Applied Metallurgy by WM

APPLIED METALLURGY
APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.1 : Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys
Lecture 2.2 : Manufacturing and Forming Processes
Lecture 2.3.1 : Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.3.2 : Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.4 : Steel Grades and Qualities
Lecture 2.5 : Selection of Steel Quality
Lecture 2.6 : Weldability of Structural Steels
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce important aspects of the metallurgy of steel required for the understanding of the engineering
properties of steel.
SUMMARY
This lecture commences with a discussion of the need for civil and structural engineers to have a basic
knowledge of the metallurgy of steel. Then the crystalline nature of irons and steels is described together
with the influence of grain size and composition on properties. The ability of iron to have more than one
crystalline structure (its allotropy) and the properties of the principal crystalline forms of alloys of iron and
carbon are discussed.
The metallurgy and properties of slowly cooled steels are reviewed, including the influence of grain size,
rolling, subsequent heat treatment and inclusion shape and distribution. Rapidly cooled steels are treated
separately; a brief description of quenching and tempering is followed by a discussion of the influence of
welding on the local thermal history. Hardenability, weldability and control of cracking are briefly discussed.
Finally the importance of manganese as an alloying element is introduced.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why Metallurgy For Civil and Structural Engineers?
The engineering properties of steel, i.e. strength, ductility and resistance against brittle fracture, depend on
its crystalline structure, grain size and other metallurgical characteristics.
These microstructural properties are dependent on the chemical composition and on the temperature-
deformation history of the steel. Heat treatments that occur during welding may also have a large influence
on the engineering properties.
Prepared by WM Applied Metallurgy.doc Page 1 of 162

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When selecting steel for welded structures, it is important to have at least a basic knowledge of metallurgy.
This knowledge is required especially when large and complicated structures are being designed, such as
bridges, offshore structures, and high rise buildings.
Selecting materials, welding processes and welding consumables usually requires consultation of "real"
metallurgists and welding specialists. A basic knowledge of metallurgy is essential for communication with
these specialists.
Finally, a basic knowledge of metallurgy also enables civil and structural engineers to have a better
understanding of the engineering properties of steel and the performance of welded structures.
1.2 The Scope of Lectures in Group 2
Lecture 2.1 deals with the characteristics of iron-carbon alloys. Where possible, direct links are indicated to
the engineering properties and weldability of steel. These subjects are covered in Lectures 2.2 and 2.6
respectively.
Lecture 2.3 describes steelmaking and the forming of steel into plates and sections. The various processes
for controlling the chemical composition and the different temperature-deformation treatments are discussed.
Most of the underlying principles described in Lecture 2.1 are applied.
Steels are available in various grades and qualities. The grade designates the strength properties (yield
strength and ultimate strength), while the quality is mainly related to resistance against brittle fracture.
Grades and qualities are explained in Lecture 2.4. A system for choosing the right quality according to
Eurocode 3 (Annex C) [1] is presented. Some guidelines for the selection of steel grade are given.
2. STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF STEEL

2.1 Introduction
To get an impression of the metallurgical structure of steel, a piece of steel bar can be cut to expose a
longitudinal section, the exposed surface ground and polished and examined under a microscope.
At modest magnifications, a few particles are seen which are extended in the direction of rolling of the bar,
see Slide 1. These particles are inclusions. They are non-metallic substances which have become entrained
within the metal during its manufacture, mostly by accident but sometimes by design. Their presence does
not affect the strength but has an adverse effect on ductility and toughness. Particular types of inclusion can
greatly enhance the machinability of steels and may therefore be introduced deliberately.
Slide 1 : Longitudinal stringers of inclusions in hot rolled steel. (x 500)

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To reveal the true structure of the metal, the polished surface must be chemically etched. When this is done,
a wide diversity of microstructure may be seen which reflects the composition of the steel and its processing,
see Slides 2 - 5.
The microstructure has a significant effect on the engineering properties as described in later sections of this
lecture.
2.2 The Components of Steel
Steels and cast irons are alloys of iron (Fe) with carbon (C) and various other elements, some of them being
unavoidable impurities whilst others are added deliberately.
Carbon exerts the most significant effect on the microstructure of the material and its properties. Steels
usually contain less than 1% carbon by weight. Structural steels contain less than 0,25% carbon: the other
principal alloying element is manganese, which is added in amounts up to about 1,5%. Further alloying
elements are chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo) etc. Elements such as sulphur (S), phosphorus,
(P), nitrogen (N) and hydrogen (H) usually have an adverse effect on the engineering properties and during
the steel production, measures are taken to reduce their contents. Cast irons generally contain about 4%
carbon. This very high content of carbon makes their microstructure and mechanical properties very
different from those of steels.
Each of the microstructures shown in Slides 2, 3, 4 and 5 is an assembly of smaller constituents. For
example, the 0,2% C steel of Slide 2 is predominantly an aggregate of small, polyhedral grains, in this case
<20µm in size. Closer examination of one of these grains shows it to be a single crystal. However, unlike
crystals of quartz or silicon or copper sulphate, crystals of iron (Fe) are soft and ductile. The internal
structure of these crystals is discussed later.
Slide 2 : Microstructure of hot rolled steel containing 0,2% carbon showing ferrite (white) and pearlite
colonies (dark). (x 200)

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Slide 3 : Microstructure of hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing increased proportions of
pearlite (dark). (x 500)
Slide 4 : Microstructure of heat treated hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing spheroidised
pearlite (dark) in a ferrite matrix. (x 750)
Slide 5 : Microstructure of quenched hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing bainite (x 200)

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The steel of Slide 2 is an example of a polycrystalline substance which has been made visible by polishing
and etching.
(a) The surface is polished but not etched.
(b) The surface is polished and etched. Different reflections of the light indicate different orientation of
crystals (polycrystalline structure).
(c) Some etchants affect only the grain boundaries. These etchants are used when it is required to investigate
the grain structure, e.g. to estimate the grain size.
(d) The appearance of etched grain boundaries of Figure 1c.
(e) The appearance of a steel with 0,15% carbon (enlargement 100x). The dark areas are pearlite. The grain
boundaries are clearly indicated. The dark areas indicate the presence of carbon.
By adjusting the history of rolling and heating treatment experienced by the steel during its production, the
grain size can be altered. This technique is useful because the grain size affects the properties. In particular,
the yield strength is determined by the grain size, according to the so-called Petch equation:
σy = σo + kd-1/2
where σy is the yield strength
σo is effectively the yield strength of a very large isolated crystal: for mild steel this is ≈ 50N/mm2
d is the grain size in mm
k is a material constant, which for mild steel is about 20N/mm-3/2
Thus, if the grain size is 0.01 mm, σy ≈ 250N/mm2.
2.3 The Crystal Structure
The internal structure of the crystal grains is composed of iron atoms arranged according to a regular three-
dimensional pattern. The pattern is illustrated in Figure 2. This pattern is the body-centred cubic crystal
structure; atoms are found at the corners of the cube and at its centre. The unit cell is only 0,28nm along its
edges. A typical grain is composed of about 1015 repetitions of this unit.

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This crystal structure of iron at ambient temperature is one of the major factors determining the metallurgy
and properties of steels.
Steels contain carbon. Some of it, a very small amount, is contained within the crystals of iron. The carbon
atoms are very small and can fit, with some distortion, into the larger gaps between the iron atoms. This
arrangement forms what is known as an interstitial solid solution: the carbon is located in the interstices of
the iron crystal.
In the steels of Slides 2, 3 and 4, most of the remaining carbon has formed a chemical compound with the
iron, Fe3C, iron carbide or cementite. Iron carbide is also crystalline but it is hard and brittle. With 0,1%C,
there is only a small amount of Fe3C in steel. The properties of such steel are similar to those of pure iron)
[2]. It is ductile but not particularly strong and is used for many purposes where ability to be shaped by
bending or folding is the dominant requirement.
For a steel of higher carbon content, say 0,4%, as shown in Slide 5, a low magnification shows it to be
composed of light and dark regions - about 50:50 in this case. The light regions are iron crystals containing
very little dissolved carbon, as in the low carbon steel. The dark regions need closer examination. Slide 6
shows one such region at higher magnification. It is seen to be composed of alternate layers of two
substances, iron and Fe3C. The spacing of the laminae is often close to the wavelength of light and
consequently the etched structure can act as a diffraction grating, giving optical effects which appear as a
pearl-like iridescence. Consequently, this mixture or iron and iron carbide has acquired the name 'pearlite'.
The origin of the pearlite and its effect on the properties of steel are revealed by examining what happens
during heating and cooling of steel.

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Slide 6 : Polycrystalline structure of steel containing 0,4% carbon. (x 400)
3. IRON-CARBON PHASES
3.1 Influence of Temperature on Crystal Structure
The crystal structure of steel changes with increasing temperature. For pure iron this change occurs at 910°
C. The body-centred cubic (bcc) crystals of Figure 2 change to face-centred cubic (fcc) crystals as illustrated
in Figure 3. For fcc crystals the atoms of iron are on the cube corners and at the centres of each face of the
cube. The body-centred position is empty.

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A given number of atoms occupy slightly less volume when arranged as fcc crystals than when arranged as
bcc crystals. Thus the change of the crystal structure is accompanied by a volume change. This change is
illustrated in Figure 4. When a piece of pure iron is heated, expansion occurs in the normal way until the
temperature of 910° C is reached. At this temperature there is a step contraction of about ½% in volume
associated with the transformation from the bcc to fcc crystal structure. Further heating gives further thermal
expansion until, at about 1400°C the fcc structure reverts to the bcc form and there is a step expansion which
restores the volume lost at 910°C. Heating beyond 1400°C gives thermal expansion until melting occurs at
1540°C. The curve is reversible on cooling slowly.
The property that metals may have different crystal structures, depending on temperature, is called allotropy.
3.2 Solution of Carbon in bcc and fcc Crystals
When the atoms of two materials A and B have about the same size, crystal structures may be formed where
a number of the A atoms are replaced by B atoms. Such a solution is called substitutional because one atom
substitutes for the other. An example is nickel in steel.
When the atoms of two materials have a different size, the smaller atom may be able to fit between the
bigger atoms. Such a solution is called interstitial. The most familiar example is the solution of carbon in
iron. In this way the high temperature fcc crystals can contain up to 2% solid solution carbon at 1130°C,
while in the low temperature bcc crystals, the maximum amount of carbon which can be held in solution is
0,02% at 723°C and about 0,002% at ambient temperature.
Thus a steel containing 0,5% carbon, for example, can dissolve all the carbon in the higher temperature fcc
crystals but on cooling cannot maintain all the carbon in solution in the bcc crystals. The surplus of carbon
reacts with iron to form iron carbide (Fe3C), usually called cementite. Cementite is hard and brittle
compared to pure iron.
The amount of cementite and the distribution of cementite particles in the microstructure is important for the
engineering properties of steel.
The distribution of cementite is highly dependent on the cooling rate. The distribution may be explained by
considering the so-called iron-carbon phase diagram, see Section 3.4.

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3.3 Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used by the metallurgist:
Ferrite or α -Fe The bcc form of iron in which up to 0,02%C by weight may be dissolved.
Cementite Iron carbide Fe3C (which contains about 6,67%C).
Pearlite The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite described earlier. The overall
carbon content of the mixture is 0,8% by weight.
Austenite or γ -Fe The fcc form of iron which exists at high temperatures and which can contain
up to approximately 2%C by weight.
Steel Alloys containing less than 2% carbon by weight.
Cast Iron Alloys containing more than 2% carbon by weight.
Steel used in structures such as bridges, buildings and ships, usually contains between 0,1% and 0,25%
carbon by weight.
3.4 The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
The iron-carbon phase diagram is essentially a map. The most important part is shown in Figure 5. More
details are given in Figure 6.

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Any point in the field of the diagram represents a steel containing a particular carbon content at a particular
temperature.
The diagram is divided into areas showing the structures that are stable at particular compositions and
temperatures.
The diagram may be used to consider what happens when a steel of 0,5%C is cooled from 1000°C (Figure 6).
At 1000°C the structure is austenite, i.e. polycrystalline fcc crystals with all the carbon dissolved in them.
No change occurs on cooling until the temperature reaches about 800°C. At this temperature, a boundary is
crossed from the field labelled Austenite (γ) to the field labelled Ferrite + Austenite (α + γ), i.e. some
crystals of bcc iron, containing very little carbon, begin to form from the fcc iron. Because the ferrite
contains so little carbon, the carbon left must concentrate in the residual austenite. The carbon content of the
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austenite and the relative proportions of ferrite and austenite in the microstructure adjust themselves to
maintain the original overall carbon content.
These quantities may be worked out by considering the expanded part of the iron-carbon diagram shown in
Figure 7. Imagine that the steel has cooled to 750°C. The combination of overall carbon content and
temperature is represented by point X.
All the constituents of the microstructure are at the same temperature. A line of constant temperature may be
drawn through X. It cuts the boundaries of the austenite and ferrite field at F and A. These intercepts give
the carbon contents of ferrite and austenite respectively at the particular temperature.
If, now, the line FA is envisaged as a rigid beam which can rotate about a fulcrum at X, the 'weight' of
austenite hanging at A must balance the 'weight' of ferrite hanging at F. This is the so-called Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite × FX = Weight of austenite × AX
The ratio of ferrite to austenite in the microstructure is then given by:
Thus, as the steel cools, the proportion of ferrite increases and the carbon content of the remaining austenite
increases, until cooling reaches 723°C. At this temperature the carbon content of the austenite is 0,8% and it
can take no more. Cooling to just below this temperature causes the austenite to decompose. It decomposes
into the lamellar mixture of ferrite and Fe3C identified earlier as pearlite.

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The proportions of ferrite and pearlite in the microstructure, say at 722°C, are virtually the same as the
proportions of ferrite and austenite immediately before the decomposition at 723°C. Thus, referring to
Figure 7 and using the Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite × F′ X′ = Weight of pearlite × F′ P
In this case, there should be about twice as much pearlite as ferrite.
For other steels containing less than 0,8%C, the explanation is identical except for the proportions of pearlite
in the microstructure below 723°C. This varies approximately linearly with carbon content between zero at
0,02%C and 100% at 0,8%C. A typical mild steel containing 0,2%C would contain about 25% pearlite.
For steels containing a greater percentage of carbon than 0,8%, the structure is fully austenitic on cooling
from high temperatures. The first change to occur is the formation of particles of Fe3C from the austenite.
This change reduces the carbon content of the residual austenite. On further cooling, the carbon content of
the austenite follows the line of the boundary between the γ field and γ + Fe3C field. Once again, on reaching
723°C the carbon content of the austenite is 0,8%. On cooling further, it decomposes into pearlite as before.
Therefore, the final microstructure consists of a few particles of Fe3C embedded in a mass of pearlite, see
Figure 6.
4. COOLING RATE
4.1 Cooling Rate During Austenite to Ferrite Transformation and Grain Size
During cooling of austenite, the new bcc ferrite crystals start to grow from many points. The number of
starting points determines the number of ferrite grains and consequently the grain size. This grain size is
important because the engineering properties are dependent on it. Small grains are favourable. By adding
elements like aluminium and niobium, the number of starting points can be increased. Another important
factor is the cooling rate. When cooling is slow, the new ferrite grains develop from only a few most
favourable sites. At high cooling rates, the number of starting points will be much higher and the grain size
smaller. Slides 7 - 9 shows steels with various grain sizes, produced at different finish rolling temperatures.
Slide 7 : Microstructure of pearlite. (x 1000)
Another important factor is that, when a fine grained steel is heated to a temperature in excess of about
1000°C, some of the austenite grains grow while neighbouring grains disappear. This grain growth occurs
during welding in the so-called heat affected zone (HAZ). This is a 3-5 mm wide zone in the plate adjacent
to the molten metal. Microstructural changes in the heat affected zone usually give rise to a deterioration of
the engineering properties of the steel.

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4.2 Slowly Cooled Steels
4.2.1 Influence of carbon on the microstructure
The iron-carbon phase diagram in Figures 5 and 6 shows that, for structural steel (between 0,1% and 0,25%
carbon), the formation of ferrite starts at about 850°C and ends at 723°C. It will be remembered that ferrite
can contain hardly any carbon. Consequently, the austenite phase transforms to ferrite and cementite (Fe3C).
When the cooling rate is slow, the carbon atoms have time to migrate to separate "layers" in the
microstructure and to form the structure called pearlite, as shown before in Slides 2, 3, 4 and 5. The ferrite in
this mixture is soft and ductile. The cementite constituent is hard and brittle. The mixture (pearlite) has
properties between these two extremes.
The tensile strength properties of a steel containing both ferrite and pearlite roughly scale according to the
proportions of these constituents in the microstructure as seen in Figure 8.

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The dramatic effect of carbon content on toughness is shown in Figure 9. Increasing pearlite content
decreases the upper shelf toughness and increases the ductile-brittle transition temperature.
Figures 8 and 9 illustrate one of the difficulties in the choice of carbon content. Increasing the carbon
content is beneficial in that it improves yield strength and ultimate tensile strength, but is undesirable in that
it reduces ductility and toughness. A high carbon content may also cause problems during welding, see
Section 4.3.
In European Norm 10025, Table 3, [3] the chemical composition for flat and long products is given. An
extract is presented in Figure 10. The designation S235 JR, for example, indicates that the yield strength is at
least 235 N/mm2. It is emphasised that the compositional values in the table are maximum values. Many
steelmakers achieve much lower levels, resulting in better ductility, resistance against brittle fracture, and
weldability.

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The lowest carbon content that can be achieved easily on a large scale is about 0,04%. This content is
characteristic of sheet or strip steels intended to be shaped by extensive cold deformation, as in deep
drawing.
Carbon contents of more than 0,25% are used in the wider range of general engineering steels. These steels
are usually put into service in the quenched and tempered state (see below) for a great multiplicity of
purposes in mechanical engineering. High strength bolts for some structural applications would also be
steels of this type.
4.2.2 The need for control of grain size
The mechanical properties of steel are affected by grain size. Slides 8 and 9 show microstructures of two
samples of the same batch of mild steel which have been treated, by methods outlined in Section 4.2.3, to
give different grain sizes. Reduction in grain size improves yield strength but also has a profound effect on
the ductile/brittle transition temperature, see Figure 11. Thus, there are several benefits from the same
microstructural charge. This is an unusual circumstance in metallurgy where adjustments to improve one
property often mean a worsening of another and a compromise is necessary. An example of such
compromise relates to carbon content, already discussed above.
Slide 8 : Microstructure of typical hot rolled structural steel containing 0,15% carbon and showing white
ferrite grains and pearlite colonies. (x 200)

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Slide 9 : Refined microstructure of controlled rolled structural steel containing 0,15% carbon (white ferrite
grains and pearlite colonies. (x 200)
4.2.3 Grain size control by normalising
In Section 4.2.1 the transformations that can occur when steels are cooled slowly are described. To form
ferrite and pearlite from austenite, the carbon atoms in the steel must change their positions. The diffusion
processes which transport the atoms within the solid occur at rates which depend exponentially on
temperature. The rate of cooling also affects these transformations.
If the cooling rate is increased the transformations occur faster. In addition, the diffusional processes cannot
keep up with the falling temperature. Thus, a steel cooled very slowly in a furnace keeps close to the
requirements of the phase diagram. But the same steel, removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in air,
may undercool before completing its sequence of transformations. This more rapid cooling has two effects.
First it tends to increase slightly the proportion of pearlite in the microstructure. Secondly it produces ferrite
with a finer grain size and pearlite with finer lamellae. Both of these microstructural changes give higher
yield strength and better ductility and toughness.
Furnace cooled steels are known as fully annealed steels. Air cooled steels are known as normalised steels.
Grain size can also be affected by the temperature to which the steel is heated in the austenite range. The
grains of austenite coarsen with time, the rate of coarsening increasing exponentially with temperature. The
coarsening is important because the transformation to ferrite and pearlite on cooling starts at the grain
boundaries in the austenite. If the new structures start growing from points which are further apart in a
coarse grained austenite, the grain size of the resulting ferrite is itself coarser. Thus, steels should not be
overheated when austenitising before normalising.
The temperature to which the steel is heated before cooling in air is usually referred to as the normalising
temperature. The requirements of the last paragraph mean that this temperature should be as low as possible,
as long as the structure is single phase austenite. A glance at the phase diagram of Figure 5 shows that the
normalising temperature decreases as the carbon content increases from zero to 0,8%. It should lie in the
hatched band shown in Figure 12.

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4.2.4 Microstructural changes accompanying hot rolling of steels
Structural steel sections are produced by hot rolling ingots or continuously cast strand into the required
forms. The rolling processes have important effects on the development of the microstructure in the
materials.
The early stages of rolling are carried out at temperatures well within the austenite range, where the steel is
soft and easily deformed. The deformation suffered by the material breaks up the coarse as-cast grain
structure but, at these high temperatures, the atoms within the material can diffuse rapidly which allows the
deformed grains to recrystallise and reform the equiaxial polycrystalline structure of the austenite.
Heavy deformation at low temperatures in the austenite range gives finer recrystallised grains. If the rolling
is finished at a temperature just above the ferrite + austenite region of the equilibrium diagram and the
section is allowed to cool in air, an ordinary normalised microstructure having moderately fine-grained
ferrite results. Modern controlled rolling techniques aim to do this, or even to roll at still lower temperatures
to give still finer grains.
If the temperature falls so that the rolling is finished in the ferrite + austenite range, the mixture of ferrite
and austenite grains is elongated along the rolling direction and a layer-like structure is developed. If now,
the section is air-cooled, the residual austenite decomposes into fine-grained ferrite and pearlite, with the
later being present as long, cigar shaped, bands in the material, as in Slide 10. Structural steels are not
harmed by microstructures of this sort.

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Slide 10 : Microsection through a fillet weld on structural steel showing three distinct regions: the coarse
grained cast structure of the weld deposit, the heat affected zone, and the unaffected microctructure of the
parent steel. (x 200)
If the finish rolling temperature drops further, to below 723°C, the equilibrium diagram shows that the
structure should be a mixture of ferrite and pearlite. Rolling in this range is usually restricted to low carbon
steels containing less than 0,15%C because the presence of pearlite makes rolling difficult.
If the temperature is above about 650°C, the ferrite grains recrystallise as they are deformed, as was the case
with austenite. The carbide laths (Fe3C) in the pearlite become broken and give rise to strings of small
carbide particles extending in the direction of rolling, see Slide 11. The ferrite from the pearlite becomes
indistinguishable from the rest of the ferrite.
Slide 11 : Macrosection through a butt weld on hot rolled steel plate, typical of line pipe weld.
If rolling is done at ambient temperature, the pearlite is broken up in the same way, but the ferrite can not
recrystallise. It work-hardens, i.e. the yield and ultimate tensile strength of the steel increase, and the
ductility decreases, see Figure 13. As cold rolling continues, the force required to continue deformation
increases because of the increasing yield strength. Furthermore, the steel becomes less ductile and may
begin to split. The amount of cold rolling that can be done is therefore very much smaller than that which
can be achieved when the steel is hot.

