figure 3.4: Proof Strength of Steel at Room Temperature after Heating to an Elevated Temperature

3.7 EFFECTS OF THE CONCRETE ENVIIRON,MENT ON

CORROSLON
3.7.1 Portland Cement
When portland cement hydrates, the silicates react with water to produce calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium hydroxide. The following simplified equations give the main
reactions of portland cement with water:
2(3Ca0 Si02)+ 6H20 -+ 2Ca0 2Si02 3H20 + 3Ca(OH)2

As you h o w already, the high alkalinity of the chemical environment normally present in
concrete protects the embedded steel because of the formation of a protective oxide film
on the steel. The integrity and prospective quality of this film depends on the alkalinity
(pH) of the environment.
A well-hydrated portland cement may contain from 15 to 30 percent lcalcium hydroxide by
weight of the original cement. This is usually sufficient to maintain s~solution at a pH
about 13 in the concrete, independent of moisture content.
Even for cements with such highest reserve basicity, the alkalinity may be reduced in a
number of ways. Reduction of alkalinity by leaching of soluble alkaline salts with water is
an obvious process. Partial neutralisation by reaction with carbon dioxide i.e. carbonation
as present either in air or dissolved in water, is another common process. Calcium chloride
acts as an accelerator in the hydration of tricalcium silicate as well Zj to promotes the
corrosion of steel.
Also the other compounds present in portland cement like tricalciurn aluminate C3A and
an aluminoferrite i.e. C4AF augment the process of corrosion. The C3A reacts rapidly in
the cement system to cause flash set unless it is retarded. Calcium s ulphate is used as the
retarder, calcium sulphate forms a coating of ettringite (C3A.3CaS04. 32H20)around the
aluminate grains thereby retarding their reactivity.
3.7.2 Aggregate
The most serious problems arise when the aggregates contain chlodde salts. ?his can
+ happen when sand is dredged from the sea or taken from seaside c)r arid locations.
Care should be exercised when using admixtures containing chloride in combination with
lightweight aggregates. Light weight aggregate containing sulphi des can also be damaging
to high strength steel under stress.
3.73 Water ,
An important effect of the moisture content of concrete is its efft:c t on the electrical
resistivity of the concrete. Progressive drying of initial1 water-satiurated concrete results
in the electrical resistivity increasing from about 7x 10Yohm/cml to about 6000 x lo3
ohm/ cm. Field obsen~ationsindicate that when the resistivity exceeds a level of 50 to 70 x
lo3 ohmlcm, steel corrosion would be negligible.

3.7.4 Concrete Quality

e
Concrete will offer more protection against corrosion of embedded si 1if it is of a high
quality. A low water cement ratio will slow the diffusion of chlorides ,carbon dioxide ,and
oxygen and also the increase in strength of the concrete may extend t l ~ time
e before
corrosion induced stresses cause cracking of the concrete. The pore vc ~lumeand
permeability can be reduced by lowering the water cement ratio.
37
Defects in Buildings 3.7.5 Thickness of Concrete Cover Over Steel
The depth of concrete cover over the steel should be as large as possible, consistent with
good structural design, the severity of the service environment, and cost.

Carbonation occurs when the concrete reacts with carbon dioxide from the air or water and
reduces tht? pH to about 8.5 At this low pH the steel is no longer passive and corrosion
may occur, For high qualitv mncrete, in situations where the rate Of carbonation is
extremely slow,c~bonationis normally not a problem in very dry concrete or in water
saturated concrete. Maximum carbonation rates are observed at about 50 percent water
saturation.

SAQ 1
i) Enumerate the types of steels and their properties.
ii) What are the likely manufactural defects in the reinforcing steels?
iii) What is corrosion? What are the environmental factors responsible for it?
iv) Explaini the role of chloride in corrosion process.
v) What is carbonation ? How it is responsible for the corrosion of steels?