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Of course, cold working need not be applied by rolling. Any way of deforming the material causes work
hardening. For example, high strength steel wire is made by cold-drawing, imparting large deformations. In
another example, one type of reinforcing bar is made by twisting square section bar into a helical form. The
cold-deformation produced in this way is not large but causes significant work hardening.
To restore the ductility and at the same time reduce the work hardened state of the material, it is necessary to
reform the isotropic, polycrystalline structure of the ferrite. Re-heating to temperatures between about 650°C
and 723°C allows the ferrite to recrystallise. The carbide particles are unaffected by this treatment.
Thus, there is another technique for controlling the grain size of steel. The greater the amount of
deformation before the recrystallisation treatment and the lower the temperature of the treatment, the finer is
the final grain size. Because this type of treatment does not involve the formation and decomposition of
austenite, it is known as sub-critical annealing. The resulting microstructure has good ductility and deep
drawing characteristics. Sheet steels of low carbon content (< 0,1%C) are usually supplied in this condition.
Objects such as motor car body panels are formed from such steels by cold pressing.
If the material is heated into the austenite range, subsequent cooling reforms the normalised microstructure.
4.3 Rapidly Cooled Steels
4.3.1 Formation of martensite and bainite

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Normalising causes steels to undercool below the requirements of the phase diagram before the austenite
transforms into fine ferrite and pearlite. Still further increases in cooling rate give further undercooling and
still finer microstructures.
Very rapid cooling by quenching into cold water, causes the formation of ferrite and pearlite to be suspended.
The internal diffusion-controlled rearrangement of atoms needed to form those products cannot occur
sufficiently rapidly. Instead, new products are formed by microstructural shear transformations at lower
temperatures. Very fast cooling gives martensite: its microstructure is shown in Slide 12. When martensite
forms, there is no time for the formation of cementite and the austenite transforms to a highly distorted form
of ferrite which is super saturated with dissolved carbon. The combination of the lattice distortion and the
severe work hardening resulting from the shear deformation processes necessary to achieve the
transformation cause martensite to be extremely strong but very brittle.
Slide 12 : Longitudinal section of hot rolled structural steel showing dark bands of pearlite in a ferrite
matrix. (x 200)
Less rapid cooling can give a product called bainite,. This is similar to tempered martensite where much of
the carbon has come out of solution and formed fine needles of cementite which reinforce the ferrite.
4.3.2 Martensite in welded structures
Civil engineering structures are not heat-treated by heating to, say, 900°C and quenching into water.
However, there is one important circumstance which can produce martensite in localised parts of the
structure, and that is welding. The weld zone is raised to the melting temperature of the steel and the
immediately adjacent solid metal is heated to temperatures well within the austenite range. When the heat
source is removed, the whole region cools at rates determined mainly be thermal conduction into the
surrounding mass of cold metal. These rates of cooling can be very large, exceeding 1000°C per second in
some cases and can produce transformation structures such as martensite and bainite. The properties of
rapidly cooled steels and the influence of carbon content on the nature of the transformation product - ferrite
and pearlite, or bainite, or martensite - are discussed below.
Figure 14 shows the hardness of martensite as a function of its carbon content. Reheating martensite to
temperatures up to about 600°C causes cementite to precipitate which causes the steel to soften and become
much tougher. This reheating is known as tempering. The extent of these changes increases as the reheating
temperature increases, as shown in Figure 15. Tempering at 600°C produces an extremely tough material.
What is more, its ductile-brittle transition temperature is lower than for the same steel in the normalised
condition. Bainite has properties similar to those of tempered martensite.

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4.3.3 Quenching and tempering
The process of quenching and tempering, when allied to changes of steel composition, can produce a
bewilderingly wide range of properties. Steels heat-treated in this way are used for a multiplicity of general
engineering purposes which demand hardness, wear resistance, strength and toughness. Once again,
compromises must be struck between these desirable properties but generally quenched and tempered steels

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exhibit optimum combinations of strength and toughness. For structural purposes quenched and tempered
plate is used in large storage tanks, hoppers, earthmoving equipment, etc.
Martensite produced in a weld heat-affected zone as a result of single pass welding would be in its hard and
brittle untempered condition. Furthermore, the formation of martensite from austenite is accompanied by a
volume expansion of approximately 0,4%. This expansion, together with the uneven thermal contractions
taking place as a result of uneven cooling, can produce local stresses of sufficient magnitude to crack the
martensite. Because this type of cracking occurs after the HAZ has cooled, it is referred to as cold cracking.
The cracking problem can be further aggravated if the weld has picked up hydrogen. Sources of hydrogen
during welding might include moisture from the atmosphere or damp welding electrodes. Hydrogen
dissolved in the weld metal diffuses to the hard HAZ where it initiates cracks at sites of stress concentration.
This diffusion can lead to cracking which occurs some time, even days, after the welding is completed. Hard
HAZs of low ductility are less able to cope with this problem than are softer and more ductile materials. This
type of cracking is called delayed cracking or hydrogen cracking.
Avoidance of cold cracking and hydrogen cracking requires that the material should not be overhardened.
As a rule of thumb, as-welded hardnesses of less than about HV = 350 are considered to be acceptable. In
modern fine grain low carbon steels the "allowable" hardness may be increased to HV = 400 or even HV =
450.
The danger of hydrogen cracking may also be present in high strength quenched and tempered steels, e.g.
10.9 bolts (Re ≥ 900 N/mm2 and Rm ≥ 1000 N/mm2). When such bolts are electroplated with zinc or
cadmium, hydrogen may be picked up from the plating bath. Usually cracking does not occur until sometime
after tightening bolts when the hydrogen has diffused to the sites of stress concentration at the thread roots.
4.3.4 Control of martensite formation
Martensite forms because ferrite and pearlite did not! If follows that metallurgical factors which promote the
formation of ferrite and pearlite inhibit the production of martensite. The ability of a steel to form martensite
rather than ferrite and cementite is called hardenability. Note that this term does not refer to the absolute
value of hardness obtained, but to the ease of formation of martensite.
The most convenient method of assessing hardenability is the so called Jominy end quench. A rod-shaped
sample is austenitised and then quenched by spraying water onto one end face such that different cooling
rates are produced along the length of the bar. Thereafter, a flat is ground along its length and the hardness
measured as a function of distance from the quenched end.
Some typical results are shown in Figure 16 for three different steels. For a carbon steel containing 0,08%C
and 0,3%Mn, cooling rates at 700°C of greater than about 50°C s-1 are necessary to form martensite. On the
other hand in the 0,29%C, 1,7%Mn steel, martensite forms at much slower cooling rates. It is mainly the
increased carbon content that causes this difference. In the alloy steel illustrated, martensite is formed even
at very slow cooling rates.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The significance of these curves depends very much on what is being produced. If it is a thick-section gear
wheel, the alloy steel would be ideal. It could be cooled gently and still produce martensite, the gentle
cooling being an advantage because it would reduce stresses arising from differential contraction rates, and
hence reduce the possibility of quench cracking. Thereafter, it could be tempered to achieve the desired
combination of strength and toughness. On the other hand, for a welded joint, the plain carbon steel would
be preferable in which it is difficult to form martensite and the hardness of any martensite produced would
be relatively low.
Welding presents particular problems for the metallurgist. Slide 13 shows a micro section through a typical
structural weld. The micro structures range from the coarse grained cast structure of the weld deposit, to the
heat affected zone (HAZ) and to the unaffected microstructure of the parent metal. Both the deposited weld
metal and the HAZ must have adequate strength and toughness after welding.
Slide 13 : Microstructure of martensite (x 500)
For welding, a steel of low hardenability is therefore required. Hardenability is affected by steel composition,
including not only carbon content but other alloying elements as well. To take all of these factors into
account, the concept of the carbon equivalent value is used. There are a number of ways of calculating
carbon equivalents for use in different circumstances. In the context of welding:

APPLIED METALLURGY
C.E. =
If the CE is lower than about 0,4%, the steel can be welded with little or no trouble from martensite and
HAZ hydrogen cracking. As indicated before, the cooling rate is also an important factor, which means that
during welding, thick plates are more susceptible to hydrogen cracking than thin plates. To reduce
susceptibility to martensite formation, the cooling rate (between 800°C and 500°C) can be reduced by
preheating the plates before welding.
5. INCLUSIONS
5.1 Sulphur, Phosphorus and Other Impurities
One tonne of steel, a cube with sides of about 0,5m, contains between 1012 and 1015 inclusions which can
occupy up to about 1% of the volume. The total content is largely determined by the origins of the ores, coke
and other materials used to extract the metal in the first place, and by the details of steelmaking practice.
The principal impurities which worry steelmakers are phosphorus and sulphur. If not at very low
concentrations, these impurities form particles of phosphide and sulphide which are harmful to the
toughness of the steel. Typically, less than 0,05% of each of these elements is demanded. Low phosphorus
contents are relatively easily attained during the refining of the pig iron into steel, but sulphur is more
difficult to remove. It is controlled by careful choice of raw materials and, in modern steelmaking, by extra
processing steps to remove it.
Manganese is always added to steels. It has several functions but the important one in this context is that it
combines with the sulphur to form manganese sulphide (MnS). If the manganese were not present, iron
sulphide would form which is much more harmful than MnS.
Some of the inclusions are too small to be seen with optical microscopes and must be detected by more
elaborate methods. Among this group, which are mainly equiaxial in shape, are nitrides of aluminium and
titanium which are deliberately introduced in order to inhibit the processes which lead to coarsening of grain
size.
Other inclusions, large enough to be seen readily with the optical microscope, include entrained particles of
slag, deoxidation products and manganese sulphide. At hot rolling temperatures, these inclusions are plastic
and are elongated in the rolling direction. The result is shown in Figure 1. The properties of steels containing
such inclusions reflect both the volume of the inclusions and the anisotropy of their shapes, see Figures 17
and 18.

APPLIED METALLURGY
In recent years, a number of practices have been introduced which aim to reduce the inclusion content in the
molten steel before it is cast into ingots. Sulphur contents of 0,01% or less are now regularly produced.
These processes produce what have become known as 'clean steels'. The expression is relative. Clean steels
still contain many inclusions, but are significantly tougher than ordinary steels. Inclusion shape control is
also practised in better quality steels. Additions of calcium or cerium and other rare earth elements to the
refined molten steel combine with the sulphur in preference to the manganese. Sulphides of these elements
appear in the final microstructure as equiaxial particles and are not so deleterious to the through-thickness
ductility of the material as elongated MnS inclusions. Steels treated in these ways are used in applications
where toughness is of paramount importance and where the extra cost can be justified. Examples include
high integrity pressure vessels, oil and gas pipelines and the main legs of offshore platforms. The
introduction of continuous casting has also improved the quality of conventional structural steels.
5.2 Manganese in Structural Steels
It has been noted earlier that the residual sulphur impurity in steel is less harmful when formed into particles
of MnS rather than iron sulphide. The presence of small amounts of manganese in the steel confers several
other benefits. In normalised steels, it tends to increase the amount of undercooling before the start of the
formation of ferrite and pearlite. This gives finer grained ferrite and more finely divided pearlite. Both of
these changes improve strength and reduce the ductile/brittle transition temperature. The dissolution of the
manganese atoms in the ferrite crystals also improves the strength of the ferrite. These effects on properties
are summarised in Figures 19 - 21.

APPLIED METALLURGY
If the manganese content is increased too much, its effect ceases to be beneficial and can become harmful
because it increases hardenability, i.e. promotes martensite formation. It is for this reason that a maximum
manganese content is specified: For S355 in Table 3 of EN 10025 this maximum is 1,7% by weight, see
Figure 16. A convention has also grown that distinguishes between plain carbon steels, i.e. steels containing
< 1%Mn, and carbon manganese steels i.e. >1%Mn.

APPLIED METALLURGY
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
• Steels used for structural purposes generally contain up to about 0,25%C, up to 1,5%Mn and with
carbon equivalents of up to 0,4%. They are mostly used in the hot-rolled, normalised or controlled-
rolled conditions, although low carbon steels might be used in the cold-rolled and annealed condition.
Production processes aim to produce low inclusion contents and small grain size to improve strength,
ductility, toughness and reduce the ductile/brittle transition.
• The elastic modulus of steel is virtually independent of composition and treatment.
• The upper limits on the proportions of carbon and other alloying elements are determined by the
effect of carbon equivalent on weldability, and by the effect of carbon on the ductile/brittle transition
temperature. All steels contain manganese, partly to deal with impurities, such as sulphur, and partly
because its presence has a beneficial effect on the ductile/brittle transition and strength.
• In recent years the development of so-called micro-alloyed steels or HSLA (high strength low alloy)
steels has taken place. These steels are normalised or controlled rolled carbon-manganese steels
which have been 'adjusted' by micro-alloying to give higher strength and toughness, combined with
ease of welding. Small additions of aluminium, vanadium, niobium or other elements are used to
help control grain size. Sometimes, about 0,5% molybdenum is added to refine the lamellar spacing
in pearlite and to distribute the pearlite more evenly as smaller colonies. These steels are used where
the improved properties justify the extra cost.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: 'Design of Steel Structures' ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings,
CEN, 1992.
[2] Rollason, E. C., 'Metallurgy for Engineers', 4th Edition, Arnold, 1973.
[3] Euronorm 10025
8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Honeycombe, R. W. K., 'Steels. Microstructure and Properties'. Arnold.
2. Knott, J. F., 'The relationship between microstructure and fracture toughness' in 'Steels for line pipe
and pipeline fittings' The Metals Society, London 1981.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.2: Manufacturing and Forming Processes

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Presentation of the most recent steelmaking and rolling technologies.
SUMMARY
The blast furnace process, the oxygen steelmaking process and the electric arc furnace process are described.
Ladle steelmaking and casting technologies are also introduced.
Finally, the different rolling processes and rolling conditions are presented, as well as the usual heat
treatments.
1. STEELMAKING TECHNOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
Steelmaking technology has greatly changed during the last two decades under the pressure of increased
demand, new specifications and the need to reduce energy and material consumption. Production efficiency
has been improved by increasing the melt capacity of furnaces, implementing on-line computer control
modules, and introducing new technologies, such as the combined blowing process for LD (Linz Donawitz)
converters, the Ultra High Power (UHP) electric furnace, the ladle steelmaking processes and continuous
casting.
Steel is produced by two process routes (Figure 1):

APPLIED METALLURGY
• The Blast Furnace-Basic Oxygen Converter (BOF)

• The Electrical Arc Furnace (EAF)
In both routes the process consists of producing refined iron to which is added the required alloying
elements to produce the finished steel specification.
Their respective shares in crude steel production are 70% (BOF) and 30% (EAF). High production rates and
low impurity steel production give a dominant role to the first process route. Low energy costs and an ample
supply of recycled scrap ensure a competitive market share for the second process route, especially when
using the UHP furnace.
Before casting, the steel can be refined in the ladle by various processes according to the specification with
respect to its deoxidation state, inclusion content and level of phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen and hydrogen.
At the same time, its content of carbon, manganese and microalloying elements such as niobium, vanadium
and titanium can be adjusted. This process step is generally referred to as Secondary or Ladle steelmaking.

APPLIED METALLURGY
During the last step of steelmaking, the steel is cast either into slabs, blooms or billets on a continuous
casting machine or into ingots, depending on the final product. Flat products and light shapes are normally
produced from continuous cast feedstock; whereas heavy beams and plates are more likely to follow the
ingot route.
1.2 Steel Production
1.2.1 The blast-furnace-basic oxygen converter route
Sintered iron ores are reduced to raw iron in the blast-furnace. The raw iron is then transformed into crude
steel in the oxygen converter. As this operation yields energy, additional scrap is introduced in order to
control temperature.
Sinter plant
The iron feedstock of the blast furnace is the sinter, which is produced in the sinter plant. In the sinter
process, a mix of iron ore fines, lime and coke (almost pure carbon) is charged in a 45 cm thick layer onto a
moving conveyor (Dwight Lloyd process) and partially melted to form a porous mixture of iron oxides and
gangue. Coke consumption is about 50 kg/t sinter product.
Blast furnace process (Figure 2)
The blast-furnace is a shaft type furnace operating by the counterflow technique: the descending burden of
sinter and coke, charged from the top of the furnace, is heated and reduced by the combustion gases
ascending from the tuyere zone where a hot air blast is injected to burn C to CO. The air blast is compressed
by a blower and heated in special stoves to 1100°C by combustion of the cleaned furnace exhaust gases.
The iron oxides (FeO, Fe2O3) and some of the elements present in the gangue of the sinter are reduced by
CO gases to produce hot metal.
The blast furnace flue dust containing about 40% Fe is recycled by the sinter process.
The high permeability of the sinter and the even distribution of the charge produced by revolving chutes
help to improve productivity of the blast furnace. Coke consumption can be reduced to 470 kg/t of hot metal.
APPLIED METALLURGY
The use of tuyere injectant such as powdered fuel (120 kg/t) or oil (60 kg/t) further reduces the coke
consumption of the furnace and so the cost.
Below the tuyere zone, where the temperature is highest, the molten material collects on the furnace hearth
where the liquid iron (pig iron) separates from the slag by difference in density. The slag and liquid pig iron
are tapped from separate tapholes. The tapped slag is granulated by water jets and removed for use in other
products including road construction materials, fertilizers, etc. The liquid pig iron (hot metal) is tapped into
ladles or torpedo cars (capacity: 300 - 400 t) and conveyed to the steel plant for refinement and conversion
into steel.
A typical analysis of the hot metal produced at a temperature of 1400°C is:
4,7% carbon (C); 0,5% manganese (Mn); 0,4% silicon (Si); 0,1% phosphorus (P) and 0,04 % sulphur (S),
the remainder being iron (Fe).
Sulphur removal from the melt needs low oxygen activities. Desulphurization is therefore achieved in the
hot metal by injection of calcium carbide fluxes to form calcium sulphide (CaS) or fluxes containing
metallic magnesium to form MgS and CaS.
The oxygen steelmaking process (Figure 3)
The basic oxygen furnace or LD converter (originating from the Linz-Donawitz process started in 1956) is
based on oxygen injection by a lance into the melt of hot metal. Scrap and lime are charged into the
converter to cool the melt and remove phosphorus, silicon and manganese.
The converter is lined with dolomite or magnesite refractory which best resists erosion by slag and heat
during oxygen blowing. The life of a converter lining is about 800 to 1400 heats.
The oxygen burns out the carbon as carbon monoxide CO and carbon dioxide CO2 gas which is collected in
the chimney stack and cleaned of its dust (Fe203, and lime particles, etc.). The elements Mn, Si and P are
oxidized and combine with lime (CaO) and FeO formed by the oxidation of Fe to form a molten slag.
APPLIED METALLURGY
As these oxidation reactions are highly exothermic, the process needs cooling in order to control the
temperature of the melt. This cooling is done by charging scrap (recycled plant and mill scrap) and by
adding iron ore during the blowing process.
The oxygen blowing takes 15 to 20 minutes, regardless of the size of the converter (70 to 400 t) because the
oxygen flow rate of the lance is adjusted to the melt weight. The charging and discharging of steel and slag,
including sampling for temperature and analysis of the melt, extends the tap to tap time of a converter to 40 -
60 minutes. The process is characterized by high productivity and steel of low impurity content.
The steel is tapped to the ladle through a taphole by tilting the furnace. During this operation ferro-alloys for
control of the steel composition are added to the ladle. The oxidized slag containing 12 to 16% of Fe is
poured into a cast iron slag pot after the tapping and is disposed of in a slag yard.
A major development in the oxygen lance blowing technique, known as Lance Bubbling Equilibrium (LBE)
was developed in the mid-seventies and has been widely adopted. Neutral gas, typically argon, is injected
through permeable elements in the bottom of the converter, stirring the melt and slag. This significantly
increases metallurgical efficiency (lower Fe losses and lower P content), productivity, and the heat and
mass-balance of the process (cost reduction).
1.2.2 The electric arc furnace route (Figure 4)
Technology
In the electric arc furnace process, the cold metallic charge, mainly scrap, is melted by the energy of electric
arcs generated between the tips of graphite electrodes and the conductive metallic charge.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The three electrodes and the furnace roof are raised and swung away from the furnace shell to allow the
charging of scrap. The electrodes maintain the arc in accordance with the voltage and current level selected
to produce the desired power input at the desired arc length for melting and refining. As the noise generated
by the arcs is high during the melt-in-period, with levels up to 120 dBA, special protection is provided to the
operators cabin and the furnace has a special enclosure.
The three phase alternating current is supplied by the low voltage side (300 - 700V) of a high power
transformer. The nominal transformer rating, expressed as KVA/t, extends from 300 to 500 KVA/t for high
power furnaces and from 500 KVA/t upwards for Ultra High Power (UHP) furnaces. These furnaces have an
inner diameter of 6 to 9 metres with a capacity of 100 to 200 tons of steel. The tap-to-tap time for these
furnaces is 90 to 110 minutes.
The traditional role of the EAF process is producing alloy, tool and carbon steels, and it has been extended
by the UHP furnace to mass steel production. Thus, the concept of the Mini-Mill was born. As the size and
productivity of the furnace increased, the operation of continuous casting for billet and bloom production
became possible. Flat products specification, however, require low residual impurity levels and even higher
production rates which cannot be satisfied by the UHP-furnace.
The share of steel production produced by electric arc furnace is about 30%, at which level it seems to be
stabilized as scrap of acceptable quality becomes more scarce. Pellets and sponge iron of higher price have
to be used for critical steel grades to control the level of injurious elements, i.e. copper, nickel, tin, etc..
Metallurgy
The traditional high power furnace produces high quality carbon and alloy steels by the two slag technique.
After melt down of the scrap charge, a first oxidizing slag removes the elements P and Si and reduces carbon
to the required level. After deslagging, a second basic reducing slag is formed to lower the sulphur and
oxygen contents and the steel composition is adjusted by ferro alloy additions.
The UHP furnace operates with only a lime based oxidizing slag. The melt down of the scrap charge is
accelerated by the use of oxy-fuel burners positioned to reach the cold spots of the large hearth furnace.
Oxygen lancing and carbon additions are used to make a foaming slag which yields better energy input from
the arcs and improves dephosphorization. After this period, the melt is discharged by a taphole. Deoxidation
and refining under reducing slag takes place in the steel ladle (secondary steelmaking). The 100% scrap
charge makes the process more vulnerable to injurious "tramp elements", such as copper, nickel and tin
which cannot be removed by the process, their stability being higher than that of iron. To control these
"tramp elements", it is of great importance to identify the sources of the incoming scrap and to make
provision to keep the different qualities separate.
1.3 Secondary or Ladle Steelmaking
1.3.1 General Aspects
Achieving the required properties of steel often requires a high degree of control over carbon, phosphorus,
sulphur, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen contents. Individually or in combination, these elements mainly
determine material properties such as formability, strength, toughness, weldability, and corrosion behaviour.
There are limits to the metallurgical treatments that can be given to molten metal in high performance
melting units, such as converters or electric arc furnaces. The nitrogen and phosphorus content can be
reduced to low levels in the converter but very low carbon, sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen contents (< 2 ppm)
can only be obtained by subsequent ladle treatment. To ensure appropriate conditioning of steel before the
casting process, the alloying of steel to target analysis and special refining treatments are carried out at the
ladle metallurgy stand.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The objectives of ladle steelmaking can be summarized as follows:
• refining and deoxidation

• removal of deoxidation products (Mn0, SiO2, Al2O3)
• desulphurization to very low levels (< 0,008%)
• homogenisation of steel composition
• temperature adjustment for casting, if necessary by reheating (ladle furnace)
• hydrogen removal to very low levels by vacuum treatment.
1.3.2 Ladle Steelmaking Process: Deoxidation and Refining (Figure 5)
The high oxygen content of the converter steel would result in large blow-hole formation during
solidification. Removal of the excess oxygen ("killing") is therefore vital before subsequent casting of the
steel. Steels treated in this way are described as killed steels. All secondary steelmaking processes allow
deoxidising agents to be added to the ladle so that deoxidation in the converter vessel is not necessary.
Deoxidation can be performed by the following elements classified by increasing deoxidation capacity;
carbon - manganese - silicon - aluminium - titanium. The most popular are silicon and aluminium.
After addition, time must be allowed for the reaction to occur and for homogeneity to be achieved before
determination of the final oxygen content using EMF probes (electro-chemical probe for soluble oxygen
content).
As most of these deoxidation agents form insoluble oxides, which would result in detrimental inclusions in
the solid steel, they have to be removed by one of the following processes during the subsequent refining
stage:

APPLIED METALLURGY
1. Argon stirring and/or injection of reactants (CaSi, and/or lime based fluxes) achieves:
⋅ homogeneous steel composition and temperature
⋅ removal of deoxidation products
⋅ desulphurization of aluminium-killed steel grades
⋅ sulphide inclusion shape control.
2. Ladle furnace
Stirring of the melt by argon or by an inductive stirring equipment and arc heating of the melt (low
electric power, typical 200 KVA/t) allows:
⋅ long treatment times
⋅ high ferro-alloy additions
⋅ high degree of removal of deoxidation products due to long treatment under optimized conditions
⋅ homogeneous steel composition and temperature
⋅ desulphurization, if vigorous stirring by argon.
3. Vacuum-Treatment: RH process (Ruhrstahl-Heraeus) and tank degassing unit.
In the RH process the steel is sucked from the ladle by gas injection into one leg of the vacuum chamber and
the treated steel flows back to the ladle through the second leg. In the tank degasser process, the steel ladle is
placed in a vacuum tank and the steel melt is vigorously stirred by argon injected through porous plugs in
the bottom of the ladle.
Vacuum treatment achieves:
⋅ reduction of the hydrogen content to less than 2 ppm
⋅ considerable decarburization of steel to less than 30 ppm when oxygen is blown by a lance (RH - OB)
⋅ alloying under vacuum
⋅ homogeneous steel composition, high degree of cleanness from deoxidation products
High temperature losses (50 - 100°C) are a disadvantage, therefore high superheat of the melt prior to this
process is essential.
For most secondary steelmaking techniques it is either desirable or essential to stir the liquid steel. Gentle
stirring is sufficient for inclusion removal; non-metallic inclusions are brought into contact with liquid slag
on top of the melt where they can be fixed. For degassing and desulphurization however, violent stirring is
necessary to increase the surface of steel exposed to vacuum (H-removal) or to mix the steel and slag for
good desulphurization efficiency.
1.4 Casting and Solidification

APPLIED METALLURGY
1.4.1 General Aspects
For solidification, steel is cast into moulds either of cast iron for the ingot casting route or into copper
moulds for the continuous casting process.
The heat of liquid steel is extracted by the cold mould surface so that crystals can form and grow. A solid
shell is formed and solidification progresses by maintaining the cooling.
During solidification, the density of metals rises and causes shrinkage. This favours the stripping of the cast
from the mould. However, this contraction also causes internal shrinkage which tends to leave a hollow core
in the cast product. In continuous casting this is prevented by the continuous flow of molten metal to the
mould. For ingot casting an adequate liquid metal pool has to be maintained at the head of the mould by the
provision of exothermic material (hot-top).
A second concern during the solidification process is segregation due to the fact that some solute elements
have a much lower solubility in the solid than in the liquid phase. The segregation tendency is most
pronounced for sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen and hydrogen. As has been described, these elements can be
controlled to sufficiently low levels by the metallurgical process steps. The manganese content of steel also
combines with sulphur to form manganese sulphide inclusions which are elongated during rolling and
become detrimental to steel properties if significant stresses are applied perpendicular to the rolling direction.
For such applications, shape and content of the sulphide inclusions have to be controlled closely during the
refining stage.
1.4.2 Casting Technologies
1.4.2.1 Ingot casting (Figure 6)
The casting of ingots is a discontinuous process in which the ingot moulds are filled individually by top
pouring or in batches by a central feeder through runners in the base plate. This up-hill teeming technique is

APPLIED METALLURGY
characterized by a low rising speed of the steel in the mould, which reduces cracks and surface defects when
casting critical steel grades.
The teeming operation is done directly from the steel ladle through a sliding gate valve at the bottom that
regulates the steel flow, and a nozzle that gives a concentric steel jet.
The ingot weights and sections are fixed by the capacity of the primary rolling mill. The ingot size may vary
from 4 to 30 t, or even higher for forging.
The ingot remains in the mould until solidification is complete. Then the mould is stripped off by crane and
left to cool in the mould yard. The ingot is charged into the soaking pit furnace to equalize and raise the
temperature for the rolling process (≈ 1300°C).
The solidification of an ingot progresses from the bottom (cooled by the base plate and the mould) to the top
of the ingot.
In the case of a fully killed (Si + Al) steel melt, with a low free oxygen content, the solidification shrinkage
is concentrated at the upper centre of the ingot. To minimise the development of shrinkage porosity in this
region, the top of the ingot is insulated (hot top) to provide a reservoir of liquid metal to fill up the hollow
core. The hot top is subsequently cropped. This scrap amounts to approximately 12% of the ingot weight.
By deoxidation with silicon alone, the free oxygen content of the melt can be set to a well defined level so
that towards the end of solidification it will react with the carbon of the melt to form CO gas. The formation
of these small gas bubbles, or blow holes, compensates for the shrinkage of steel and top crop losses are
small (≈ 2%). The blow-holes are eliminated during primary rolling. Such steels are referred to as 'balanced'
steels.
Ingot casting is very flexible as regards product specifications and the production of small orders on
relatively short delivery terms. It is also indispensable for the forming of heavy shaped profiles like beams,
heavy plate or heavy forging pieces.
1.4.2.2 Continuous casting (Figure 7)

APPLIED METALLURGY
The continuous casting process has become the major casting technology for steel plants. The reasons are:
• yield improvement
• energy conservation (direct production of semi-finished products)
• savings in manpower.
The ratio of continuous cast steel has reached 80 - 90% of total raw steel production in the Western World.
The advent and rapid growth of mini-mills could not have occurred without continuous billet casting
technology.
The essential feature of the continuous casting process is the oscillating water-cooled copper mould. The
main function of this mould is to form a solidified steel shell having sufficient strength to prevent breakouts
below the mould. This is achieved by the high heat extraction in the mould system. The mould walls are
tapered to accommodate the strand shrinkage over the mould length of 700 mm and to maintain a high heat
flux.
The oscillation creates a relative movement between strand and mould, and prevents metal sticking to the
mould surface. Stripping is facilitated by providing an adequate lubricant (casting powders or oil) at the steel
meniscus. This lubricant is also essential to maintain a high heat extraction and prevent breakouts.
On leaving the mould, the strand is cooled by water sprays and is supported by rolls to prevent bulging until
solidification is complete. Strand sections cover the range of semi-finished products, such as billets, blooms
or slabs, for the hot finishing mills. Depending on the section to be cast, a continuous caster is laid out with
two (slab), four (bloom or round caster) or six strands (for billets below 180 mm2 in size).
Modern casters are curved type machines which are cheaper and easier to accommodate in the plant than the
original vertical machines. The curved strand is straightened by rollers after complete solidification and cut
to the required length for further processing in the rolling mills.
Continuous casting technology makes the process continuous so that a number of molten steel batches are
cast in sequence. To achieve a continuous supply of steel to the mould, the steel in the ladle is first cast into
a tundish which acts as a reservoir during ladle changing and distributes the steel to the different moulds of
the machine. Tundishes are equipped with stoppers or sliding gates to regulate the flow rate to the casting
speed of the strand. To prevent oxidation by air exposure, the ladle and tundish streams are shrouded by
refactory tubes.
2. FORMING TECHNOLOGY AND HEAT TREATMENTS

2.1 Introduction
There are various methods of forming steel into finished products, including hot forging, hot and cold rolling,
seamless tube making and welded tube making. The most widely used process is hot rolling, which accounts
for over 90% of all steel production.
2.2 Hot Rolling
2.2.1 Description of the Rolling Operation
Hot rolling involves reheating of ingots, slabs, blooms or billets to the region of 1200 - 1300°C and passing
the material between two rolls (Figure 8). The piece of steel may be passed repeatedly back and forth
through the same rolls with the roll gap being reduced progressively.

APPLIED METALLURGY
This operation is done in the hot state because the yield strength of steel decreases as temperature rises.
Large deformations can thus be obtained with modest roll forces. It is necessary to control both the total
reduction, which defines the degree to which the steel is worked, and the reduction in each pass in order to
avoid excessive deformation leading to metal cracking or breakage.
The number of passes depends upon the input material and the size of the finished product; it can be as high
as 70 before the material becomes too cold to roll down further. Plain barrel rolls are used for flat products
such as plate, strip and sheet, while grooved rolls are used for structural sections, rails, rounds, squares,
beams, sheet piles, etc.
The basic rolling unit is called a stand and consists of the rolls and a support structure (housing). The rolling
mill comprises the stand or group of stands, complete with auxiliary facilities for control and regulation,
such as roll drive motors, roller tables for entering and removing the metal, shears, scarfers, etc.
The simplest type of mill consists of a two-high stand. Generally, the two rolls can turn in both directions,
which permits reversible operation such that the hot metal is passed repeatedly through the mill in opposite
directions achieving progressive reduction in thickness.
When large reductions are required, four-high stands are used to achieve the required high roll forces. The
cylindrical work rolls, through which the hot metal passes, are of relatively small diameter and are supported
above and below by a second set of larger diameter backing rolls that transmit the force to the work rolls. A
four-high stand may also be reversible.
The reduction in thickness of the hot material results in both length increase and sideways spread. The
spreading, which depends mainly upon the amount of reduction, temperature, and roll diameter, must be
controlled to give the correct dimensions and cross-section. Universal Mills have a set of vertical rolls at the
delivery side of the horizontal rolls. In parallel face beam mills, they serve to provide a good dimensional
APPLIED METALLURGY
finish to the final product and, in flat product mills, to edge the plates, improving finish and mechanical
characteristics.
In addition to its function of shaping the steel into the required size, hot rolling improves the mechanical
properties. Correct control of the cast steel chemical composition, final rolling temperature and amount of
material reduction is necessary to give products the required physical properties. For certain steel qualities
(e.g. high strength with good impact properties at low temperatures) "controlled rolling" or the QST process
of quenching and self-tempering of the material during rolling is employed. This process involves either
delaying or cooling until a specified lower temperature is reached before the final passes through the mill.
The main product routes for structural steel grades are summarized in Figure 9.
2.2.2 Primary Rolling
The first hot-rolling operation is to convert ingots into the basic shapes shown in Figure 10. This is generally
carried out on a large single-stand, two-high reversing mill, known as a primary or roughing mill. In
between the steelmaking plant and the primary mill there is a bay for stripping moulds from the ingots and a
battery of soaking pits. Each pit may hold up to 150 tons of ingots and serves to bring the ingots up to a
uniform temperature for rolling and to act as a reservoir to accommodate fluctuations in the flow of ingots.
Normal practice is to charge ingots into the soaking pits immediately after stripping from the moulds whilst
they are still hot. Soaking pit temperatures are generally controlled at 1300°C.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Primary mills are equipped with manipulators for positioning and turning the ingots to enable work to be
done on each face as rolling proceeds. Roll grooves (Figure 11) are arranged to enable a variety of basic
shapes to be made. Leaving the primary mill, the ends of the bar must be removed (cropping), as they have
an irregular shape and this zone concentrates segregation, piping and other defects. The amount to be
cropped varies depending on the type of steel (rimmed, killed, etc), the type of casting (direct, bottom
casting, hot topping, etc.) and above all on the quality of the finished product.
The bar or beam blank, after cropping, is fed in some cases is directly for rolling into another mill to produce
billets or finished sections such as rails or structural sections. More usually the bar is sheared to a set length

APPLIED METALLURGY
and passed into stock to be inspected and conditioned, prior to reheating and rolling into finished products at
other mills.
Primary mill outputs typically range from 500.000 tonnes to 5 million tonnes per year.
2.2.3 Finish Rolling
The finish rolling of products for construction work divides broadly into four groups: plates, structural
sections, merchant bar and strip. Structural sections comprise standard shapes, e.g. beams, channels, angles,
bulb flats, and special sections. As a general rule, large sections are rolled directly from ingots, intermediate-
size ones from reheated blooms, and small sections from reheated billets. In all cases the process begins with
roughing down, in which the initial square or rectangular cross-section is gradually shaped in successive roll
passes into an outline of the required product. This process is followed by finish rolling in successive passes
to give the final standard shape and dimensions after cooling. Finishing mill rolling temperatures are usually
in the region of 900 - 1000°C. An example of the pass sequence for angle rolling is given in Figure 12. The
rather more specialized method for universal beams and columns is shown in Figure 13. Subject to mill size
and type, section mill outputs are typically from 200.000 to 1 million tons per year.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Merchant bar is a traditional term for small cross-sections such as rounds, squares, hexagons, flats, etc.
which are rolled from reheated billets from continuous in-line mills with as many as 23 rolling stands.
Feedstock is generally 100 mm square billet and pass sequences are of a square, diamond, or oval type,
culminating at the last mill stand with the finished cross-section.
The production of hot-rolled strip is, in many aspects, an extension of plate rolling, with thicknesses in the
range of 2-16 mm and widths up to 2 m. Modern mills are fully instrumented and computer-controlled to
give a high standard of dimensional accuracy and finished properties.
2.2.4 Hot Rolling Processes
These processes can be divided into two basic groups, traditional hot rolling and controlled rolling. In
traditional hot rolling, the object is to produce the required shape with the minimum number of roll passes.
In controlled rolling, the objective is to increase the strength and toughness of the steel by careful control of
temperature and deformation during rolling.
Hot rolling

APPLIED METALLURGY
In traditional hot rolling, temperatures are kept to a maximum so as to reduce the hot strength of the steel
and allow large reductions in each roll pass. Because of the high temperature, rapid recrystallization and
grain growth occurs between consecutive passes and consequently no grain refinement is achieved. Today,
this process is only used for primary reduction and for low-quality steels where there are no specific
requirements for strength and resistance against brittle fracture.
Controlled rolling
In the 1960's and 1970's, new application fields, such as nuclear power stations and offshore platforms,
demanded structural steel components having improved properties and higher reliability than had been
previously available. For North Sea offshore structures, erected in hostile environments including deep
waters, severe storms and low service temperatures, not only was strength important, but so was resistance
to brittle fracture. Attention was also focused on fabrication properties; easy weldability of steel components
under difficult conditions had to be guaranteed. At that time, it became clear that the traditional hot rolling
process was unlikely to achieve these requirements and so new production technologies, such as controlled
rolling, appeared.
Controlled rolling is a generic term for rolling procedures in which the temperature and deformation during
rolling are controlled to achieve desired material properties.
Controlled rolling includes:
• Normalizing rolling (N).

• Thermomechanical controlled rolling (TMCR). This procedure includes the following processes
which employ increased cooling rates, with or without tempering:
⋅ Accelerated cooling
⋅ Quenching and Self-Tempering
Normalizing Rolling
Normalizing rolling is a thermomechanical treatment during which the final deformation is carried out in the
normalizing temperature range (≈ 950°C). The austenite phase completely recrystallises between passes but,
because of the reduced temperature, does not experience grain growth. Consequently, after the final pass, air
cooling produces a material condition equivalent to that obtained after normalizing. The abbreviated
designation of this delivery condition is N.
Normalizing rolling can be performed on nearly all mills because the final rolling takes place at relatively
high temperatures (≥ 950°C) such that the power and load capacity of the rolling mill is not exceeded.
Thermomechanical Controlled Rolling
Thermomechanical Controlled Rolling (TMCR) is a thermomechanical treatment in which the final

deformation is carried out in a temperature range where austenite does not recrystallise significantly. On
subsequent cooling, the deformed austenite grain structure leads to a final fine grain ferrite-pearlite
microstructure. Usually, the final forming takes place at temperatures just above that at which austenite
begins to transform into ferrite. Thermomechanical controlled rolling leads to a material condition which
cannot be achieved by heat treatment alone. The resulting grain refined steel shows very desirable toughness
properties down to low temperatures for a medium range of product thicknesses and yield strengths.
For several years there has been an increased demand for rolled steel products with yield strengths up to 500
N/mm2 and in large thicknesses, combined with improved fabrication properties. As TMCR cannot be

APPLIED METALLURGY
exploited any further because the mechanical power of the rolling mills is limited, new production
technologies have had to be introduced.
Accelerated Cooling
Accelerated (water) cooling is performed after the final deformation in order to improve mechanical
properties by refining the microstructure. This process has a positive influence on strength as well as on
toughness properties and allows the alloy content to be lowered compared to TMCR alone. The
microstructure of accelerated cooled steels consists mainly of fine-grained ferrite + pearlite and ferrite +
bainite, showing low ductile to brittle transition temperatures, i.e. good toughness.
Quenching and Self-tempering
In the Quenching and Self-Tempering (QST) process, intense waterspray cooling is applied to the surface of
the product after the last rolling pass, so that the skin is quenched. Cooling is interrupted before the core is
affected by quenching and the outer layers are then tempered by the heat flow from the core to the surface
during a temperature equalization phase. The QST process has resulted in the creation of a new generation
of steel products with high yield strengths up to 500 N/mm2 and excellent low temperature toughness
properties, which are weldable without preheating. Such steels offer important advantages in terms of weight
savings and fabrication costs compared to conventionally produced grades.
Influence of rolling conditions on mechanical properties of the steel
The dominant mechanical properties of steel are tensile properties, i.e. yield strength, tensile strength and
elongation, and toughness or resistance against brittle fracture. Both properties can be influenced to a large
degree by the applied rolling conditions which determine the final grain size and structure (ferrite/pearlite or
tempered martensite/bainite).
The main parameters which influence the microstructure and properties are as follows:
• the finish rolling temperature, combined with the deformation rate per pass, influences the grain size
of the finished product: fine grain results if this temperature is situated in the non-recrystallising
region (TMCR process) and coarse grain if the rolling temperature is above that region (Hot rolling)
• the cooling rate of the finished product immediately after the last rolling pass decides its structure
and grain size. Three different types of cooling can be distinguished:
⋅ slow (air) cooling at a rate of less than 1°C/s has little influence on mechanical properties: grain size and
structure are determined by the preceding rolling
⋅ accelerated (water) cooling at a rate higher than 1°C/s but not high enough to quench the product to form
martensite. This process produces a further refinement of the grain size of the ferrite/pearlite structure,
substantially improving toughness and increasing tensile properties
⋅ quenching and self-tempering (QST), which produces tempered martensite in the surface layers and a fine-
grained bainite/ferrite/pearlite structure in the core area. This process increases tensile strength by 120 to
150 N/mm2 relative to the untreated state and substantially improves toughness.
Depending on the rolling process, the chemical composition of the steel has to be adjusted to obtain the
different steel grades. Figure 14 shows, in terms of carbon equivalent, the alloy content of the steel
necessary to reach yield strengths of 255 to 500 N/mm2 for product thicknesses up to 140 mm. The
traditional hot rolling process demands not only the highest alloy contents but it is also not able to cover the
whole range of product thicknesses. A lower alloy content and practically the whole range of product
thicknesses can be obtained by combining TMCR rolling and accelerated cooling.The lowest alloy content,
as well as the full range of modern structural steel products, can be obtained by a combination of TMCR

APPLIED METALLURGY
rolling and quenching and self-tempering (QST). By this process route it is not only possible to produce high
strength steels in a most economic way but these steels also have excellent weldability due to their low alloy
content.
Concerning toughness or resistance to brittle fracture, the poorest characteristics are obtained by traditional
hot rolling, which produces steels with ductile to brittle transition temperatures limited to 0°C and higher.
Such material characteristics are inadequate for many applications in modern steel construction, especially
in cases of larger product thicknesses and higher yield strengths. By combining TMCR rolling with
accelerated cooling or with quenching and self-tempering, it is now possible to fulfil these demands. With
the accelerated cooling route, and especially the TMCR/QST route, steel can be produced with yield
strengths up to 500 N/mm2 and transition temperatures lower than -60°C. These characteristics are sufficient
to cover the most stringent specifications arising from high technology areas such as the offshore industry or
high-rise building construction.

APPLIED METALLURGY
• Steel production involves the refining of molten iron, the removal of impurities and the addition of
alloying elements.
• The process may take place in an oxygen converter, yielding low impurity steel from molten iron
(derived mainly from iron ore) at high rates of productivity. Alternatively, electric arc furnaces may
be used to process scrap steel.
• Further refinement of the steel to achieve the required composition is carried out in the secondary or
ladle steelmaking unit by the addition of appropriate elements and removal of unwanted products.
• Molten steel is solidified using either continuous casting into semi-finished products or by casting
ingots.
• Structural steel products are most commonly manufactured by hot rolling - squeezing the steel
between rollers to achieve the required cross-section shape.
• Cold rolling produces a wide range of thin steel products, often with surface coatings, that have good
surface quality and forming qualities.
• Special techniques are required for the manufacture of structural hollow sections.
• By controlling the temperature regime during rolling, improved steel characteristics can be obtained.
1. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel Edited by Harold E McGannon USS (United States Steel)
10th Edition Published 1985.
2. Brockenbrough, R. L., Metallurgy Chapter 1.1 Constructional Steel Design, an International Guide,
1992.
3. Alexander, W., Metals in the Service of Man, Penguin Books, London, 1989.
4. Tamura, I, Theromechanical Processing of High Strength Low Alloy Steels, Butterworths, 1988.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.3.1 Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the essential engineering properties of structural steels, introducing their principal metallurgical
characteristics.
PREREQUISITES
None
SUMMARY
This lecture provides a brief introduction to the crystalline nature of metals and the structure-sensitivity of
the material properties. It explains the effect of dislocations on mechanical strength and demonstrates the use
of the tensile stress/strain curve as the main means of characterizing strength. It introduces the concept of
Poisson's ratio, multi-axial stress states, strain hardening and the influences of temperature and strain rate. It
describes the metallurgical and mechanical means of improving strength. It introduces the concept of
hardness.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of Metals
Metallic bonding is a consequence of the metal atoms giving up valence electrons to a 'free electron gas'.
Metallic structures at the atomic level are then envisaged as almost close-packed arrays of metal ions
surrounded by the electron gas. The bonding is, in most cases, non-directional. As a consequence the
common metallic crystal structures are face-centred cubic, e.g. Cu, Al, Ni, or body-centred cubic, e.g. Fe.
(Some metals exist with a hexagonal close-packed structure, e.g. Zn, Cd, but these are not commonly used
for structural applications.)
Metals (and alloys) with cubic structures exhibit four characteristic metallic properties, namely:
• good ductility (or malleability).