3.8 PlkOCE1)URES FOR IDENTIFYING CORROSIVE

ENVIRONMENTS AND ACTIVE CORROSION IN
CONCRlWE
Methods of Evaluat1,on
Certain tools are used for identifying and quantifying corrosive environments, extent of
corrosion, sind concrete deterioration. Following is a brief description of these tools,
together wil/ththeir purpose and limitations.
3.8.1 Cover Meter
This tool is used to locate reinforcing steel embedded in concrete, and to determine the
amount of cover over the steel. It is batteryqerated and contains a transistorized
oscillator ihich establishes an electromagnetic field in a search coil. In the presence of a
steel reinfokingbar, the magnetic field is distorted. By calibration, the distance from the
bar may be read from the:metre dial.
The knowledge of cover depth is essential if it is desired to obtain samples of the concrete
at the level of the reinforcing steel for chloride ion analysis. It is also useful in determining
the potential for corrosion and subsequent concrete deterioration since it has been well
establishedthat stmcture:s in corrosive environments with inadequate concrete cover are
subject to ehrly deterioraition.
3.8.2, Delaminatiorr Detectors
There an? m y tools which may be u s 4 to dehxdehmhations or subsurface fracture
planes parallel to the concrete surface. These devices range from simple chain drags or
light weight h a m ts fro more sophisticated devices such as the Delamtect. Almost any
sounding device c q e used to locate hollow areas or &laminations caused by corrosion
of the reinfQlrcingstee 1. The automated Delamtect is useful for surveying large numbers of
bridge decb or other 'horizontal surfaces such as parking garage floors if a record of 'the
area of delamination i,s desired. However, the simple chain drag is adequate for locating
delaminated areas during repair operation.
3.8.3 Electrical Potential Measuring Equipment
This equipment, consists of a copper-copper sulphate half-cell(CSE), a high impedance
voltmeter, and lead wire to connect the half-cell and the reinforcing steel to the voltmeter.
The equipment is used to determine corrosion of qualitatively reinforcement steel.
3.8.4 Chloride Analysis
Measurements of chloride ion concentration in the cover concrete are made to determine if
any environment exists which is conducive to corrosion of the steel. Two wet chemical
analysis techniques are used to isolate chloride from the concrete, one to determine acid
soluble chloride, and the other to determine water soluble chloride.
In any interpretation of chloride data, sound engineeringjudgement must be used to assess
the actual potential for corrosion. As stated earlier, free moisture and oxygen as well as
chloride must be available to induce corrosion. If it can he concluded that either moisture
or oxygen is not available, there would be no corrosion threshold. Such conditions may
prevail, for example, in concrete which is continuously submerged or in internal members
in buildings where air conditioning units maintain constantly low humidities.
3.8.5 Rate of Corrosion Probes
Two basic types of probes are available for embedment into concrete to provide an
indication of rate of corrosion. One type involves the use of two or three electrically
isolated short sections of steel wire or reinforcing steel and the use of linear polarization
techniques to estimate instantaneous corrosion rates. The second, more widely used.
device is the electrical resistance rate-of-corrosion probe which provides cumulative rate
of corrosion data from periodic measurements of the electrical resistance of a steel wire or
hollow cylinder embedded in the concrete.
These have uncertainties and have generally limited the use of resistance probes to
research and field evaluation efforts in which special installation procedures are required,
and electrical potential and current measurements can be made to defrne the characteristics
of the probe- reinforcing barmarocell.
3.8.6 Electrical Resistance Equipment
The primary use of these measurements is to determine the resistance of water proof
membranes that are made from dielectric materials. This equipment consists of a copper
contact plate, sponges, ohmmeter and lead wire. One terminal of the ohmmeter is
connected to the copper plate.
A study is underway to develop nondestructive procedures for direct measurement of the
rate of corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. 'Ihree electrode linear polarization
measurements are encouraging. Because the measurements are made directly on the in-situ
reinforcing steel, many of the problems discussed under the section on corrosion probes
should not be present.

3.9 STEEL MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Steel is manufactured by several processes the most important being Bessemer Process
and Open-hearth Process. The steel thus made is converted into steel objects and sections
by the process of casting, rolling, forging or pressing. '
3.9.1 Mechanical Properties of Different Types of High Tensile
Structural Steel
Specifications prescribe ultimate tensile stress of 60 to 70 kglsqmm; yield stress of 30 to
36kglsqmm according to thickness. For rivet bars ultimate tensile stress prescribed is
48kgisqmm. This steel is rather difficult to weld and fusion welding method has to be
adopted.
3.9.2 Cast Steel
It is a high carbon steel; it is a term to denote any article of steel formed by casting. It is
the strongest and most uniform steel that is made. It is unweldable and cannot be forged,
and should never be heated beyond red heat. It is much denser and harder than ordinary
steel and also heavier than cast iron. These steels are less ductile and less tough than
ordinary steel. Cast steels are used for the manufacture of high grade surgical instruments,
Dd&ts in Buildings cutlery and intricate parts. Hard cast steel is used for making cutting tools. A smaller
allowance for shrinkage is required for steel castings than for cast iron.
3.9.3 Wtought Steel
Any article of steel formed by forging or hot rolling or hot working in any way, is made
out of wrought steel.
3.9.4 H a d Steel
It is fusible and gives a much higher resistance to compression than cast steel. It cannot be
welded or forged easily. Hard steel is used for several purposes such as bullet-proof
s h eting .
3.9.5 Spring Steel
May be either medium or high carbon plain steel or alloyed with other elements in small
proportions. Suitable for the manufacture of springs. Steel is heated to 760-780 O C
quenched in oil, water or brine and tempered to required harness.
3.9.6 Weight of Steel
Weight of plates may be taken at 78.43 kg/m2per cm of thickness, and the weight of
sections and bars at 0.7843kg/sqcm of sectional area per metre run.