• high thermal conductivity.
• high electrical conductivity.
• metallic lustre.
Ductility is a consequence of the lack of directionality in the bonding of the atoms and the close-packed
nature of the crystal structures which normally allows profuse crystallographic slip to occur under stress.
The non-directionality in the bonding also allows thermal vibrations to be readily transmitted from one
vibrating atom to its neighbours, hence the high thermal conductivity. The existence of free electrons
provides for high electrical conductivity. These free electrons are also responsible for metallic lustre since
incident light of a wide range of wavelengths can be readily absorbed and re-radiated.
1.2 Structure-Sensitive and Structure-Insensitive Properties
Before embarking on an examination of the properties of interest, the meaning of structure-sensitivity and
structure-insensitivity, in the context of material properties, must be clarified.
Structure-insensitive properties are those which are not influenced significantly by changes in microstructure
or macrostructure. It is recognised that many of the physical properties of a material, e.g. elastic modulus,
bulk density, specific heat, and coefficient of thermal expansion, do not vary other than by small amounts

APPLIED METALLURGY
from specimen to specimen of a given material, even if the different specimens have been subjected to very
different working and/or heat treatment processes. This insensivity is present despite the fact that these
processes may have produced quite substantial microstructural and macrostructural modifications. On the
other hand most of the mechanical properties are very dependent on these modifications. Thus, for instance,
the yield strength, ductility and fracture strength are seen to be structure-sensitive.
2. STRENGTH
2.1 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
For an understanding of the mechanical behaviour of metals, it is necessary to consider both elastic and
plastic deformation. Elastic deformation is reversible, i.e. deformation lasts only as long as load is applied.
Hooke's laws connect elastic strain with stress as follows:
σ=E.ε
τ=G.γ
where
σ and ε are the uniaxial stress and strain respectively
τ and γ are the shear stress and shear strain.
E is the Young's modulus (210000 N/mm2)
G is the shear modulus (80000 N/mm2)
Response of a simple lattice to shear loading is shown in Figure 1. Initially the response is elastic, Figure
1(b), i.e. when the load is removed all the deformation is recovered. Beyond a limiting stress known as the
yield stress, the deformation becomes elastic-plastic, Figure 1(c); when the load is removed only the elastic
deformation reverses and the plastic deformation remains, Figure 1(d). This figure shows that
crystallographic planes have moved against each other. Simple equations for plastic deformation
(corresponding to Hooke's law for elastic deformation) do not exist.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Theoretical estimates of the critical shear stress required to move a crystallographic plane one slip unit give
τcrit ~ G/(2π). Measurements show that the highest strength steels attain approximately 10% of the theoretical
strength. However structural steels have strengths which are two orders of magnitude less than the
theoretical value. Therefore, there must be a mechanism which facilitates the slipping of crystallographic
planes. This mechanism is the presence of lattice defects called dislocations. Figure 2 shows an example of a
simple dislocation. During plastic deformation, a dislocation moves through the atomic lattice within the
crystal, Figure 3.

APPLIED METALLURGY
A simple analogy for dislocation motion is to consider a carpet containing a ruck. By applying a small force
to the ruck, it can be moved over the length of the carpet resulting in an overall displacement of the carpet
by a small increment. In the absence of the ruck, a very large force would be required to overcome the
friction between the complete carpet and the floor.
Dislocations distort the surrounding lattice elastically. Some areas are compressed whilst others are stretched.
These elastically deformed regions interact with other defects, i.e. with solute atoms, with other dislocations,
with grain boundaries and precipitates. These obstacles impede dislocation movement making plastic
deformation more difficult.
2.2 Stress-Strain Curve for Simple Tension Specimen
The mechanical properties of materials are determined using standardised test pieces and testing procedures.
For ductile materials like most steels, tensile tests are the commonly applied testing method. Brittle
materials are usually tested by bending or compression.
Tensile properties are usually measured using long and narrow specimens (Figure 4) which guarantee a
uniaxial stress state. Round cross-sections are preferred, although rectangular specimens are employed for
plate and strip and for the determination of deep drawing properties. Important parameters that have to be
controlled during tensile tests are strain rate and testing temperature. The strain rate is controlled by the
cross-head speed of the testing machine; the temperature can be regulated by a furnace or a cooling chamber.
Load (F) and elongation (∆L) are measured during testing, from which the stress (σ)-strain (ε) curve can be
obtained by taking the test piece dimensions into account. The nominal or engineering stress σn is the load F
divided by the original cross-section area So:
σn = F/So (1)
The nominal or engineering strain εn is the ratio of the change in length (L-Lo) to the original length Lo:
εn = (L - Lo) / Lo = ∆L / Lo (2)

APPLIED METALLURGY
Figures 5 and 6 show the stress-strain curves obtained by Equations (1) and (2) for two types of steel.
The engineering stress-strain curve can be divided into three regions: elastic deformation, uniform plastic
elongation with continuously increasing stress (ε ≤ εu) and non-uniform plastic elongation (ε >εu).
APPLIED METALLURGY
In most metals there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behaviour and it is necessary to define a
proof stress, usually Rp0,1 or Rp0,2 in order to characterise the onset of yielding. These are stresses at which a
permanent elongation of 0,1 or 0,2% of the initial gauge length is obtained.
Some metals and especially mild steels show a discontinuity between the elastic and plastic regimes with a
marked yield point followed by a short period of non-uniform plastic strain (Figure 6). This yielding
phenomenon is described by:
• the upper yield stress ReH at the initiation of yielding.

• the lower yield stress ReL, which is the stress value during propagation of the Lüders bands.
• the Lüders strain εLüd (about 1-2% for mild steels).
The reason for this behaviour is that the dislocations are pinned by interstitially dissolved Carbon and/or
Nitrogen atoms. These dislocations have to be unpinned by the upper yield stress. Once the dislocations are
released they can continue to move at the lower yield stress. This process does not take place
homogeneously over the whole specimen. Markings, known as Lüder's bands indicating plastically
deformed regions, appear at 45° to the direction of loading and expand across the whole gauge length of the
specimen.
In the range of uniform elongation, further plastic deformation is only possible by a continuously increasing
load. The dislocation density grows with increasing deformation, making further deformation more difficult
due to the interaction between the dislocations. This effect is referred to as strain or work hardening. The
rate of strain hardening (dσ/dε) is high initially but decreases as plastic deformation increases.
In the third region of deformation the specimen continues to become narrower, but this now takes place
locally resulting in the necking shown in Figure 7.
The stress at which necking begins is the ultimate tensile stress Rm=Fmax/So, the corresponding strain is the
ultimate strain εu. Following the onset of necking, the load necessary to maintain elongation decreases
although the local stress within the necking region continues to increase. Continued deformation leads to
fracture, which is characterised by the fracture stress σf and the fracture strain εr. The percentage reduction
of area at fracture
Z = 100 (So - Su)/So
is a measure of the material's ductility, where Su is the minimum cross-section area at fracture in the necked
region.
For the engineering stress-strain curve, both stress and stain are related to the initial specimen dimensions
(So, Lo). Because the cross-section and length change continuously during deformation, these equations do
not give a true indication of the stress and strain history. For a better description of the material properties,

APPLIED METALLURGY
the change of the cross-section area must be taken into account. The true stress and the true strain are
defined as follows:
σt = (4)
where S is the instantaneous cross-section area.
εt = for ε ≤ εu. (5)
Considering that plasticity takes place under conditions of constant volume, the relation between true and
engineering stress and strain in the region of uniform elongation can be derived:
σt = σn (1 + εn) (6)
εt = ln (1 + εn) (7)
In the region of necking, the instantaneous cross-section of the specimen must be measured to obtain the true
stress and the true strain. The true strain (Figure 8) is:
εt = for 0 ≤ ε ≤ εr (8)
For the determination of the true stress, a correction factor km must be taken into account because of the
multiaxial stress state resulting from necking.
Figure 9 shows the engineering stress-strain curve (1) and the corresponding true stress-true strain curve
without (2) and with (3) consideration of the multiaxial stress state. Note that the true strain becomes much
larger than the engineering strain due to necking and that strain hardening is always positive.

APPLIED METALLURGY
2.3 Multi-axial Response
2.3.1 Poisson's ratio
The previous section discussed the longitudinal response of a simple tensile specimen. If measurements of
transverse strain (εtrans) had also been taken it would have been found that the specimen became narrower as
it extended. In the elastic region εtrans = υε, where υ, called Poisson's Ratio, has the value of about 0,3. This
implies that the volume of the elastically deformed material is increasing because = ε - 2εtrans = 0,4ε. In
the plastic region, with much higher strains, the volume of material does not change significantly and εtrans ≈
0,5ε which implies that Poisson's ratio has a value of 0,5. This constant volume condition is most clearly
illustrated in the necked region as rupture approaches. The locally higher longitudinal strains, are
accompanied by high transverse strains giving the local necking.
2.3.2 Multi-axial stress states and their influence on yielding
In many engineering situations stresses exist in more than one direction. Examples are shown in Figure 10.
The direction and magnitude of these stresses influence the onset of yielding. In the balanced triaxial
compression shown in Figure 10a, the material cannot yield because it has "nowhere to go" until there is a
breakdown in the atomic structure of the crystals at several orders of magnitude of stress greater than the
uniaxial yield stress. In the two-dimensional pure shear case of Figure 10b the tendency to expand in the x-
direction from the tensile stress σ1 is "encouraged" by the y-direction compression stress σ2, and vice versa.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Different mathematical expressions have been developed to describe this interactive yield, and different
formulations prove to be more accurate for different materials. Figure 11a illustrates the two most common
criteria for metals under a two-dimensional stress state. The Hencky-von Mises expression which is usually
used for steel and for three dimensional stresses, is given by:
σy = (1/√2) {(σ1 - σ2)2 + (σ2 - σ3)2 + (σ3 - σ2)2}½
where σ1, σ2 and σ3 are the three principal stresses.

APPLIED METALLURGY
2.3.3 Strain hardening under multi-axial stresses
Figure 11b shows the most common model for work hardening in the presence of multi-axial stresses. In
isotropic work hardening the yield surface expands uniformly, as shown.
2.4 Influence of Temperature and Strain Rate
Most engineering structures operate at ambient temperatures and are subject to loading rates that are
sufficiently slow not to influence response significantly. However, elevated temperatures can be encountered
in service (boiler plant) or by accident (fire). Impact and other accidental loading can lead to strain rates
whose influence cannot be ignored.

APPLIED METALLURGY
2.4.1 Temperature
The movement of dislocations is facilitated by increasing temperature. Both yield and ultimate strengths are
reduced as a result. In structural steels there is little loss of strength up to about 300°C. Thereafter there is a
progressive loss of strength with increasing temperature. At 600°C the strength is typically 50% of that at
ambient temperature.
Creep, i.e. increasing strain at constant stress, in structural steels can be discounted at ambient temperature.
However at temperatures in excess of about 500°C creep deformation becomes significant. The influence of
elevated temperatures on both stiffness and strength is illustrated in Figure 12.
2.4.2 Strain rate
Dislocation movement is a time-dependent process. It is therefore understandable that high strain rates make
yielding more difficult which is reflected in increased yield stress. The most widely accepted model for
strain rate effects is the Cowper-Symonds expression given below. The significance of this effect on the
tensile stress/strain behaviour is illustrated in Figure 13.

APPLIED METALLURGY
σ/σs = 1 + {έ/D}1/q
where:
έ = strain rate
σ = dynamic yield stress
σs = static yield stress.
D and q are dimensionless curve fitting coefficients.
D = 40.4 s-1 and
q = 5 for mild steel
2.5 Means of Strengthening
The strength of a steel can be described as the resistance against the onset of plastic deformation under an
external load. Plastic deformation occurs by the movement of dislocations through the metal lattice which
enables single lattice planes to slip consecutively over one another. If this motion is hindered by lattice
defects, a higher external load must be applied so that the dislocations can overcome the obstacles. It is for
this reason that means of increasing the strength of steels always aim at hindering dislocation movement.
Obstacles to dislocation motion can be classified according to Table 1.

APPLIED METALLURGY
TABLE 1
Dimension Generator Mechanism

0 (point) solute atoms solid solution hardening
1 (linear) dislocations strain hardening
2 (plane) grain boundaries grain refinement
3 (spatial) particles precipitation/dispersion hardening
Strengthening of Steels
• Solid solution hardening
The increase of strength is produced by foreign atoms which are dissolved in the metal matrix. Since foreign
atoms differ in size, physical and electrical properties compared to the metal matrix, they cause a lattice
distortion that hinders the movement of dislocations. The increase of yield stress depends on the kind,
amount and distribution of the foreign atoms, Figure 14. It can be seen that the increase of strength caused
by C and N is especially high. This is due to the fact that these atoms dissolve interstitially between the
atoms of the matrix, which results in a high lattice distortion. The other elements shown in Figure 14
dissolve substitutionally and occupy regular lattice positions producing less distortion.
Increasing strength by solid solution hardening leads to a decrease in toughness. (Toughness is the ability of
a material to avoid brittle fracture - see Lecture 2.3.2.) Therefore, the potential level of strength attainable by
solid solution hardening is usually not sought because of the possibility of brittle fracture.
• Strain hardening
Linear lattice defects are the dislocations themselves. The lattice distortion surrounding the dislocation
disturbs the movement of other dislocations. This interaction increases with increasing dislocation density.

APPLIED METALLURGY
When cold forming steel, e.g. cold rolling, dislocations must continuously be produced because they
permanently block each other. The dislocation density rises and increases the strength of the steel by strain
hardening (Figure 15). Such hardening is accompanied by a pronounced reduction in toughness.
• Grain refinement
Grain refinement is the most important strengthening mechanism in structural steels because it is the only
method of strengthening which is accompanied by an increase in resistance to brittle fracture.
The grain boundaries are barriers to dislocation motion. Consequently as the grain size is decreased, the
number of barriers increases and this is reflected in increased yield strength. The effect of grain size on yield
stress is described by the Hall-Petch equation:
ReL = σiy + ky . d-1/2
where
ReL is the minimum yield strength
σiy is the friction stress; the stress at which yielding begins in a material with very large grains
ky is the grain boundary resistance
d is the mean grain diameter.
• Dispersion and precipitation hardening
When a moving dislocation encounters a particle it can pass by only two mechanisms:
⋅ cutting through the particle, or
⋅ bowing between and around particles, leaving a section of the dislocation as a ring around the particle.
In steels, the dominant particle hardening mechanism is dislocation bowing. Strength is then inversely
related to the interparticle spacing. Consequently strength increases as the particle size decreases and as the
volume fraction of precipitates increases.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Strengthening particles are obtained most usually by the precipitation process in the matrix during heat
treatment. In steel this is most familiar during tempering of quench hardened medium carbon steels, but it
also occurs in structural steels during cooling after controlled rolling or during subsequent tempering
treatments.
2.6 Hardness
"Hardness" is a measure of resistance to deformation when a loaded indenter is forced to penetrate the
surface of the metal under test. The penetration of the indenter into the specimen leads to a local
deformation which is both elastic and plastic.
Testing methods can be either static or dynamic. Both elastic and plastic deformation are considered for the
evaluation of dynamic hardness, expressed in terms of the absorbed energy. Dynamic testing methods
include impact hardness testing and Shore hardness testing. Their advantage lies in the possibility of quick
testing which can be performed at any location. Compared to static hardness testing methods, the dynamic
methods are less precise.
The common static testing methods of indentation hardness differ in the type of indenter forced into the
metal. The Brinell test uses a hardened steel ball (EN 3), the Vickers test (EN 5) a square-based diamond
pyramid (included angle = 136°), and the Rockwell test (EN 10004) is performed with a diamond cone
indenter (included angle = 120°).
The indenter is slowly (almost statically) pressed into the specimen. After removing the load, the size of the
indentation is measured. Compared to dynamic testing, only the plastic deformation is taken into account.
Static testing methods are favoured in industry and research because of the consistency of test results.
The different hardness measurements correlate quite closely, especially at lower values. The correlation of
hardness values with other measures of resistance to deformation, such as tensile properties, is more
complicated but a useful engineering rule of thumb is that the tensile strength in units of Nmm-2 is
approximately 3 times the Vickers hardness.
• Most engineering properties of metals are structure sensitive.
• The principal quantities defining the mechanical properties of metals under non-repeating loading are:
⋅ Young's modulus.
⋅ Poisson's ratio.
⋅ Yield stress, or proof stress for metals without a defined yield point.
⋅ Ultimate strength.
⋅ Hardness.
• These properties may be influenced by:
⋅ temperature.
⋅ strain rate.
⋅ multi-axiality.
⋅ geometry.
• The optimal combination of strength and toughness may be achieved by controlling:
⋅ alloying content.
⋅ level of impurities.
APPLIED METALLURGY
⋅ physical treatment.
1. Leslie, W.L., The Physical Metallurgy of Steels, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington,
New York, London, 1981.
2. Dahl, W., Steel - Handbook of Materials Research and Engineering Volume 1, Springer-Verlag,
Düsseldorf 1990.
APPENDIX 1
Typical mechanical property data for weldable structural steels
Steel Condition Yield Stress Ultimate Tensile % Elongation to Fracture

(Grade according to EN10025) (N/mm2) Strength (N/mm2) (Lo = 5,65√So)
Grade Fe430B (0,25% carbon) hot-rolled 275 470 22
Grade Fe430D (0,19% carbon) normalised 275 470 22
Grade Fe510B (0,23% carbon) hot-rolled 355 550 20
Grade Fe510D (0,18% carbon, normalised 355 550 20
0,10% vanadium)
Typical mechanical property data for some common non-ferrous metals and alloys
Metal or alloy 0,2% Proof Stress Ultimate Tensile % Elongation to

(N/mm2) Strength (N/mm2) fracture (Lo - 5,65√So)
Aluminium (annealed) 34 77 47
Aluminium (cold worked) 94 115 13
Duralumin (annealed) 123 231 15
Duralumin (age-hardened) 278 432 15
Cooper (annealed) 54 223 56
Copper (cold worked) 285 316 13
70-30 brass (annealed) 85 320 65
70-30 brass (cold worked) 378 463 20
Typical values of Young's modulus for metals
Metal Al Au Ti Cu Fe Ni
kN/mm2 70 79 120 130 210 200

APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.3.2: Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To provide a sequel to Lecture 2.3.1, introducing toughness as an important engineering property.
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces the phenomena of ductile and cleavage fracture and the engineering property of
toughness. It summarizes the influences of temperature loading rate, multi-axial stress conditions and
geometry on toughness. It introduces the notched impact bend test as the most common means of monitoring
toughness. It introduces linear-elastic and elastic-plastic fracture mechanics. It presents the wide plate test
and assessment techniques based on fracture mechanics. It summarizes the means of obtaining an optimum
combination of strength and toughness. It introduces the concept of fatigue, the principal influences on
fatigue behaviour, and the means of ensuring adequate fatigue endurance.
1. TOUGHNESS
Metals often show quite acceptable properties when small smooth bar specimens are tested in tension at
ambient temperature and at slow loading rates. However they fail in a brittle manner when large components
are loaded or when the loading is performed at low temperatures or applied rapidly. Susceptibility to brittle
fracture is enhanced if notches or other defects are present. Resistance to brittle fracture is commonly
referred to as toughness.
Metals with a body-centred cubic lattice, e.g. pure iron and ferritic steels have the unfortunate characteristic
that their fracture mechanism undergoes a dramatic transition with decreasing temperature from a tough
ductile mode in the higher temperature region to a brittle cleavage mode at lower temperatures. Face-centred
cubic metals, e.g. copper, aluminium and austenitic steels, do not fail by cleavage under all loading
conditions and at all temperatures.
1.1 Types of Fracture
Ductile fracture involves the formation, growth and coalescence of voids. A simple analogy is the fracture
of plasticene or putty containing particles of sand. The voids form around precipitates or non-metallic
inclusions, Figure 1. The ductility or toughness of the material is basically dependent on the volume fraction
of the void nucleating particles, i.e. the proportion of sand in the previous analogy. The amount of
deformation prior to rupture and thus the toughness of the material increases with its purity.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The macroscopic orientation of a ductile fracture surface may vary from 90° to 45° to the direction of the
applied stress. In thick sections most of the fracture surface tends to be oriented at 90° to the direction of the
applied tensile stress. However, ductile fractures commonly have a "shear-tip" near a free boundary as the
transverse stresses reduce to zero causing the plane of maximum shear to be at 45° to the direction of the
applied stress.
Cleavage fracture occurs in body-centred cubic metals when the maximum principal stress exceeds a
critical value, the so-called microscopic cleavage fracture stress σ∗f.
Certain crystallographic planes of atoms are separated when the stress is sufficiently high to break atomic
bonds. Crystallographic planes with low packing densities are preferred as cleavage planes. In steels the
preferred change planes are the bee cube planes.
The fracture surface lies perpendicular to the maximum principal stress and appears macroscopically flat and
crystalline. When viewed by eye a cleavage fracture usually displays characteristic chevron markings which
point back to the origin of the fracture. When brittle fracture occurs in a large structure, such markings can
be invaluable in identifying the site of crack initiation. When viewed in the microscope, cleavage cracks can
be seen to pass through the grains along preferred crystallographic planes (transgranular cleavage).
If grain boundaries are weakened by precipitates or by the enrichment of foreign atoms, cleavage cracks can
also propagate along grain boundaries (intergranular cleavage).
1.2 Influence of Temperature, Loading Rate, Multi-axiality and Geometry
Temperature influences fracture behaviour mainly due to its effect on yield strength and the transition from
ductile to cleavage fracture. Figure 2 shows schematically the yield strength and the microscopic cleavage
fracture stress as a function of temperature for a ferritic steel. The yield strength falls with increasing
temperature, whereas the cleavage fracture stress is hardly influenced. The transition temperature is defined
by the intersection between the yield strength and cleavage fracture strength curves. At lower temperatures
specimens fail without previous plastic deformation (brittle fracture). Somewhat above the transition
temperature, cleavage fracture can still occur due to the effect of deformation induced work hardening. At
higher temperatures cleavage is not possible and the fracture becomes fully ductile.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The yield strength rises with increasing loading rate (marked with dashed line in Figure 2) whereas the
microscopic cleavage fracture stress shows almost no strain rate dependence. This rise causes the ductile-
brittle transition temperature to move to higher values at higher rates of loading. Thus, an increase of
loading rate and a reduction of temperature have the same adverse effect on toughness.
A multi-axial stress state has an important influence on the transition from ductile to cleavage fracture. A
triaxial state of stress, in which the three principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 are all positive (but not equal),
inhibits or constrains the onset of yielding. Under these conditions, yielding occurs at a higher stress than
that observed in a uniaxial or biaxial state of stress. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3 where it can be
seen that the transition temperature arising from the intersection of the cleavage and yield strength curves is
shifted to a higher temperature, i.e. the metal has become more brittle.
The most familiar situation in which multi-axial states of stress are encountered in steel structures is in
association with notches or cracks in thick sections. The stress concentration at the root of the notch gives
rise a local region of triaxial stresses even through the applied loading may be uni-directional (Figure 4).

APPLIED METALLURGY
1.3 Notched Impact Bend Test
The notched impact bend test is the most common test for the assessment of susceptibility to brittle fracture
because it is inexpensive and quickly performed. 10mm square bars with a machined notch, (ISO-V or
Charpy specimens), are struck by a calibrated pendulum. The energy absorbed from the swinging pendulum
during deformation and fracture of the test specimen is used as a measure of the impact energy. The notch
impact energy consists of elastic and plastic deformation work, fracture energy and kinetic energy of the
broken pieces.
Figures 5 and 6 show the notch impact energy as a function of testing temperature. At low temperatures the
failure of ferritic steels occurs by cleavage fracture giving a lustrous crystalline appearance to the fracture
surface. At high temperatures failure occurs by ductile fracture after plastic deformation. In the transition
range small amounts of ductile fracture are found close to the notch but, due to the elevated stresses near the
crack tip, the fracture mechanism changes to cleavage. Throughout the transition range the amount of
cleavage fracture becomes less and the notch impact energy rises as the testing temperature increases.

APPLIED METALLURGY
In order to characterise the transition behaviour, a transition temperature is defined as the temperature at
which:
• a defined value of the notch impact energy is reached (eg. T27J, T40J),
• half of the maximum impact energy value is reached (T50%), or
• 50% ductile fracture is observed on the fracture surface (FATT 50: Fracture Appearance Transition
Temperature, 50% ductile fracture).
The impact energy values obtained show a high amount of scatter in the transition area because here the
results depend on the local situation ahead of the crack tip. Beyond this area, scatter becomes less because
there is no change of fracture mechanism.
The notched impact bend test gives only a relative measure of toughness. This measure is adequate for
defining different grades of toughness in structural steels and for specifying steels for well established
conditions of service. For the assessment of known defects and for service situations where there is little
experience of brittle fracture susceptibility, a quantitative measure of toughness which can be used by design
engineers is provided by fracture mechanics.
1.4 Fracture Toughness
Fracture mechanics provides a quantitative description of the resistance of a material to fracture. The
fracture toughness is a material property which can be used to predict the behaviour of components
containing cracks or sharp notches. The fracture toughness properties are obtained by tests on specimens
containing deliberately introduced cracks or notches and subjected to prescribed loading conditions.
Depending on the strength of the material and the thickness of the section, either linear-elastic (LEFM) or
elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) concepts are applied.
The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Approach
The stress intensity factor KI describes the intensity of the elastic crack tip stress field in a thick, deeply
cracked specimen loaded perpendicular to the crack plane.
KI = Y σ (1)
where
σ is the nominal stress
a is the crack depth
Y is the correction function dependent on the crack and test piece geometry
The critical value of the stress intensity factor for the onset of crack growth is the fracture toughness KIC.
Another material property obtained from linear-elastic fracture mechanics is the energy release rate GI. It
indicates how much elastic strain energy becomes free during crack propagation. It is determined according
to Equation (2):
GI = π Y2 σ2 a / E = K12 / E (2)
where

APPLIED METALLURGY
E is the Young's modulus
Analogous to the stress intensity factor, crack growth occurs when GI reaches a critical value GIc.
The fracture toughness properties KIc and GIc are determined with fracture mechanics specimens, generally
as shown in Figures 7 and 8.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The great value of the fracture toughness parameters KIc and GIc is that once they have been measured for a
particular material, Equations (1) and (2) can be used to make quantitative predictions of the size of defect
necessary to cause a brittle fracture for a given stress, or the stress which will precipitate a brittle fracture for
a defect of known size.
As the designation implies, linear elastic fracture mechanics is applicable to materials which fracture under
elastic conditions of loading. The fracture phenomena in high strength quenched and tempered steels are of
this type. In lower strength structural steels, extensive plasticity develops at the notch root before failure
occurs. This behaviour invalidates many of the assumptions of linear elastic fracture mechanics and makes
testing difficult or not meaningful. In such cases elastic-plastic fracture mechanics must be applied.
There are two alternative techniques of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics:
1. Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)

2. J Integral
Their essential features are summarised below.
The Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics Approach
A consequence of plasticity developing at the tip of a previously sharp crack is that the crack will blunt and
there will be an opening displacement at the position of the original crack tip. This is the crack tip opening
displacement (CTOD). As loading continues, the CTOD value increases until eventually a critical value δc is
attained at which crack growth occurs.
The critical crack tip opening displacement is a measure of the resistance of the material to fracture, i.e. it is
an alternative measurement of fracture toughness.
For materials which exhibit little plasticity prior to failure, the critical CTOD, δc, can be related to the linear
elastic fracture toughness parameters KIc and GIc as follows:
KIc2 = E.Gk / (1 - υ2) = m.E.σy.δc / (1 - υ2)
where
E is Youngs modulus
σy is the uniaxial yield strength
υ is Poissons ratio
m is a constraint factor having a value between 1 and 3 depending on the state of stress at the crack tip.
Another way of taking account of crack tip plasticity is the determination of the J-integral. J is defined as a
path-independent line-integral through the material surrounding the crack tip. It is given by:
J=- (3)
where
U is the potential energy

APPLIED METALLURGY
B is the specimen thickness
a is the crack length
U= (4)
F is the load
Vg is the total displacement
Since the determination of J is difficult, approximate solutions are used in practice.
J=η (5)
where
b=w-a
η = 2 (for SENB-specimens)
η = 2 + 0,522 b/w (for CT-specimens)
The critical value of J is a material characteristic and is denoted JIc. For the linear elastic case, JIc is equal to
GIc.
1.5 Fitness for Purpose
Conventional assessment of components is based on a comparison of design resistance with applied actions.
Toughness criteria are generally satisfied by the appropriate selection of material quality, as discussed in
Lecture 2.5. However there are situations where a more fundamental assessment has to be carried out
because of:
• onerous service conditions.

• defects during manufacture.
• defects, e.g. fatigue cracks, developing during previous service life.
Such assessments can be performed by different methods. If the component is small, it may be possible to
test it. For large or unique structures, such as bridges or offshore platforms, this method of producing the
most realistic data has to be excluded. Tests on representative details of a component may be performed, if
the simulation of the real structure is done carefully, e.g. accounting for specific service conditions including
the geometry of the structure and discontinuities, loading rate, service temperature and environmental
conditions. A typical example of such a test method is the wide plate test, which is discussed below.
Fracture mechanics concepts have been developed to assess the safety of components containing cracks.
Depending on the overall behaviour of the component (linear-elastic or elastic-plastic) different methods can
be used for failure assessment.
1.5.1 Wide plate testing

APPLIED METALLURGY
During the last 20 years, large flat tensile specimens, so-called wide plates, have been used to simulate a
relatively simple detail of a tension loaded large structure. A main objective of wide plate testing is the
evaluation of the deformation and fracture behaviour of a specimen under service conditions. The second
reason for this kind of test is the application of test results for the development and checking of failure
assessment methods, e.g. fracture mechanics methods.
Wide plate tests require testing facilities with high loading capacities due to the fact that such tests are
usually carried out at full thickness. The maximum dimensions of wide plates tested on large test rigs with a
load capacity of up to 100MN are as follows:
• specimen width W ≤ 3000mm

• specimen thickness to ≤ 300mm
• specimen length l ≤ 5000mm
Figure 9 shows different types of specimen containing discontinuities for tests on the base metal or welded
joints. The discontinuities may be through-thickness or surface notches or cracks. The configuration of the
plate is usually chosen according to the specific structural situation to be assessed.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Stress or strain criteria can be used as safety criteria which must be fulfilled to assure the safety of a specific
structural element. The production of a given amount of overall strain is in some cases used as the failure
criterion. The gross-section-yielding concept requires that gross-section-yielding (GSY) occurs prior to
fracture. Based on this concept, wide plates with different crack lengths are tested under similar loading
conditions to determine a critical crack length just fulfilling the GSY-criterion. Figure 10 shows the ratio of
the maximum gross-section stress in the structure to ultimate tensile strength as a function of the crack
length ratio 2a/W of centre-notched wide plates. The upper limit line describes the theoretical maximum
stress, if the ultimate tensile strength is reached in the cross-section containing the discontinuity. All test
results show lower values than are implied by the theoretical line, resulting from the important influence of
toughness in the presence of discontinuities. Only in the case of infinite toughness can the theoretical line be
reached. The intersection of the experimentally determined curve and the yield strength line marks the
critical crack length ratio 2ac/W. As long as the 2a/W ratio is smaller than the critical ratio, the GSY-
criterion is fulfilled. Unfortunately, the critical 2ac/W ratio depends strongly on the dimensions of the crack
and the plate, so that different types of cracked components always require a series of specific wide plate
tests. This concept is therefore only used if other concepts cannot be applied.
1.5.2 Fracture mechanics concepts
The basis of a fracture mechanics safety analysis is the comparison between the crack driving force in a
structure and the fracture toughness of the material evaluated in small scale tests. The application of one of
the concepts depends on the overall behaviour of the structure which may be linear-elastic (K-concept) or
elastic-plastic (CTOD- or J-Integral-concepts). For a safe structure the crack driving force must be less than
the fracture toughness. In general the toughness values of the material are evaluated according to existing
standards. The crack driving force can be calculated on the basis of analytical solutions (K-concept),
empirical or semi-empirical approaches (CTOD-Design-Curve approach, CEGB-R6-procedures) or using

APPLIED METALLURGY
numerical solutions (indirectly: EPRI-handbook, directly: finite-element calculations). The different

methods are explained briefly below:
• K-concept
The K-concept can be applied in the case of linear-elastic component behaviour. The crack driving force, the
so-called stress intensity factor KI, defined in Section 1.4, has been evaluated for a large range of situations
and calculation formulae are for example given in the stress-analysis-of-cracks handbook.
Usually the critical fracture toughness KIc of the material is evaluated according to the ASTM standard E399
or the British Standard BS5447. Brittle failure can be excluded as long as:
KI < KIc
For a given fracture toughness the critical crack length or stress level can be calculated from:
ac =
σc =
• CTOD-Design-Curve approach
A critical crack length or stress level can be determined using the limit curve of the CTOD-Design-Curve
approach for the driving force assessment together with measured values of CTODcrit for the material. The
limit curve has been adopted by standards, e.g. the British Standard BS-PD 6493. The latest version of the
limit curve is shown in Figure 11 and can be used for:
2a/W ≤ 0,5 and σnet ≤ σYS.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Analysis can only be performed under global elastic conditions (σnet ≤ σYS) although local plastic
deformation may occur in front of a crack tip which is accounted for in the CTOD-value of the material.
• CEGB-R6-routines
The CEGB-R6-routines can be used to assess the safety of structures for brittle and ductile component
behaviour. The transition from linear-elastic to elastic-plastic behaviour is described by a limit curve in a
failure analysis diagram (Figure 12). The ordinate value Kr can be regarded as any of three equivalent ratios
of applied crack driving force to material fracture toughness as follows:
Kr = =
• Other methods
Other methods are emerging. The Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI) in New York has used a
detailed analysis by finite elements to determine limiting J contour values for standard geometries.
Alternatively the J contour values may be obtained by direct finite element analysis of the particular
situation.

APPLIED METALLURGY
2. OPTIMAL COMBINATION OF STRENGTH AND

TOUGHNESS
Preceding sections have described the influence of the micro structure on strength and toughness using
metallurgical mechanisms. Chemical and physical metallurgy can change microstructural characteristics so
that optimum strength and toughness requirements may be obtained. By combining the various treatments it
is possible to achieve a wide range of steel properties (Figure 13):
• Chemical metallurgy treatments
Variation of the chemical composition of a steel by adding alloying elements aims to increase strength
and/or increase resistance to brittle fracture. Solid solution hardening generally lowers toughness and is not
widely employed. Precipitation hardening also increases strength and decreases toughness. The addition of
manganese and nickel produces a small increase in strength due to solution hardening but a more significant
reduction is impact transition temperature due to grain refinement (Figure 14). Alloying with the micro-
alloying elements Niobium, (Nb) Vanadium (V) and Titanium (Ti) producing carbides and nitrides
simultaneously raises strength by precipitation hardening and toughness by grain refinement. Decreasing the
content of elements such as S and P improves the degree of purity, which has positive effects on toughness
and weldability.

APPLIED METALLURGY
• Physical metallurgy treatments
The microstructure of a steel can be greatly affected by heat treatment or forming. Correctly chosen
temperature, degree of deformation, time between deformation steps and cooling rate can reduce the grain
size and control the state of precipitation, thus raising toughness and strength (Figure 15).

APPLIED METALLURGY
This combination of heat treatment and forming known as thermo-mechanical treatment leads to even better
results if micro-alloying elements such as V or Nb are added, causing additional grain refinement with
improved toughness and strength properties.
3. FATIGUE PROPERTIES
When considering the response of metallic materials to cyclic loading, it is essential to distinguish between
components such as machined parts, which are initially free of defects, and those such as castings and
welded structures, which inevitably contain pre-existing defects. The fatigue behaviour of these two types of
component is quite different. In the former case, the major part of the fatigue life is spent in initiating a crack;
such fatigue is 'initiation-controlled'. In the second type of component, cracks are already present and all of
the fatigue life is spent in crack propagation; such fatigue is 'propagation-controlled'.
For a given material, the fatigue strength is quite different depending on whether the application is initiation-
or propagation-controlled. Also the most appropriate material solution may be quite different depending on
the application. For example with initiation-controlled fatigue, the fatigue strength increases with tensile
strength and hence it is usually beneficial to utilise high strength materials. On the other hand, with
propagation-controlled fatigue, the fatigue resistance may actually decrease if a higher strength material is
employed.
3.1 Initiation-Controlled Fatigue
3.1.1 Testing
The fundamental diagram in fatigue testing is the Wöhler or S-N-diagram (Figure 16). Specimens are
exposed to cyclic loading with a constant amplitude and the number of cycles to fracture is recorded. This
parameter is plotted against the corresponding stress amplitude with a double- or semi-logarithmic scale.
The diagram is divided into two parts. In the first part, life time increases with decreasing alternating stress
amplitude. In the second part for most-ferritic steels the curve becomes horizontal and defines a 'fatigue
limit' stress below which failure can never occur. The transition or 'knee' between the two parts of the curve
lies between 3 and 10 x 106 cycles, depending on the material. For other alloys, e.g. fcc-metals, which do not
show a fatigue limit, an 'endurance limit' is defined as the stress amplitude corresponding to a life of 107
cycles.

APPLIED METALLURGY
One characteristic feature of fatigue properties is the wide scatter of results under constant testing conditions.
Therefore 6-10 experiments must be performed for each stress amplitude. The analysis is done by means of
statistical evaluation leading to different S-N curves for various life time probabilities (10%, 50%, 90%
curves).
3.1.2 Fatigue damage
• Crack-free stage
During the first 104 stress cycles, although the loading is nominally elastic, dislocation activity occurs in
localised areas and leads to the formation of bands of localised plastic deformation known as "persistent slip
bands" (PSB).
• Crack initiation
Crack initiation generally takes place within the persistent slip bands. In the case of pure metals, crack
initiation usually occurs at the surface. In commercial quality materials, crack initiation usually occurs at
non-metallic inclusions or other impurities which act as microscopic sites of strain concentration.
• Crack propagation
Once initiated the crack propagates through the first few grains in the direction of maximum shear stress, i.e.
at 45° to the normal stress. When the crack has attained a length of a few grain diameters, continued
propagation is controlled by the cyclic stress intensity field at the crack tip and the crack path becomes
oriented at 90° to the maximum principal stress direction. Although the major part of the fatigue life is spent
in crack initiation, this is not apparent from examination of the fracture surface where only the final
propagation stage can be seen.
3.1.3 Influences of various parameters
The relationships between initiation-controlled fatigue strength and other parameters are complex and
sometimes only known qualitatively. Nevertheless they are of great importance for material selection and
dimensioning of structural parts. Therefore a number of different parameters are discussed below with
respect to their influence on fatigue properties.
• Loading: Different loading conditions include cyclic tension and compression, cyclic torsion, cyclic
bending and any possible combination of these. As discussed in the context of yielding in Section 2.3
of Lecture 2.3.1, such complex stresses can be combined by means of the Hencky-von Mises
expression to generate an equivalent stress which can be compared with the fatigue strength obtained
from uniaxial loading.
• Mean stress: Fatigue strength is reduced by tensile mean stress and increased by compressive mean
stress.
• Frequency: For most materials no influence is observed over a wide range. Some alloys show a
smaller life time for lower frequencies because corrosion effects interfere.
• Microstructure: The influence of microstructural modification on fatigue strength is similar to that on
tensile strength. In general fatigue strength increases in proportion to tensile strength. For example,
for a wide range of wrought steels, the fatigue strength is between 40% and 50% of the tensile
strength. Improved purity raises fatigue strength.
• Residual stresses: As with mean stress effects, compressive residual stress improves fatigue strength,
whereas internal tensile stress has the opposite effect. To optimise fatigue strength, surface
compressive residual stress is generated by techniques such as shot peening, and surface rolling.
• Surface: Surface finish has a large influence on fatigue; the smoother the surface the better the
fatigue strength. The treatment of surfaces during manufacturing often causes strain hardening and

APPLIED METALLURGY
compressive residual stresses which both increase fatigue strength. The influence of notches is
described under "Geometry".
• Geometry: Notches and changes of section act as sites of stress concentration and hence have a
considerable influence on fatigue properties. For large smooth notches, the stress concentration must
be evaluated and incorporated in the fatigue analysis. Sharp notches behave as crack-like defects and
cause the fatigue behaviour to be propagation-controlled.
• Welding: Welding inevitably generates small crack-like defects which greatly lower the fatigue
strength and cause the fatigue to be propagation- controlled.
• Corrosion: Exposure to a corrosive environment facilitates both crack initiation and propagation.
Consequently the fatigue strength is reduced. The fatigue limit in steels may be eliminated in a
corrosive element.
3.1.4 Fatigue limit under actual service conditions
The S-N diagram characterises material behaviour under single-amplitude loading. For weight-saving
constructions exposed to complex stresses, the parameters determined by such tests are not sufficient.
For testing under realistic conditions, an analysis of the actual stresses has to be obtained. For that purpose
the sequence and duration of different stress levels, as well as their rise or fall, are recorded. This stress-time
function is either reproduced under laboratory conditions, or special testing programmes are calculated from
these data and used in experiments. Results obtained by this method cannot be transferred to different
materials and loading conditions.
3.1.5 Prediction of cumulative damage
The fundamental method of life time cumulative damage prediction was formulated by Miner. The damage
from each cycle at a certain stress level is defined as the reciprocal value of the number of cycles to fracture
(1/Ni). Fracture occurs when the sum of cycles at each level (ni) related to the number of cycles to failure (Ni)
is equal to unity. The mathematical expression is:
Since this is a very simple equation, results are widely scattered. In reality the values form a Gaussion
distribution with a maximum around 1. To guarantee safe construction, calculations are made with factors
smaller than 1 and stresses below their maximum values. Furthermore it is possible to take the effects of
different loading levels into account with respect to their number, maximum stress and sequence.
3.2 Propagation-Controlled Fatigue
Steel castings, rough forgings and welded structures invariably contain surface imperfections which behave
as minute crack-like defects which effectively eliminate the crack-initiation stage in fatigue. Consequently
the whole of the fatigue life is concerned with crack propagation. The rate of crack advance is determined by
the cyclic stress intensity ∆ Kr which is the cyclic equivalent of the stress intensity factor KI defined in
Section 1.5.
∆KI = Y ∆σ
where
∆σ is the cyclic stress range
a is the crack depth

APPLIED METALLURGY
Y is the correction function dependent on the crack and test piece geometry.
The rate of crack propagation is then given by the following relationship which is known as Paris' Law:
= C ∆KIm
N = Number of cycles
C is a material constant which is inversely proportional to Young's modulus E. The power m has a value of
about 3 for most metallic materials.
The advantage of the fracture mechanics description of crack propagation is that the rate equation can be
integrated to determine the number of cycles required for a crack to propagate from some initial length ai to
same final length af. Thus for m = 3;
Nf = 2 (1/ai½ - 1/af½ ) / (CY3∆σ3π3/2)
ai may be a known crack size or an NDT limit, af may be a critical defect size for unstable fracture or a
component dimension such as the wall thickness of a vessel.
In the above equation for the fatigue life, the constant C is dependent on the type of material but is not
sensitive to variations in microstructure or strength level. Consequently, for a given cyclic stress range, ∆σ,
the fatigue life is independant of the strength of the material. If, however, the stress range increases in
proportion to the material yield strength, then the fatigue life will be less for the higher strength material. For
example, a two-fold increase in stress range produces almost a ten-fold reduction in fatigue life. This is a
major constraint on the utilisation of higher strength structural steels for fatigue dominated applications.
The fatigue behaviour of welded joints is propagation-controlled. However it is impracticable to apply a

fracture mechanics analysis because the initial defect size cannot be evaluated and the cyclic stress range is
amplified by local stress concentration effects associated with the weld profile. Instead the fatigue strength is
determined experimentally for the range of weld types and welding processes which are commonly
employed in welded structures. This data is presented as a series of S-N curves for different weld
classifications as shown in Figure 16.
The fatigue strength of welded joints is not sensitive to the strength of the parent plate. Consequently, as
explained previously, it is difficult to take full advantage of higher strength steels in welded structures where
there is significant exposure to cyclic loading.
• Steels may fail by unacceptable brittle fracture.
• Satisfactory ductility has generally to be achieved by ensuring ductile rather than cleavage fracture.
• The tendency for brittle fracture increases in:
⋅ Reducing temperature
⋅ Increasing strain rate
⋅ Multi-axial tension
⋅ Geometric discontinuities causing stress concentrations.
• Fracture mechanics is a valuable means of quantifying the resistance of a material to fracture.