3.10 SIMPLE FIELD TESTS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

3.10.1 Cold Bend Field Tests for Bars
The test pieces should be cut lengthwise and crosswise from plates and lengthwise from
sections and bars (including flat bars). For cold bend tests, the test pieces should not be
subjected to any heat treatment. Tests should be made for each thickness or diameter of bar
in a lot. The test piece shall withstand, without fracture, being doubled over either by
pressure or bp slow and steady blows from a hammer until the two sides of the test piece
are parallel md, in the case of bars above 25mm in diameter or thickness, the internal
radius is not greater than 1.5 times the diameter of thickness of the bar, and, in the case of
bars of 25 rnm and under in diameter or thickness, the internal radius of the bend is not
greater than the diameter or thickness of the bar.
The bend test determines whether the metal is adequately ductile.
As you know+the ductility of reinforcement is an important criteria for the safe
performance of a reinforced concrete member. The elongation at rupture over a standard
gauge length is accepted to be an index for ductility. About 8 to lo% of elongation over a
gauge length of 5 times diameter is considered to be adequate for the ductility criteria.
3.10.2 Testb for Rivet Bars .
The rivet shwk shall be capable of being bent cold back on itself and hammered until the
two parts of the shank touch without ftacture on the outside of the bend. The rivet head
shall be capable of being flattened at red heat to a uniform thickness and without cracking
at the edges urltil its diameter is 2.5 times the diameter of the shank.
The sanle tests as given above for ordinary bars have now been prescribed for rivet bars
also. In addition, short lengths of rivet bars equal to twice their diameter, when cold, shall
withstand, without fracture, being compmssed to half their length.
3.10.3 Tensile Test
Tensile test is the most important and the commonest mechanical test applied to metals. A
specially prepared test-piece is stretched by a gradually increasing load applied in opposite
directions at its ends until the test-piece breaks. The tougher the steel the more force will
be needed to brkak it. There is an elastic limit and yield point for steel under tension or
compression.
The ultimate te@sile strength is atleast 12 to 15% more than the proof strength. The test
piece breaks at the ultimate strength. But for the purpose of &sign, the yield stress or
proof stress is only the criteria. Thus potential increase in tensile strength has made this
material more useful for a structural engineer.
 3.10.4 Compression Test Ilefects in Steel

Compression test is made in a machine which exerts pressure of a compressive nature until t

the steel "gives" and will not recover. This is similar to tensile test.
3.10.5 Shearing Test
This test indicates the ability to resist a shearing action as with rivets.
3.10.6 Creep Test
Creep test indicates how long a metal will withstand a maintained load or stress at a
specified kmperature without deformationwithin certain limits.
3.10.7 Fatigue Test
Fatigue test is repeated reversed sttesses test. Pulling and pushing stresses are repeated
alternatively in quick successions for a time till the test-piece gives way. (Quickly repeated
stresses are more likely to set up fa e and eventual failure much lower than the yield
8
point than a continuous stress appl in one direction). The maximum repetitive stress
that can tx sustained by the material without failure for two million load cycles is
L
commonly accepted as measure of fatigue strength.
3.10.8 Impact or Shock Test
This test indicates the toughness of the material and is a measure of the energy required to
break a test-piece, under the shock of the impact when subjected to a sudden blow.
3.10.9 Torsion Test
Torsion test is made to find out the ability of the steel to withstand twisting stresses as
found in crankshaft of engines, etc. Torsion test gives more reliable data than direct shear
test. Tests made within elastic h i t determine the modulus of rigidity and test continued
upto destruction determines the maximum shear stress. Modulus of rigidity provides data
for arriving at the elastic properties of steel.
3.10.10 Hardness Test
A small ball of very hard steel or other material is pressed into the test-piece under dead
load and hardness is measured by the indentation made by the ball.
3.10.11 Cold Bend Test for Hard-drawn Steel Wires
The test-piece shall withstand, without showing signs of fracture, in the following
treatment. One end of the test piece shall be fumly in a device and the other free
end shall be bent round a radius equal to the diameter of alloying element. Nickel
improves tensile strength and elasticity and reduces the brittleness of steel, and also
imparts hardness, ductility and ability to resist shocks and fatigue, improves endurance and
wear, and gives corrosion resisting properties to a certain extent. The best properties are
developed by a heat treatment of quenching and tempering, it is more readily forged than
carbon steel. The percentage of nickel usually added range from about 1.5 to 5 per cent
with carbon 0.1 to 0.4 per cent for structural steels and from 25 to 35 percent. with less
than 0.4 percent carbon, in high nickel steels. High nickel steel is practically
nonexpanding as it has only l/lOth the liner expansion of ordinary steel a6d possesses
great resistance to shock. Such steels are not used for engineering purpo&s. The addition
of 1.5 per cent of chromium further increases the tensile strength, hardness, and ductility
of steel. Nickel steel containing 3 to 4.5 per cent nickel is used frequently for long span
bridge construction, bearings, castings and shafts, etc.