• The notched impact bend test (Charpy test) is a cost effective means of qualitatively monitoring
toughness.
APPLIED METALLURGY
• More accurate methods of monitoring toughness, e.g. CTOD testing, have developed from the
understanding of fracture mechanics.
• The optimal balance of strength and toughness can be achieved by a combination of chemical and
physical metallurgical treatments.
• Structures under repeated loading may fail by fatigue.
• Resistance to fatigue is influenced by stress range, number cycles, mean stress, geometry, residual
stresses and defects, especially those associated in welding.
1. Griffith, A.A., Phil. Trans. Royal Society A221 (1921).
2. Wells, A.A., Unstable Crack Propagation in Metals: Cleavage and Fast Fracture, Proc. Symp. Crack
Propagation, Cranfield 1961, Vol. 1.
3. E 813-81 Standard Test Method for JIC, A Measure of Fracture Toughness, ASTM 1981.
4. Method for crack opening displacement testing, BS5762, British Standard Institution, London 1979.
5. Methods of tests for plain strain fracture toughness (KIc) of metallic materials, BS5447, British
Standard Institution, London 1977.
6. Milne, I. et al, Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects, CEGB-R/H/R6-Rev. 3,
Central Electricity Generating Board, London, 1986.
7. Guidance on Methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded structures, PD 6493:
British Standards Institution, London 1991.
8. Kumar, V. et al, An Engineering Approach for Elastic-Plastic Fracture Analysis, Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI), NP 1931, Project 1237-1, Final Report, General Electric Company, New
York.
9. Dahl, W. et al, Application of Fracture Mechanics Concepts to the Failure of Wide Plates, Nuclear
Engineering Design 1985.
APPENDIX 1
Fracture toughness values of different materials
Material Kc (MNm-3/2) Material Kc (MNm-3/2)
Ductile metals, e.g. Cu 200 cast iron 15

Grade Fe430B structural steel 140 glass reinforced 40
(room temperature)
plastic 12
Grade Fe 430B structural steel (- 40
100° C)
Pressure vessel steels 170

APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Presentation of the present classes of structural steels.
SUMMARY
The lecture approaches classification of materials in terms of chemical composition, mechanical and
technological properties, and defines the main specifications applicable to different classes of structural
steels.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to its high strength, its good machineability and its high economic efficiency, steel is one of the most
important construction materials. By changes in the chemical composition and in the production conditions,
it is possible to vary steel properties over a wide range and the steel manufacturer is able to adapt the
properties to the specific requirements of users (Appendix 1) [1].
As well as chemical and mechanical properties, internal soundness, surface quality, form and geometrical
dimensions can be important criteria for steel product users.
The steels used for structural applications are mainly hot rolled in the form of sections, plates, strip, wide
flats, bars and hollow sections. Such products may have undergone cold forming operations after hot rolling.
Cast and forged material is also sometimes used.
In order to facilitate production, ordering and use of steel products, steel grades and qualities are listed in
quality standards and specifications, giving chemical composition, mechanical and technological properties.
This lecture deals with the classification of steel grades and gives an overview of the main grades used for
structural steelwork.
2. DEFINITION OF STEEL
According to European standard EN 10 020 [2], steel is a material which contains by weight more iron than
any other single element, having a carbon content generally less than 2% and containing other elements
(Figure 1). A limited number of chromium steels may contain more than 2% of carbon, but 2% is the usual
dividing line between steel and cast iron.

APPLIED METALLURGY
3. CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL GRADES

The European standard EN 10020 [2] classifies steel grades into:
• non-alloy and alloy steels by chemical composition

• quality classes defined by main property or application characteristics for non-alloy and alloy steels.
3.1 Classification by Chemical Composition

APPLIED METALLURGY
Classification is based on the ladle analysis specified in the standard or product specification, and is
determined by the minimum values specified for each element.
Non-alloy steels are steel grades for which none of the limit values in Appendix 2 is reached.
Alloy steels are steel grades for which at least one of the limit values given in Appendix 2 is reached.
3.2 Classification by Main Quality Classes
Steel grades can be classified into the following quality classes:
• Classes of non-alloy steels
⋅ Non-alloy base steels

⋅ Non-alloy quality steels
⋅ Non-alloy special steels
• Classes of alloy steels
⋅ Alloy quality steels

⋅ Alloy special steels
For this classification, the following points have to be taken into consideration:
• Chemical composition
• Mechanical properties
• Heat treatment
• Cleanness in terms of non-metallic inclusions
• Particular quality requirements, e.g. suitability for cold forming, cold drawing, etc.
• Physical properties
• Application
Details of this classification are given in the standard EN 10020 [2].
4. QUALITY STANDARDS FOR STRUCTURAL STEELS

4.1 General Considerations
This section describes the form of a quality standard for structural steels and analyses the main points.
Generally the content of such a standard is the following:
• Object and field of application.

• Classification and designation of qualities.
• Steel manufacturing process.
• Delivery conditions.
• Chemical composition.
• Mechanical properties.
• Technological properties.
• Surface finish.
• Inspection and testing.
• Product marking.

APPLIED METALLURGY
4.2 The Main Points
4.2.1 Steel Manufacturing Process
The steel manufacturing process (Basic-Oxygen-Furnace, Electric-Furnace, etc.) is generally the option of
the manufacturer.
For the deoxidation method, the following are possible:
• Optional: method at the manufacturer's option.

• Rimming steel (no addition of deoxidation elements). This type of steel is used only for steels with
low yield strengths and no special toughness requirements.
• Rimming steel not permitted: the manufacturer may deliver either semi-killed or killed steel.
• Fully killed steel containing nitrogen binding elements in amounts sufficient to bind the available
nitrogen, e.g. minimum 0,020% Al.
4.2.2 Delivery Conditions
Several supply conditions are allowed:
• Supply at the manufacturer's option.

• Hot-rolled i.e. as-rolled.
• Thermomechanical treatment: Normalizing forming (N),
Thermomechanical forming (TM).
• Normalized (N).
It should be noted that quenched and tempered steels are not discussed in this lecture.
The definitions for thermomechanical treatment of steels are given in Appendix 3.
The supply condition of the product is very important with respect to the application of the steel. This
condition should, therefore, be clearly stated in the order. Particular attention must be paid to normalized (N),
or normalizing formed (N) products and thermomechanically formed steels (TM). Thermomechanically
formed material, unlike N-material, is not suitable for subsequent heat-treatment (except stress-relieving) or
hot deformation (1100°C). Treatment of TM-steels at high temperatures leads to a decrease in strength.
It should be noted that TM-treated material has the following advantages compared to N-steels of the same
grade:
• Lower content of alloying elements.

• Better weldability due to a lower carbon equivalent.
• Lower cost.
• Time saving due to the in-line treatment.
• No product length limitations.
4.2.3 Chemical Composition
The requirements are based on the ladle analysis and not on the product analysis. If a product analysis is
specified, the permissible deviations of the product analysis from the specified limits of the ladle analysis
have to be considered.
4.2.4 Mechanical Properties

APPLIED METALLURGY
Quality standards generally specify tensile and notch toughness properties.
4.2.4.1 Tensile properties

Yield strength ReH minimum value
Tensile strength Rm minimum and maximum values
Elongation minimum value
The required values depend on the material thickness. Yield strength and tensile strength decrease with
increasing thickness, which can be explained by the fact that for thicker material the grain refinement during
rolling is smaller.
4.2.4.2 Notch toughness properties (impact test)
The test temperature and the minimum absorbed energy are specified.
4.2.4.3 Sampling direction
The mechanical properties can be specified for the longitudinal and/or for the transverse direction.
Longitudinal means parallel to the rolling direction; transverse is perpendicular to the principal rolling
direction. During the hot rolling of long products the deformation takes place mainly in one direction
creating an anisotropy which results in different mechanical properties in the longitudinal and the transverse
directions. The difference is most marked in ductility (elongation, notch toughness).
4.2.5 Technological Properties
Technological properties include weldability and formability.
4.2.5.1 Weldability
Weldability, which is a very important property of structural steels, is judged on the basis of:
a. tendency to cold cracking
b. toughness of the heat affected zone
Weldability is influenced by the chemical composition and by the metallographic structure of the steel. By
increasing the content of alloying elements the weldability is decreased. An improvement in weldability is
obtained by grain refinement.
Weldability generally decreases with increasing tensile strength which is related to the higher content of
alloying elements in the higher strength steels.
Figure 2 shows the influence of composition on weldability. Rate of cooling increases susceptibility to cold
cracking and is controlled by the combined thickness of the heat paths away from the weld, the vertical axis
on the graph. Arc energy, the horizontal axis on the graph, also influences cooling rate; the higher the heat
input the longer it will take to cool. The graph shows how reducing the carbon equivalent increases the
range of conditions which can be welded with a particular preheat, in this instance 100°C, and a particular
welding process, in this instance MAG with conventional wire electrodes.

APPLIED METALLURGY
4.2.5.2 Formability
Structural steels are suitable for hot and cold forming. It should be noted that thermomechanically treated
steels should not be used for hot forming (see also Delivery Conditions in Section 4.2.2).
Cold formability includes flangeability, roll forming and drawing of bars. Cold formability is evaluated by
bend tests. The specified inside bending radius increases with increasing material thickness and tensile
strength. The bend test samples can be taken in the longitudinal or transverse direction.
4.2.6 Surface finish
The steel product should be free from such defects as would preclude its use for the purpose for which it is
intended.
4.2.7 Inspection and testing
The quality standards specify:
• Type of test (tensile, impact, bend, chemical analysis, etc.).

• Batching: the verification of the mechanical properties can be carried out by lot (e.g. one test for
every 20, 40 or 60 products) or by melt.
• Inspection units: number of tests per batch.
• Position of the test samples: according to Euronorm 18 [3] (see Figure 3).
• Selection and preparation of test pieces.

APPLIED METALLURGY
4.2.8 Marking
Steel products shall be marked by painting, stamping or durable adhesive labels with the following
information:
• Steel grade.
• Heat number.
• Manufacturers name or trademark.
5. STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES

In this section the following structural steel grades are described:
• Hot-rolled products in non-alloy steels for general structural applications to EN 10 025 [4].
• Hot-rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels to EN10113 [5].
• Structural steels for offshore applications.
• Weathering steels to Euronorm 155 [6].
• Anti-lamellar steel grades.
• Steel grades for hot dip galvanizing.
5.1 Hot-Rolled Products in Non-Alloy Steels for General Structural Applications to EN

10025 [4]
5.1.1 General Description

APPLIED METALLURGY
This standard specifies the requirements for long products (such as sections and bars) and flat products (such
as plate, sheet and strip) of hot-rolled non-alloy general purpose (base) and quality steels. These steels are
intended for use in welded, bolted and riveted structures for service at ambient temperature.
5.1.2 Designation of the Steels
The designation consists of:
• The number of the European standard (EN 10025).

• The symbol FS.
• The indication of the minimum specified yield strength for thicknesses ≤ 16mm expressed in N/mm2.
• The quality designation in respect of weldability and resistance to brittle fracture JR, J0, J2 and K2.
• If applicable, an indication of the deoxidation method (G1 or G2).
• If applicable, the letter symbolic for the suitability for cold flanging, cold rolling or cold drawing.
• If applicable the indication + N when the products have normalizing rolling.
Example: Steel with a specified minimum tensile strength at ambient temperature of 510 N/mm2, quality
grade J0 and with no requirements for deoxidation and suitable for cold flanging (designation C) is given by:
Steel EN 10 025 S355 JO C

Grade Impact @ 0° C Suitable for Cold forming
5.1.3 Steel Grades
There are three standard grades of structural steel.
These are summarized in the following table:
Steel Yield strength Quality Impact test temperature Type of

grade min. [N/mm2] 1) (°C) deoxidation 2)
S235 235 JR +20 optional FU,FN
J0 0 FN
J2 -20 FF
S275 275 JR +20 FN
J0 0 FN
J2 -20 FF
S355 355 JR +20 FN
J0 0 FN
J2 -20 FF
K2 -20 FF

APPLIED METALLURGY
1) based on material thickness ≤ 16mm
2) FU = rimming steel
FN = rimming steel not permitted
FF = fully killed
All these grades are C-Mn steels, which can be supplied in the as-rolled, thermomechanically treated or
normalised condition. Steel grade S355 has the highest manganese content and can also be microalloyed.
5.2 Hot-Rolled Products in Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels to EN 10 113 [5]
This standard applies to hot rolled, weldable structural steels of special quality, which are delivered in the
form of flat and long products.
The steels are used in heavily loaded parts of welded structures such as bridges, storage tanks, etc.
The minimum yield strength of these steel grades lies between 275 and 460N/mm2 and the chemical
composition is chosen in such a way that good weldability is guaranteed. The steels are fully killed and
contain nitrogen binding elements in amounts sufficient to bind the available nitrogen. The steels have a fine
grain structure.
5.2.2 Delivery Conditions
The supply condition for all products is normalized or normalizing formed (N) or thermomechanically
formed (M) as defined in Appendix 3.
5.2.3 Classification of Qualities
All grades can be delivered in the following qualities:
KG: for qualities with specified minimum values of impact energy at temperatures not lower than -20°C.
KT: extra low temperature with specified minimum values of impact energy at extra low temperatures not
lower than -50°C.
5.2.4 Designation
The designation of the steels consists of the following:
• The number of the standard EN 10 113.

• The symbol S.
• The indication of the minimum specified yield strength for thicknesses ≤ 16mm expressed in N/mm2,
preceded by S.
• The delivery condition N or M.
• The capital letter for the quality with specified minimum values of impact energy at temperatures not
lower than -50°C.
Example: Steel with a specified minimum yield strength at ambient temperature of 355 N/mm2, thermo-
mechanically formed, which is appropriate for the application at -50°C:

APPLIED METALLURGY
EN 10 113-3 S355 M L
Standard Grade Supply condition Impact test at -50°C
5.2.5 Steel Grades and Qualities
The steel grades and qualities of this standard are summarized as follows:
Steel grade Quality Yield strength minimum Impact test temperature

[N/mm2] 1) [°C]
S275 M or N 275 -20
ML or NL -50
S355 M or N 355 -20
ML or NL -50
S420 M or N 420 -20
ML or NL -50
S460 M or N 460 -20
ML or NL -50
1) for thickness ≤ 16mm
It should be noted that for the impact test, values are specified for the longitudinal and for the transverse
direction, whereas for EN 10 025 [4] only values in the longitudinal direction are required. Minimum values
are also quoted for higher test temperatures but, unless specified at the time of the enquiry and order, the
impact value shall be verified with longitudinal test pieces tested at either -20°C or -50°C according to
quality.
5.3 Structural Steels for Offshore Applications
In the last ten years, specifications for steel grades for the offshore industry have developed mainly for
applications in the North Sea where the steel specifications are at present the most demanding in the world.
Quality improvements have been required by more challenging operations, e.g. drilling and production in
deeper waters and arctic areas, or as a result of more demanding safety philosophies.
Structural steels have had to be developed in order to guarantee the following properties:
• High yield strength (≥ 355 N/mm2).

• Good resistance to brittle fracture in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
• Excellent weldability.
• Unchanged properties after stress-relieving and flame-straightening.
• Resistance to lamellar tearing
• Good internal soundness.

APPLIED METALLURGY
In order to obtain a combination of all these properties, considerable progress has had to be made in
steelmaking and in rolling.
A European standard for offshore steel grades does not exist at present. These grades are specified in
material specifications established mainly by the oil companies. As each oil company has its own
specifications, the requirements for a particular offshore steel grade may differ from one company to another.
The requirements for offshore steels are much more severe than for all other structural applications. To
demonstrate this point, the requirements for chemical composition and toughness of the following four
structural steel grades each with a minimum yield strength of 355 N/mm2 are compared in Appendix 4:
• S355 K2 G3 to EN 10 025 [4]

• S355 N to EN 10 113-2 [5]
• S355 M to EN 10 113-3 [5]
• Offshore grade 355 (typical for the North Sea).
It can be seen in Appendix 4 that with the increasing toughness requirements the maximum carbon content
is reduced and is very low (0,12% maximum) for the offshore steel grade. Note that the loss of strength due
to the reduced carbon content is mainly balanced by the use of microalloys and/or by thermomechanical
rolling.
Furthermore offshore steel specifications require very low phosphorus and sulphur contents.
As weldability is one of the most important properties of an offshore steel grade, a maximum carbon
equivalent is specified for these steels (as is the case for most structural steels).
In order to guarantee high resistance against brittle fracture, the toughness requirements for offshore steel
grades are extremely high. For this type of steel, the requirements for the transverse direction are even
higher than those for the longitudinal direction of the other structural steel grades, see Figure 4.
5.4 Anti-lamellar Steel Grades

APPLIED METALLURGY
Anti-lamellar steel grades are structural steels having a high resistance to lamellar tearing, which is a
cracking phenomenon occurring especially beneath welded joints, Figure 5.
Three factors contribute to the occurrence of lamellar tearing:
(a) Poor ductility in the thickness direction, i.e. perpendicular to the surface.
(b) Structural restraint.

APPLIED METALLURGY
(c) Joint design.
As (b) and (c) are not related to steel quality, they are not discussed in this section.
In general, rolled steels have ductility properties in the thickness (Z-direction) which are inferior to those in
the rolling direction. The main reason for low through-thickness ductility is non-metallic inclusions, mainly
of manganese sulphide and manganese silicate which are elongated in the direction of rolling.
A high level of through-thickness ductility is obtained by special ladle treatment during steelmaking that
ensures a very low sulphur content and a controlled shape of non-metallic inclusions.
5.4.2 Anti-lamellar Qualities
Resistance to lamellar tearing is expressed in terms of reduction in area of through-thickness tensile tests.
According to EN 10 164 [7], three anti-lamellar quality levels can be ordered:
Quality Reduction in area in through-thickness

direction (%)
Z15 15 (minimum)
Z25 25 (minimum)
Z35 35 (minimum)
Recommendations for use are:
Z15: for welded joints subjected to moderate stresses
Z25: for welded joints subjected to severe stresses
Z35: for heavily stressed welded joints and substantial restraint.
5.5 Weathering Steel to EN 10 155 [6]
A disadvantage of non-alloyed structural steels is their corrosion tendency under atmospheric conditions.
They usually have to be coated or painted in order to protect the surface against moisture, oxygen and
aggressive chemicals. To reduce rust formation and thus avoid painting, weathering steels have been
developed.
Weathering steels belong to a family of atmospheric corrosion resistant low alloy steels intended for
applications requiring long service life and low maintenance costs.
These steels are produced by the addition of small amounts of alloying elements, especially copper, to
ordinary steel. A copper content of 0,2 - 0,3% improves the corrosion resistance up to 50% compared with
copper-free steel. Phosphorus reinforces the action of copper. A further improvement in the corrosion
resistance of copper-containing steels can be obtained by small additions of chromium and nickel. These two
elements are very effective in industrial atmospheres polluted by sulphur dioxide.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Weathering steel can be used in the unpainted condition. Due to natural changes in the weather, the steel
surface is progressively covered by a protective layer, red-brownish in colour, which results in a decrease in
the corrosion rate.
Weathering steels are used for architectural, decorative and industrial applications. The main industrial uses
are in applications requiring minimum maintenance, such as halls, bridges and electric transmission towers.
5.5.2 Corrosion Resistance
During the early period of atmospheric exposure, rust forms on weathering steel just as in the case of
ordinary steel. As the rust layer grows, it becomes a dense protective oxide film or patina which adheres
tightly to the base metal. This patina forms a protective barrier between the steel and the atmosphere,
thereby inhibiting further corrosion.
The formation of the patina is strongly dependent on local environmental and climatic conditions. In order to
acquire a tight protective oxide coating, the steel surface must generally be alternately dry and wet. In no
case should the steel surface be continuously moist.
In marine atmospheres the protection given by the patina is less effective. However the weight loss of
weathering steel remains at a lower level than ordinary steel, Figure 6. In such an environment,
supplementary protection can be obtained by painting. This paint coating will be far more durable on
weathering steels than on normal steels.

APPLIED METALLURGY
In industrial atmospheres containing a significant amount of sulphur dioxide, the patina is quickly formed
and the corrosion rate of the steel is decreased, Figure 6.
Places where the weather coating is ineffective are:
• warm and damp sites

• in railway track
• in water
• places regularly subject to flowing water
• places where the protective layer is removed by physical contact.
5.5.3 Steel Grades
The principal steel grades of EN 10 155 [6] are:
Steel grade Alloying Minimum Yield Impact test

strength N/mm2 1) temperature (°C)
2)
S 235J0W Cu-Cr 235 0
S 235J2W -20
S 355J0WP Cu-Cr-P-(Ni) 355 0
S 355J2WP -20
S 355J0W Cu-Cr-(Ni)-(Mo)-(Zr) 355 0
S 355J2W -20
1) for thicknesses ≤ 16 mm
2) W is the designation for weathering steels
3) P is for the class with the greater phosphorus content (only in the case of grade S355)
Chemical composition, mechanical and technological properties are given in Appendices 7 and 8.
Weathering steels can be delivered as sections, bars and flats in the as-rolled condition. Other delivery
conditions can be agreed.
5.5.4 Welding
Weathering steel can be welded with all manual and automatic welding processes as long as the general
rules for welding are followed.
The weld metal should be adapted to the mechanical properties of the base metal. The atmospheric corrosion
resistance of the weld metal should be equal to or better than that of the steel.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The colouring of the weld surface under atmospheric corrosion is dependant on the chemical composition of
the weld metal. A good matching of colours may however be achieved by using weld metal of about the
same composition as the steel.
5.6 Steel Grades for Hot Dip Galvanizing
For certain structural applications, corrosion protection by hot dip galvanizing is needed, requiring the use of
an appropriate steel grade.
In general, all ordinary structural steel grades can be hot dip galvanized provided that the silicon content of
the steel is at the right level. Silicon has a strong influence on the iron and zinc reaction during galvanizing,
Figure 7. Steels with a low silicon content (≤ 0,03%) or with a silicon content in the range of 0,13 to 0,30%
can be satisfactorily galvanized. For steels with a silicon content between 0,04 and 0,13% or above 0,30%,
the zinc layer may be excessively thick and present a risk of brittleness or lack of adherence.
Recent investigations have shown that the action of silicon is favoured by phosphorus.
These aspects must be taken into consideration by the steel users and the galvanizers when choosing the
chemical composition of material ordered for galvanizing.
• A wide range of steels is available for structural applications. This range allows designers and
constructors to optimize steel structures in relation to cost saving, weight saving, safety,
machinability, and thus overall economic efficiency.
• Strong competition between steel producers and the manufacturers of alternative materials has
accelerated the development of advanced technologies for further general improvement of both the
quality and the economics of steel.

APPLIED METALLURGY
• Technical progress in steelmaking and especially in thermomechanical rolling has been extensive
during the last decade.
• The developments have resulted in the economic production of a new generation of high strength
low alloy steels combining properties formerly supposed to be incompatible, i.e. high strength,
excellent weldability, and good resistance to brittle fracture.
• For the users these developments have given new opportunities for cost savings and easier
fabrication and in this way have contributed to a considerable improvement in the competitiveness of
steel structures.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Stahlsorten und ihre Eigenschaften J. Degenkolbe
Stähle für den Stahlbau, Eigenschaften, Verarbeitung und Anwendung
Berichtsband Stahl Eisen
Herausgeber: Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute (VDEh)
[2] EN 10 020 Definition and classification of grades of steel, November 1988.
[3] Euronorm 18-79 Sampling and preparation of samples for steel products.
[4] EN 10 025 Hot rolled products in non-alloy steels for general structural applications, March 1990 (+ A1,
August 1993).
[5] EN 10 113 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels, March 1993.
[6] EN 10 155 Weathering steels, June 1993.
[7] EN 10 164 Steel products with improved deformation properties perpendicular to the surface of the
product, June 1993.
APPENDIX 1: REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STEELS

Strength
• Deformation resistance
• Fatigue resistance
Toughness
• Ductility
• Resistance to brittle fracture
Weldability
• Resistance to cold cracking

• Good toughness in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
Corrosion resistance
• Minimal rust formation

• Resistance to hydrogen induced cracking
Homogeneity

APPLIED METALLURGY
APPENDIX 2: DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL

GRADES TO EN 10 020
Boundary between non-alloy and alloy steels
Specified element Limit Value (% by

weight)
Al Aluminium 0,10
B Boron 0,0008
Bi Bismuth 0,10
Co Cobalt 0,10
Cr Chromium(1) 0,30
Cu Copper(1) 0,40
La Lanthanides (each) 0,05
Mn Manganese 1,65(3)
Mo Molybdenum 0,08
Nb Niobium(2) 0,06
Ni Nickel(1) 0,30
Pb Lead 0,40
Se Selenium 0,10
Si Silicon 0,50
Te Tellurium 0,10
Ti Titanium(2) 0,05
V Vanadium(2) 0,10
W Tungsten 0,10
Zr Zirconium(2) 0,05
Others (except carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen) (each) 0,05
(1) Where elements are specified in combinations of two, three or four and have
individual alloy contents less than those given in the table, the limit value to be
applied for classification is that the sum of their total contents must be less than
70% of the sum of the individual limit values.
(2) The rule in (1) above applies to this group of elements.
(3) Where manganese is specified only as a maximum, the limit value is 1,80%
and the 70% rule does not apply.

APPLIED METALLURGY
APPENDIX 3: DEFINITIONS FOR THE THERMOMECHANICAL

TREATMENT OF STEEL
Thermomechanical treatment is a hot forming procedure in which the variation in time of both temperature
and deformation is controlled in order to achieve a certain material condition and thus certain material
properties.
Thermomechanical treatment is subdivided into the following procedures:
Normalizing forming
Normalizing forming (1) is a thermomechanical treatment in which the final deformation is carried out in a
temperature range so that the austenite completely recrystallises leading to a material condition equivalent to
that obtained after normalizing.
The designation of this condition of delivery is N.
Thermomechanical forming
Thermomechanical forming (1) is a thermomechanical treatment in which the final deformation is carried out
in a temperature range which permits little, if any, recrystallisation of the austenite. The final forming occurs
at a temperature above Ar3 or between Ar1 and Ar3. Thermomechanical forming leads to a material condition
with certain material properties. This material condition cannot be achieved or repeated by heat treatment
alone.
The designation of this condition of delivery is TM.
NOTE 1: Thermomechanical forming can be combined with accelerated cooling - intensive cooling, direct
quenching - and/or with tempering after forming. Again the resulting material condition cannot be achieved
or repeated by heat treatment alone.
NOTE 2: Normalizing forming can also be followed by accelerated cooling, with or without quenching, or
with quenching and auto-tempering or with quenching and tempering. Although this procedure is closer to
controlled normalizing forming than thermomechanical forming, it leads to a material condition which
cannot be reproduced by heat treatment alone. Therefore the designation of this condition of delivery is also:
TM.
(1)
For both terms, "Normalizing forming" and "Thermomechanical forming" the term "controlled rolling" is
common. In view of the use of the different steel grades, it is necessary to distinguish the conditions of
delivery by special terms.

APPLIED METALLURGY
APPENDIX 4: COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (LADLE ANALYSIS) FOR

STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES PROVIDING A MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH OF 355N/mm2
Element S 355K2G3 S 355N according S 355M Offshore

(%) according to to EN 10113-2 [5] according to EN Grade 355
EN10025 [4] 10113-3 [5]
C max 0,20 0,20 0,14 0,12
Mn max 1,60 1,65 1,60 1,60
Si max 0,55 0,50 0,50 0,50
P max 0,035 0,035 0,030 0,015
S max 0,035 0,030 0,025 0,008
Cu max 0,35 0,30
Ni max 0,50 0,30 0,40
Cr max 0,30 0,20
Mo max 0,10 0,20 0,08
V max 0,12 0,10 0,08
Nb max 0,060 0,050 0,04
Ti max 0,03 0,050 0,05
Al 0,20 0,020 0,06
N max min min max
Sb max 0,020 0,020 0,009
Pb max 0,010
Sn max 0,003
B max 0,020
Ca max 0,002
CEV 1) 0,43 0,39 0,39

max
1) Carbon equivalent =

APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.5: Selection of Steel Quality

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the selection of steel quality in relation to requirements of toughness.
SUMMARY
Selection of the right steel quality for a structure is a matter of major significance as regards both the safety
and the economy of constructional steelwork. This lecture surveys procedures which have been proposed for
this purpose and presents the new rules which are included in Annex C of Eurocode 3 [1]. All these express,
as a function of extreme service conditions applicable to a structure, a toughness level specified in terms of
performance in the Charpy V test that the selected steel should fulfil, with a transition temperature at the
level of 28J for instance. Numerous comparisons between the output of different procedures are reported
which, on the one hand highlight their consistency, while on the other hand the possible sources of
discrepancies among the various material requirements determined using these procedures. Such procedures
are based on fracture mechanics concepts such as those of the Stress Intensity Factor, the Crack Tip Opening
Displacement or the Full Yield Criterion. As an introduction the lecture reviews the main aspects of
resistance to brittle failure, with reference to basic documents which the reader may find it useful to consult
for more detail.
1. INTRODUCTION
There are circumstances when the integrity of a structure is governed not by the strength of the metal but by
another property, namely toughness.
Such situations generally imply the presence of defects in the structure such as cracks or sharp notches and
are favoured by the occurrence of low temperature. The incidence of dynamic loads is another parameter
enhancing the risk of so-called brittle fracture.
Thus the engineer has to consider that the concept of ultimate boundary states and the fulfilment of the
related criteria may apply and lead to a safe design only if the pre-requisite conditions that prevent brittle
failure are met.
In normal circumstances, it is impracticable to undertake a detailed 'fitness-for-purpose' analysis involving

sophisticated fracture mechanics tests either at the design stage or during fabrication and erection of
conventional structures. For such constructions, simple rules have to be developed and specified in building
codes to define which qualities of steel should be selected to ensure a safe design.
This lecture is divided into sections devoted respectively to:
• A brief survey of brittle failure.

• A review of different fracture mechanics concepts.
• A presentation of the different approaches on which a methodology for steel selection may be based.
• An illustration of the present solution adopted for Eurocode 3 [1] and of the work planned on this
subject in the near future under the auspices of the International Institute of Welding.
2. THE PHENOMENON OF BRITTLE FAILURE

A material is generally said to be brittle if it cannot be deformed to any appreciable degree prior to fracture.
This behaviour does not imply that the ultimate tensile strength measured on a smooth specimen during a
tensile test is low. On the contrary, the opposite phenomenon is usually observed. Hardening treatments

APPLIED METALLURGY
which aim to increase strength are usually accompanied by a dramatic degradation of ductility and tend to
enhance brittleness.
Brittleness is neither an absolute nor a simple concept. As a rule, the susceptibility to brittle behaviour in a
given material is increased by:
• the lower the temperature to which it is exposed.

• the more rapid the loading to which it is submitted.
• the more disturbed the stress distribution it experiences.
Brittleness is influenced by ductility, i.e. the capacity of a material to strain plastically, and by strain-
hardenability, i.e. the property of developing a higher strength while undergoing plastic deformation.
Ductility can easily be appraised in a bend test under strain-controlled conditions where the material is bent
round a mandrel with large plastic strains being induced in the outer fibres of the specimen (Figure 1). The
more ductile material can be bent round a smaller mondrel without fracture.
Strain-hardenability is appraised in a tensile test and is quantified by the slope of the stress-strain curve in
the plastic regime. Strain hardening governs the amount of uniform elongation a material may undergo
before necking or fracturing (Figure 2).

APPLIED METALLURGY
A material showing no ductility is intrinsically brittle and produces, even in a defect-free situation,
negligible plastic elongation during a tensile test and no strain hardening. Such a material is glass.
Steel usually exhibits ductile behaviour in the tensile test and the presence of some defect is necessary to
induce brittleness. The defect may be a geometrical discontinuity with sharp edges constituting a stress
raiser, or an area in which the mechanical properties are locally impaired such as the heat affected zone of a
weld, or a region of local plastic deformation which may undergo subsequent strain ageing. Often, both
geometrical and metallurgical defects are present together; weldments may undergo lack of penetration or
contain cold cracks, while punches or shears may create burrs or notches. A large embrittling effect may
thus be induced.
Should the ductility of the metal at the tip of the notch be very poor, then no possibility would exist to blunt
the notch by plastic deformation. The result would be a brittle failure occurring at a load which can be
calculated from linear elastic theory as a function of the component dimensions, the notch size and the
toughness characteristics of the metal.

APPLIED METALLURGY
In the case where a degree of ductility is available, crack blunting occurs and is reflected in a degree of crack
opening. The fracture behaviour is then significantly influenced by the strain hardenability of the metal. If
little strain hardening is available, then the crack may propagate through the component at a rather constant
stress level, either by ductile tearing or brittle cracking.
Different fracture behaviour can be observed with a ductile metal which is capable of sustained strain
hardening since propagation of the defect after crack blunting requires an increasing load to be applied to the
component. Such conditions give rise to stable crack propagation.
3. FRACTURE MECHANICS CONCEPTS AND TESTING

PROCEDURES
Several specific tests have been developed to assess the fracture behaviour of materials in various loading
conditions and defect configurations. It is not the scope of this lecture to detail the testing procedures or
review the methods for derivation of toughness values. However, it is worth listing the main concepts and
types of test as well as the assumptions on which they rely.
Fracture Mechanics has been approached in a rigorous way on the basis of linear elastic theory which led to
the well-known concept of stress intensity factor, KI [2]. This parameter defines completely the stress field
in the vicinity of a crack. Fracture occurs when it attains a critical value which is a characteristic of the
material. The main assumption of this theory is the presence of minimal plastic strain at the crack tip. With
steel, such conditions may be met with very high strength products or when the thickness is large. Table 1
defines the basic equations of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) together with the conditions of
applicability.
In many circumstances significant plasticity takes place at the crack front prior to failure and crack opening
may be observed before fracture initiation (Figure 3). The concept of Crack Opening Displacement (COD)
or more precisely (CTOD) defines the amplitude of the crack tip plasticity under a given stress situation.
Fracture initiates when this parameter reaches a critical value (δcrit) which is a characteristic of the material
and a measurement of its toughness [3].

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The theory of the J integral is based on the same assumptions as above but computes a specific fracture
energy whose value is independent of the contour of integration and which is an alternative measurement of
the material toughness [4].
It is important to mention that both the CTOD and the J concepts are designed to assess situations in which
fracture occurs in the elasto-plastic region, but imply nevertheless a relatively small extent of plastic strain at
the crack tip. To assess the risk of failure by brittle fracture, means have been provided to estimate the
CTOD or J values in a large structure containing a defect, as a function of the overall applied loads. These
estimated values are then compared with the critical failure values for the relevant material. A well known
design curve for such fitness-for-purpose analysis is based on the CTOD approach (Figure 4).

APPLIED METALLURGY
All the above procedures normally require that the product be tested with its full thickness so as to derive a
suitable toughness index. Although this condition may involve test specimens having rather large
dimensions, it can never be considered as appraising the overall fracture behaviour of a structural component.
Therefore, the relevance of the transferability of the test data for the appraisal of large structures has to be
verified by comparing the computed fracture behaviour to that experimentally observed during tests on a
very large piece whose size is similar to the parts of a real structure.
The Wide Plate test has been designed with this aim. It involves tensile testing, possibly at lowered
temperature, of a wide specimen (1m wide for instance) containing deliberate through-thickness or surface
cracks. A convenient evaluation of performance in the Wide Plate test is provided by the Yield criterion [5].
When full yield occurs, then all sections of the specimen, even those not affected by the defect, develop
plastic strains so that the overall elongation is sufficient to prevent a sudden failure. Full yield also ensures
that the structure can reach its maximum elastic design load, i.e. the product of the material yield stress and
the gross section, as if it were not affected by the defect, which is an obvious asset for safety. A critical
defect length can be defined above which the criterion can no longer be fulfilled; then only net section
yielding or contained yielding are achieved. Table 2 summarises the main concepts relating to the Wide
Plate test.
There are situations in which resistance to failure is not governed by toughness but by the load bearing
capability of the net section in the part affected by a defect. This situation may occur with quite ductile
materials affected by cracks. Plastic collapse corresponds to the achievement of unlimited displacements in
the net section when the applied load induces a net section stress equal to the material flow stress. A ratio Sr
may be defined to express the safety against plastic collapse for a given loading condition. It is sometimes
more convenient to use the material yield stress as a reference and think in terms of plastic yield load. A
ratio Lr is then considered. Table 3 defines the parameters.
Although the assumptions associated with Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics and Plastic Collapse lead to
quite opposite fracture mechanisms, both concepts may actually apply to the same material and even the
same structure depending on the defect size. Figure 5 illustrates this situation for the simple example of a
wide plate containing a through-thickness defect. For small defect sizes the lowest fracture resistance is
dictated by plastic collapse concepts, whereas for larger defects the lowest fracture resistance is obtained
from linear elastic theory.

APPLIED METALLURGY
This interactive behaviour supports the so-called two-criteria approach developed by CEGB in 1976, and
known as the R6 procedure, whose latest 3rd revision is now well developed [6]. A Failure Assessment
Diagram (FAD) expresses the risk of failure in a two-dimensional space using the Sr or Lr parameter as the
abscissa and a Kr variable as the ordinate. Kr is the ratio between the applied and critical KI stress intensity
factors. Safe and unsafe conditions are discriminated by a curve quantifying the interaction. The main
aspects of this method are summarised in Table 4.
4. METHODOLOGIES FOR STEEL SELECTION

Toughness properties of structural steels are generally classified in material standards such as the new EN
10025 [7] and EN 10113 [8] in terms of performance in the Charpy V test. While levels of absorbed energy
may be defined for different test temperatures, a simple and classical characteristic often encountered is the
Transition Temperature at the level of 28J: TK28
Any methodology for steel selection applicable to standardised steel grades must involve the following steps:
i. A definition of extreme service conditions against which to address the resistance to fracture of a structure,
i.e. a size of defect, a mode of loading (static or dynamic) and a level of internal or external stress.
ii. A method of fracture analysis leading to the derivation of toughness requirements as a function of the
above conditions.
iii. A relationship between the toughness requirements and a transition temperature or energy in the Charpy
V test.
The different methods that are available are reviewed below.
4.1 The French Approach
This procedure was designed by Sanz and co-workers at IRSID in the late seventies, elaborated by a
Working Group of ATS and published in 1980 [9].
It is based on a set of experimental relationships between the transition temperatures in KIC and Charpy V
tests, which are illustrated in Figure 6, which is reproduced from the original publication.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The analysis of the risk of brittle failure is based on Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics, and toughness
requirements are derived in agreement with this theory. Some modifications which were introduced for
simplification purposes are highlighted in the document and result in more conservative assumptions.
A particular feature of the method lies in the fact that defect sizes are defined in relation to plate thickness so
as to match with the conditions of plane strain and thus ensure the applicability of a LEFM approach.
The main steps involved in the definition and application of the SANZ method are summarised in Table 5.
The final formula leading to the definition of steel quality in terms of a TK28 index takes account of the
service temperature and the strain rate to which the structure may be exposed, as well as the scatter in the
experimental relations.
Some predictions of the necessary transition temperature at the Charpy V level of 28J are illustrated in Table
6 for the condition of a structure operating at a minimum service temperature of 0°C and possibly loaded up
to the material yield stress at a slow strain rate (έ = 0,1s-1).
4.2 The British Approach
This method conceived by George in the United Kingdom was first proposed to the International Institute of
Welding in 1979 [10].
It relies on an elasto-plastic analysis of the fracture resistance using the CTOD design curve for a structure
containing a surface flaw of 0,2 times the plate thickness, in a field having a high level of residual stress and
loaded to 0,67 times the yield stress. The steel quality is defined in terms of the required Charpy V energy at
the service temperature assuming a relationship between this energy and the critical CTOD value. The
formula derived in this way was calibrated against results from wide plate tests and practical experience.
Table 7 reviews the main assumptions supporting the method and the mathematical relationships which are
derived.
Toughness requirements for a range of steel grades and thicknesses are listed in Table 8.
4.3 The Belgian Approach
Developed in the late 1980's, this method directly links the fracture behaviour of wide plates containing
through-thickness defects which are tensile tested at temperatures between -10 and -50°C, to the following
metal characteristics: tensile strength or tensile-to-yield ratio and Charpy V energy at the same temperature
[11].
Net fracture stress of the wide plate is first expressed as a function of defect size in terms of a linear
decreasing function whose ordinate at the origin precisely equals the tensile strength of the metal and whose
slope is inversely proportional to the toughness expressed by the Charpy V energy. Figure 7 illustrates these
relationships. Net fracture stress is then converted into gross section stress using the specimen width as a
correction parameter. At that stage the critical defect size according to the full yield criterion is computed as
the smaller positive root of a second order equation.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Table 9 lists the principal rules of the model which was originally developed to document the fracture
behaviour of parent metal and later extended to appraise butt welded wide plates. In the latter case, local
values of tensile strength and toughness of the metal at the crack tip are considered by using Charpy
specimens with the notch root positioned in either the weld metal or the heat affected zone. Hardness
measurements are carried out and converted into a proper Rm when this parameter cannot be directly
derived from a tensile test. For plain or welded plates, the yield stress used in the formulae is always that of
the base metal away from the crack.
APPLIED METALLURGY
5. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED IN EUROCODE 3

The method for steel selection adopted in Eurocode 3 [1] results from a combination and a synthesis
between the concepts proposed in the French method and the recommendations of CEGB [6]. The Eurocode
procedure is described in recent publications [12, 13] and can be summarised as follows:
This approach considers three alternative stressing conditions (S1, S2, S3), two possible levels of strain rate
(R1, R2) and two consequences of failure (C1, C2) which respectively allow distinction between:
(a) Lower or higher stresses, monolithic elements or welded joints, stress-relieved or as-welded structures,
weaker or stronger effects induced by stress raisers.
(b) Quasi-static or rapid stressing conditions corresponding, on the one hand to permanent loads, actions of
wind, waves or traffic, and on the other hand to impacts, explosions, collisions.
(c) Either ruptures leading only to localised damage not affecting human life and the stability of the whole
structure, or failure whose local occurrence implies disastrous consequences for the global resistance of the
structure or impairs the safety of people.
The Failure Assessment Diagram according to the R6 Rev. 3 [6] method which is taken into consideration is
that corresponding to the so-called Option 2 which takes account of the actual tensile stress-strain curve of
the steel. Figure 8 illustrates this diagram which in Eurocode 3 terminates at an abscissa having a value of
unity [1].
It is then supposed that the structure may contain semi-elliptical surface flaws whose size is proportional to
the natural logarithm of the thickness (depth=ln t, length = 5ln t).
Critical Kr values are derived from the failure assessment diagram after computation of the relevant Lr for
the different stress conditions. The necessary toughness, KIC that the material should display at the relevant
service temperature can thus be readily defined.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The conversion of this requirement into a Charpy V TK28 transition temperature is finally carried out
according to the French procedure.
Table 10 summarises the major aspects of the successive derivations. It highlights the fact that the strict
application of this procedure for a given situation would first require a detailed fracture analysis according to
the two-criteria approach so as to derive the necessary level of toughness required from the material in terms
of a critical stress intensity factor here denoted Kmat. Such an analysis, which must include the respective
contributions of the mechanical and residual stresses, as well as the correction factor for crack tip plasticity
generated by the residual stress, should be carried out carefully according to a well-documented procedure
such as that prescribed in British Standard PD6493 [14]. The critical stress intensity factor at the minimum
design service temperature then has to be converted to a 28J transition temperature of a Charpy specimen.
Here the rules defined by the French method are followed [9] so as to account for thickness and strain rate
effects and the scatter in the relationship linking TKIC and TK28.
The procedure presented above should only be applied by specialists in fracture mechanics. On the other
hand, the rules included in Eurocode 3 need to be applied by design engineers who require a more
convenient formulation. With this aim in mind, the authors of the present Eurocode 3 rules have analysed a
limited number of cases simulating the various loading conditions for different plate thicknesses, so as to
derive, after a statistical analysis, a simplified formulation of the rules. The parameters of thee rules for
practical application are listed in Table 11.
As an illustration of the rules, Tables 12 and 13 list a set of requirements for different values of yield stress
and thickness corresponding to the S1, S2 and S3 load conditions as well as the C1 and C2 failure
consequences.
6. PRESENT STATUS OF THE EUROCODE 3 RULES

Establishing a common basis for steel selection applicable internationally as a substitute for the existing
national rules is a difficult task. Unifying a set of divergent specifications leads to new rules that are
inevitably either less or more constraining than those defined in one or other of the national codes. On the
one hand, concern may be raised against the reliability of the new rules with regard to a safe design, while
on the other hand, criticism will be expressed towards an excessive degree of conservatism liable to spoil the
economic competitiveness of constructional steelwork.
The present rules in Eurocode 3 [1] have informative status. To encourage as much as possible the concept
of unified rules for steel selection, cooperation has been set up between the CEN/TC 250/SC3 Committee of
Eurocode 3 and the International Institute of Welding who will study the problem on a multidisciplinary
basis coordinated by Commission X with the support of Commission IX. An introductory article prepared by
Professor Burdekin, Chairman of Commission X, was presented at the IIW 1992 annual assembly in this
regard [15].
To contribute to the debate covering this important question, comparisons between the toughness
requirements derived from the different approaches mentioned in this paper have been carried out and are
presented below.
7. COMPARISON OF SPECIFICATIONS DERIVED FROM

VARIOUS APPROACHES
Available methods for steel selection differ in several respects: one of the most apparent is the form of the
Charpy requirement which can be expressed either as a transition temperature or as a level of energy.
Suitable conversion formulae are needed so as to perform comparisons between such methods.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Another factor of divergence is the definition of the flaw size as a function of plate thickness. Account must
be taken of these differences when attempting to compare the various requirements.
Nevertheless, the main difference between the different approaches may arise from the assumptions which
are made concerning the definition of the fracture model. The French approach is based on a purely linear
elastic analysis, while the British and Belgian ones assume respectively elasto-plastic and full plastic
behaviour of the structure. Another source of discrepancy could arise from the fact that the available
methods were set up at different times and thus were calibrated on populations of steels which could differ
widely in terms of chemical composition and processing route.
A major result that should emerge from the comparative exercises is therefore verification of whether the
different concepts governing the existing approaches are able to generate consistent conclusions or, on the
contrary, lead to contradictory outputs. It is clear that, if the latter situation should apply, little confidence
could be shown in those models. Their significance would be restricted to the limited set of conditions and
the generation of steels which were used during their formulation.
If consistent specifications can be derived from several models, another dimension would be conferred to the
problem since, not only the overall reliability of the specifications would be enhanced, but sources of minor
deviations could be better documented.
A significant step in highlighting the possible coherence of Charpy V based specifications was achieved by
de Meester who presented valuable comparisons between the French and British approaches in 1986 [16].
An illustration of that work is reproduced in Figure 9.
A similar approach can be used to expand this evaluation to other methodologies. It will be recalled that
some procedures express the necessary toughness in terms of a transition temperature while others require a
level of energy at the service temperature. Means of conversion are, therefore, necessary in such cases.
Table 14 reproduces the equations which were adopted in [16] on the basis of extensive comparisons
reported in the 1970's [17].