3.11 CHROMIUM IN STEEL (CHROME STEEL)

Chromium is the key element in the wide range of stainless and heat resisting steels.
Addition of chromium to steel makes it very hard and tough, ihcrease elastic limit and
strength of steel and also the ability to withstand wear and abrasion. Even a small
percentage of chromium gives improved resistance to corrosion. Both nickel and
chromium, or in col~junctionwith vanadium, added to steel give superior physical
pperties than when either element is added alone. Chrome steel is used for making
chisels, drills razors, saw, blades, files, dies, ball bearings and rollers, safes, cutlery, etc.
Defects in Buildings 3.1 1.1 Chro,kne-Nickel Steel
Chrome-Nickel Steel has high strength, elastic limit and hardness combined with good
durability, andiis very tough. It is used for shafts, gears, axles, armour plating, etc.
Chromium imparts greater strength and hardness than nickel. Chromium steels need
careful heat treatments.
3.11.2 Stainless Steels
There are maqy varieties of stainless steels with wide range of mechanical properties.
Stainless steel&have varying proportions of chromium, nickel, carbon and other elements.
Chromium is an essential constituent of all such steels and a stainless steel must have a
minimum of 13 to 14 percent of chromium to give it freedom from corrosion. Stainless
steels usually bave 18 percent chromium and 8 per cent of nickel. The addition of nickel
makes it mord resistant to corrosion and gives it greater ductility and better working
qualities. When only chromium is added its percentage is increased to 25 to 30 percent.
Stainless steel is very strong and tough, acid and corrosiq@wstant and withstands
ordinary atmospheric conditions. These steels are of malleable character and can be readily
cold rolled into sheets, deeply pressed, machined and drawn into wires and tubes. Most of
such steels cap be welded by either the electric process or by the oxy-acetylene method but
will not weldby the usual method of heating in a smith's fire. These steels are not good in
respect of t h e W conductivity and are also poor conductors of electricity. The finished
surface of stabless steel should be free from all scales, pits and cracks, otherwise it will
rust. Staides$ steel is almost silver-white appearance.
Tests for distinguishing stainless steels from ordinary steels: A drop of nitric acid on
common steql will dissolve the steel but on a stainless steel the acid will merely etch the
surface producing a gray appearance. Magnets have reduced attraction with stainless
steels.
Copper impr~vesthe properties of cast and malleable iron and steel, increases the strength
and hardnesd of low and medium carbon steels and decreases the atmospheric corrosion of
steel. In locations where structural steel is exposed to excessive atmospheric corrosion,
copper beariPg steel may be used. Copper present in such steels is 0.20 to 0.35 percent.
For rivet barb copper may be allowed upto 0.60 percent. For bridge work the copper
content of rivets should be in excess of the copper content of the steel members with which
they come in contact.
3111.3 Tobl Steels
Tool steels dre mainly of two classes (i) Plain carbon steels having small amount9 of
alloying eletnents such as chromium and tungsten which are generally used for hard
machine toqls, and (ii) High speed steels which contain a high percentage of alloying
elements, M n l y tungsten, and vary widely in composition. Such steels may run at a red
head withojt losing their hardness and are used for cutting hard materials or for cutting at
high speeds, and also used in parts which must withstand high heat and wear such as
exhaust valves of gas engines.
SAQ 2
i) , What are the methods of evolution of corrosive environment?
ii) Explain the field tests for structural steel.

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3.12 SUMMARY
As you haire seen above, the defects in steel are likely to creep in even at the
manufact4ing stage itself. Hence, a cautious discrimination is required before adopting
the same for constructiofi. During the service period, the reinforcement steel is likely to be
damaged by various atmospheric/environmental factors, the deadliest being "corrosion" 1)efect.s in Steel
described as a silent killer in Civil Engineering jargon.

3.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs

i) For definition of steel ref.3.2 For types and properties of steel ref.3.2.3.3.3
ii) Refer sections 3.4.3.4.1 to 3.4.7
iii) Refer sectio~i3.6 for explaining corrosion and sections 3.6.2.3.6.3.3.6.4.
3.6.5.3.6.6.3.6.7 to identify the environ mental factors responsible for
corrosion.
iv) Refer sections 3.6.3.3.6.4 a), b), c)
V) For details refer section 3.7.6

i) Refer sections 3.8.3.8.1 to 3.8.6

ii) Refer sections 3.10.1 to 3.10.1 1