APPLIED METALLURGY
Further information is necessary in order to make comparisons with the Belgian method since this procedure
requires, as an entry parameter, the tensile-to-yield stress ratio of the relevant steel. This parameter depends,
among other things, upon the processing route undergone by the material. A characteristic value cannot
therefore be defined for a given steel grade. Typical values may, however, be considered on a statistical
basis as a function of the guaranteed yield stress, such as those illustrated in Figure 10 which were proposed
by Dahl and his co-workers [18]. Such a relationship is used in the present analysis to establish the
necessary comparisons. Taking into account that thicker plates generally display a higher Rm/Re ratio than
thinner products, data corresponding to the lower boundary or those closer to the upper side of the
relationship of Figure 10 are selected depending on the thickness.
Table 15 lists the toughness requirements obtained from the Belgian method applied with same defect sizes
as those considered in the French procedure (cf Table 6). TK28 transition temperatures required by both
models are compared in Figure 11, which highlights the coherence of the respective specifications,
especially in the significant field of negative transition temperatures, which represent the most severe
conditions to be fulfilled by the material.

APPLIED METALLURGY
A comparison between the French and British methods is provided in Figure 12 using data which were
generated in Tables 6 and 8. Here again specifications from both models are consistent. It will, however, be
noticed that the French procedure considers smaller defect sizes (as a function of thickness) than the British
method, for instance 8mm against 12mm for a 30mm thick member. This means that, for the same flaw size,
the elasto-plastic fracture analysis developed by George on the basis of the design curve and Charpy COD
relationships would lead to steel toughness requirements that were somewhat less stringent than those
defined by the linear elastic approach of Sanz and the TKIC-TK28 relationships.

APPLIED METALLURGY
A similar conclusion is reached when roughly comparing, on a same defect size basis, the British rules to the
Belgian procedure. Considering, however, that the George model assumes a design stress of only 2/3 of the
yield stress and implementing this stress level in the CRM model, quite consistent requirements between
both methods would be obtained. This is highlighted in Figure 13 which is drawn with data extracted from
Tables 8 and 16.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Requirements derived from the present Eurocode rules are compared to those from the French rules using
the data listed in Tables 6 with Table 17 (S1 loading and failure condition C1) and Table 18 (S3 loading and
failure condition C2). It is important to note that for the sake of consistency regarding the effect of strain rate,
the same value of 0,1s-1 has been adopted for all procedures. Figures 14 and 15 illustrate that, depending on
the loading conditions and failure consequences, Eurocode 3 rules are either less stringent or, on the contrary,
significantly more constraining than the specifications of the French standard from which they are partly
derived.

APPLIED METALLURGY

APPLIED METALLURGY
8. DISCUSSION
The comparison exercises reported above have demonstrated that, although the models were derived from
quite different basic assumptions and fracture concepts, and were validated at different periods on different
steel qualities and steel generations, the French, British and Belgian models lead to consistent Charpy
requirements. This agreement is reached when the procedures are compared to each other on a carefully
balanced basis, i.e. adopting the same defect size as a function of plate thickness and the same stress level.
The strain rate is an important factor, which is an explicit parameter in the French method but not in either
of the others. The Belgian model does, however, take some account of this effect through the tensile-to-yield
ratio which is influenced by the strain rate sensitivity of the material. All comparisons with the French
model were carried out for the slow strain rate of 0,1s-1 with a view to improving consistency. It is
nevertheless clear that the strain rate sensitivity may vary, not only as a function of the steel grade, but also
according to the applied processing route or chemical composition. This parameter would certainly be worth
being better documented so as to optimise the rules for steel selection in certain applications involving
dynamic effects.
APPLIED METALLURGY
The major sources for possible divergence between the existing rules have been identified. Many
specifications are based on their conventions regarding the evolution of the admissible defect as a function
of member thickness and the prevailing state and level of stress. This results in the definition of less or more
stringent requirements. Such a situation becomes disturbing and confusing when the procedure that the
fabricator has to follow is not properly documented in those terms, or when the computational steps are
complicated and do not easily provide the possibility of carrying out even a limited parametric analysis.
Simple rules involving clearly defined models and based on rigorous mathematical treatments, ideally
developed into analytical formulae, should constitute a preferred choice in the establishment of steel
selection criteria. On the other hand, complex methodologies involving advanced concepts of fracture
analysis may be misleading since their practical application would either be too difficult or simplification of
the procedure would result in the infringement of basic fracture mechanics rules.
9. COMMENT ON THE PRESENT EUROCODE 3 RULES

Eurocode 3 rules have been reviewed as well as the philosophy that prevailed in their development.
Comparisons with the French model on which they are partly based, reveal overall agreement in a large
range of transition temperatures, together with the possibility of shifting widely the requirements depending
on the stress conditions (3 levels), the strain rate (2 conditions), and the consequences of failure (2
conditions): Tables 12 and 13 show that between S1R1C1 and S3R2C2 conditions, the difference in required
TK28 temperatures is equal to or greater than 90°C.
These rules still require improvement and need to be discussed within a large forum of specialists. The
cooperation of the International Institute of Welding in this task will bring a worldwide dimension to the
challenge of unifying the rules for steel selection. Initial proposals for a coordinated approach to the problem
were formulated at the IIW annual assembly of 1992 [15].
It may be of interest in this regard to quantify roughly how each of the available models accounts for
variations of the plate thickness or of the steel yield stress on the TK28 requirements, all other factors being
unchanged. In practice a significant question is to evaluate the advantages of implementing in a given type
of structure, higher strength steels with thinner gauge as an alternative to conventional grades in thick
sections. With this aim, the TK28 requirements listed in the various Tables 6, 8, 12, 13 and 15 have been
correlated by linear regression analysis to thickness and yield stress so as to derive the following expression
for each model:
TK28 = a - b.e - c.Re
The following b and c coefficients were derived:
French model b = -0,64 c = -0,12

British model b = -0,99 c = -0,12
Belgian model b = -0,85 c = -0,12
Eurocode model b = -0,54 c = -0,15
These values indicate that the French, British and Belgian rules seem more favourable for the adoption of
higher strength steels and thinner gauges than the Eurocode specifications.

• Consistent requirements in terms of a transition temperature in the Charpy V test may be derived
from any one of three national methodologies for steel selection, each incorporating different

APPLIED METALLURGY
concepts of fracture behaviour or analysis, established at different periods and validated with
different grades or generations of steels.
• Discrepancies which may appear are more the result of different conventions that have been adopted
for the definition of stress level, safety factors or defect size.
• By unifying on a European or wider international basis, criteria for steel selection would be
promoted by a larger analysis of the available models and an exploitation of their consistency.
11. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.
[2] Brock, D., Elementary engineering fracture mechanics, Martinus Nijhorff Publishers, 1987.
[3] Garwood, S. J., A crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) method for the analysis of ductile materials,
ASTM STP 945, June 1985.
[4] Rice, J. R., A path independent integral and the approximate analysis of strain concentrations by notches
and cracks, Trans. ASME, J. Appl. Mech. 1968, 35 379-386.
[5] Soete, W. and Denys, R., Evaluation of butt welds based on a strain criterion, Revue de la Sodure,
Lastijd schrift, No. 4, 1975.
[6] Milne, I., Ainsworth, R. A., Dowling, A. R., Stewart, A. T., Assessment of the integrity of structures
containing defects, CEGB document R/H/R6 - Revision 3, May 1986.
[7] EN 10025: Hot Rolled Products of Non-alloy Structural Steels and their Technical Delivery Conditions,
British Standards Institution, 1990.
[8] EN 10113-1: Hot Rolled Products of Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels Part 1: General Delivery
Conditions, British Standards Institution, 1993.
ENV 10113-2: Hot Rolled Products of Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels Part 2: Delivery Conditions for
Normalized/Normalized Rolled Steels, British Standards Institution, 1993.
ENV 10113-3: Hot Rolled Products of Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels Part 2: Delivery Conditions for
Normalized/Normalized Rolled Steels, British Standards Institution, 1993.
[9] Sanz, G., Essai de mise au point d'une mthode quantitative de choix des aciers vis-á-vis du risque de
rupture fragile, Revue de Mtallurgie - CIT, Juillet 1980.
[10] George, M., A method for steel selection, Document IIW-IXF.
[11] Defourny, J., D'Haeyer, R., Leroy, V., A metallurgical approach of the parameters affecting the fracture
behaviour of base metal and welded components, IIW document IX-1607-90/X-1206-90.
[12] Sedlacek, G., Bild, J., Hensen, W., Background document for Chapter 3 of Eurocode 3 "Design Against
Brittle Fracture", Aachen 1990.
[13] Brozzetti, J., Sedlacek, G., Hensen, W., Fondements des regles de l'Eurocode 3 en vue de se garantir du
risque de rupture fragile, Construction Mtallique, no. 1, 1991.
[14] Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded structures, PD6493:
1991, BSI.
APPLIED METALLURGY
[15] Burdekin, F. M., Materials selection for welded structural steelwork in Engineering Design in welded
constructions, Pergamon Press, 1992.
[16] de Meester, B., The brittle fracture safe design of welded constructions, Welding in the world.
[17] Sanz, G., La rupture des aciers, fascicule 2, Collection IRSID OTUA.
[18] Dahl, W., Hesse, W., Krabiell, A., Zur WVerfestigung von Stahl und dessen Einfluβ auf die Kennwerte
des Zugversuchs; Stahl und Eisen 103 (1983), Heft 2, Seite 87-90.
Table 1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
The three modes of loading at a crack tip:
The stress field around the crack is defined by a parameter K:
σu = [KI /√(2πτ)].fu(θ) in mode I
Infinite plate: KI = σ√(πa)
Finite plate of width W:
KI = σ√(π a).[sec π a/W]
Through thickness crack in Mode I

APPLIED METALLURGY
Semi-elliptical crack:
KI = 1,12σ√{πa/[φ2 - 0,212(σ/Re)2]}
φ = √{1 - [(c2-a2)/c2].sin2ϕ dϕ - 3π/8 + πa2φ/8c2
Table 2 Concepts Associated with the Wide Plate Test

APPLIED METALLURGY
Gross section stress: σb = F/(W × t)
Net section stress: σn = F/[(W - 2a) × t]
σb = σn[1 - 2a/W]
Full yield : σb = Re
General yield : σn = Re
Determination of the critical defect length at full yield. Different wide plate tests are carried out at the same
temperature but with different crack sizes.
Table 3 Plastic Collapse Concept
According to the plastic collapse concept, the load bearing resistance of the structure affected by a defect
equals the product of the material flow stress by the net section.
The diagram below plots the gross stress at plastic collapse in a plate containing a through-thickness defect
as a function of the 2a/W ratio (defect length to plate width).

APPLIED METALLURGY
Re : material yield stress
Rf : material flow stress
Rm : material tensile strength
Re < Rf ≤ Rm
Rf ~ (Rm + Re) / 2
σb : gross stress applied to the wide plate
Sr = applied load/plastic collapse load = (σb / Rf) (1-2a/W)
Lr = applied load/plastic yield load = (σb / Re) (1-2a/W)
At plastic collapse
Sr = Srmax = 1 Lr = Lrmax = Rf/Re

APPLIED METALLURGY
Table 4 Main Rules of the R6 Procedure
Box 1: The R6 Rev. 3 Failure Assessment Diagram
The simplifying concepts behind the R6 This ignores any interaction between the two
procedure are the two criteria for failure, failure mechanisms. This interaction may be
characterised by: allowed for by writing the first inequality as Kr <
f(Lr) and choosing an appropriate function for f.
1. Crack tip failure, where failure occurs when One such function is
the applied load equals the LEFM failure load,
f(Lf) = (5)
(1)
where Je is the elastic component of J given by
2. Failure by plastic collapse, defined when the
K2/E. Thus when σref is low, J = Je and f(Lr) = 1,
load equals the plastic collapse load and the
displacements in the structure become unlimited. consistent with LEFM failure. When σ ref is high,
The plastic collapse load may be formally on the other hand, failure is governed by J.
defined as the load when the reference stress Equation 5 may be used to generate an FAD
reaches the material's flow stress, . The criterion directly from the load displacement curves of
for plastic collapse failure is given by the ratio specimen tests.
Sr.
The most general method for calculating equation
5 is to use the reference stress procedures so that
f(Lr) may be calculated directly from the material's
where Sr = (2) stress strain curve. The general equation for this is
and this criterion was used for the initial R6

FAD.
f(Lf) = (6)
It is often more convenient to think in terms of
plastic yield loads rather than collapse loads as it where εref is taken from the material's true stress -
is easier to define and calculate these
true strain curve at respective values of σref. The
theoretically. In R6 Rev. 3 the ratio Lr is used as
figure 6 is a plot of equation 6 as a function of Lr,
using an experimental stress strain curve for a
stainless steel.
Lr = (3)
Although equation 6 is the preferred option for R6
From this, the load for plastic collapse is given Rev. 3, it requires a detailed knowledge of the
as Lrmax. stress strain curve of the material, especially
around the material's yield point. In some cases,
especially when dealing with hold plant, such
knowledge is not available. Other options of the
With (4) FAD have been developed for use in such
circumstances.
The simplest FAD requires that Kr < 1 and Lr <
Lrmaz.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Table 5-1 Main Rules of the French Model
1. BASIC RELATIONSHIP
Between KIC and Charpy V based on Transition Temperature at respectively 100MPa √m and 28 J:
(S1)
2. APPLICABILITY
Plane strain condition, (S2) where e is in metres
3. APPLIED STRESS
Material yield stress Re, then (S3) where a is in metres and from Equation (S2)
(S4)
4. REFERENCE DEFECT SIZE
For thick plates, a semi-elliptic surface defect 50mm long, 25mm deep, which is equivalent to a
28mm long through thickness defect (a = 14mm).
5. REFERENCE YIELD STRESS
477 MPa is the yield stress level derived from S3 with a = 14mm and KIC = 100 MPa √m.
6. REFERENCE THICKNESS
110mm is the thickness satisfying Equation (S4) with a = 14mm.

APPLIED METALLURGY
7. REQUIRED KIC VALUES vs YIELD STRESS
For thick products (e ≥ 110mm), a 28mm long defect corresponds to 100 MPa √m at a yield stress of
477 MPa. For other values of Re, the following KIC values apply, as derived from Equation (S3):
Re (MPa) 280 350 410 470 510 640 740

KIC (MPa √m) 59 73 86 99 107 134 155
8. DEFECT LENGTH AS A FUNCTION OF THICKNESS
To satisfy Equation (S4) the defect length is related to plate thickness as indicated by the following
table. This table also lists the corresponding KIC values at a reference yield stress of 477 MPa.
e (mm) 10 20 30 60 80 110 >110

2a (mm) 2,5 5 7,5 15 20 28 28
KIC (MPa √m) Re = 30 43 52 74 85 100 100
477 MPa
9. MAJOR RELATIONSHIPS
Taking account of the above tables, it is necessary to consider transition temperatures for KIC values
other than 100, but ranging between 30 and 160MPa√m. This can be quantified through the
following equation:
(S5)
10. RELATION BETWEEN SERVICE TEMPERATURE AND 28J TRANSITION

TEMPERATURE
Equation (S1) is used to relate a minimum service temperature above which the structure is safe to a
required toughness level expressed as a transition temperature of 28J in the Charpy test.
The minimum service temperature is equal to TKIC = 100 for a structure made of a steel with reference
yield stress 477 MPa, reference thickness 110mm and affected by the reference defect length a =
14mm.
For other values of yield stress or thickness, other values of KIC apply and corrections are introduced
through Equation (S5).
Corrections are also made to take account of strain rate effects and the scatter in Equation (S1).

APPLIED METALLURGY
The final relationship is expressed as follows:
(S6)
in which
TS : minimum service temperature for fracture safe design
TK28 : transition temperature of Charpy V at 28J
β(Re) : 60 ln rounded to 60 ln
∆Te : in theory, 60 1n (e in mm); in the model a more conservative formula is used : 57
ln
∆TV : (83 - 0,08 Re) ε 0,17 where is the strain rate in s-1
25 : scatter of Equation (S1)
11. DEFINITION OF TOUGHNESS REQUIREMENTS
The necessary steel quality expressed in terms of the 28J transition temperature is derived as a function of
service temperature, strain rate, stress applied to the structure, material yield stress and thickness from the
following formula:
Table 6 Some Results of the French Method
Re e 2a β Te Tv TK28 @Ts=0°C
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (°C) (°C) (°C)@0,1/s (°C)
280 10 3 -49 -92 41 53
280 20 5 -49 -73 41 39

APPLIED METALLURGY
280 30 8 -49 -58 41 29
280 60 15 -49 -29 41 8
280 80 20 -49 -16 41 -1
280 110 28 -49 0 41 -12
350 10 3 -27 -92 37 40
350 20 5 -27 -73 37 27
350 30 8 -27 -58 37 16
350 60 15 -27 -29 37 -4
350 80 20 -27 -16 37 -14
350 110 28 -27 0 37 -25
410 10 3 -13 -92 34 33
410 20 5 -13 -73 34 19
410 30 8 -13 -58 34 9
410 60 15 -13 -29 34 -12
410 80 20 -13 -16 34 -22
410 110 28 -13 0 34 -33
480 10 3 0 -92 30 26
480 20 5 0 -73 30 12
480 30 8 0 -58 30 2
480 60 15 0 -29 30 -19
480 80 20 0 -16 30 -28
480 110 28 0 0 30 -39
510 10 3 5 -92 29 24
510 20 5 5 -73 29 10
510 30 8 5 -58 29 0
510 60 15 5 -29 29 -21

APPLIED METALLURGY
510 80 20 5 -16 29 -30
510 110 28 5 0 29 -42
Conditions: loading up to yield stress at a slow strain rate (0,1/s)
Table 7 Main Rules of the British Model
Between the critical crack opening displacement (δ in mm) of a material at a given temperature and
the Charpy V energy (CV in Joules) at the same temperature:
(G1)
2. APPLICABILITY
Fracture behaviour analysis according to the assumptions that prevail for the definition of the
"Design Curve" in British Standard PD 6493, which for stainless and ferritic steel is expressed as
follows:
(G2)
3. APPLIED STRESS
In the original model, a value of σ equal to 1,9 Re was adopted as the result of the superimposition of
a design stress equal to 0,67 Re affected by a stress concentration factor of 1,2 and a residual stress
of amplitude equal to Re.
(G3)
4. REFERENCE DEFECT LENGTH
A surface crack size 0,2 times the plate thickness deep and 1 times the thickness long, which
corresponds to an equivalent crack size of 0,2e
(G4)
Combining Equations (G1) to (G4) leads to:
(G5)

APPLIED METALLURGY
equivalent to:
(G6)
Table 8 Some Results of the British Method
Re e 2a CV TK28@Ts=0°C
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (J) (°C) #
280 10 4 4 106
280 20 8 8 58
280 30 12 12 37
280 60 24 24 6
280 80 32 32 -5
280 110 44 43 -17
350 10 4 5 88
350 20 8 10 46
350 30 12 15 27
350 60 24 30 -3
350 80 32 39 -14
350 110 44 54 -26
410 10 4 6 77
410 20 8 12 38
410 30 12 17 20
410 60 24 35 -9
410 80 32 46 -20
410 110 44 64 -31
480 10 4 7 67

APPLIED METALLURGY
480 20 8 14 31
480 30 12 20 13
480 60 24 41 -15
480 80 32 54 -26
480 110 44 74 -37
510 10 4 7 64
510 20 8 14 28
510 30 12 22 10
510 60 24 43 -17
510 80 32 57 -28
510 110 44 79 -39
#TK28 was derived from CV using formula (ET5) of Table 14
Table 9 Main Rules of the Belgian Model
Between net fracture stress in wide plate test containing a through-thickness defect and Charpy V
energy at the same temperature:
(C1)
where CV is expressed in J and not in J/cm² as in the original model.
2. APPLICABILITY
Fracture appearance transition temperature in the Charpy test is lower than the temperature of the
wide plate test.
3. APPLIED STRESS
Material yield stress on gross-section (the model may nevertheless be applied to other stresses).
(C2)
4. REFERENCE DEFECT
Length of the through-thickness defect (critical size) satisfying the full yield behaviour, expressed by
the following equation:
APPLIED METALLURGY
(C3)
(C4)
Table 10-1 Main Aspects of the Eurocode Rules
Step 1.1 Definition of Stress Levels S1, S2, S3:
S1 - Structural elements containing no weld, or
- stress-relieved welded elements with tensile stresses under 2/3 of yield stress, or
- as-welded element with tensile stresses under 2/10 of yield stress.
S2 - As-welded elements with tensile stresses between 2/10 and 2/3 yield stress, or
- stress-relieved welded elements with stresses below 2 times yield stress.
S3 - As-welded elements with stresses between 2/3 and 2 times yield stress, or
- stress-relieved welded elements with stresses between 2 and 3 times yield stress.
Note: Stresses here include local stresses concentrated by stress raisers.
(E1)
Step 1.2 Definition of Strain Rates R1, R2
R1 : έ ≤ 0,001 s-1 (permanent loads, traffic loads, winds, waves, material handling)
R2 : έ ≤ 1 s-1 (impacts, explosions, collisions)
(E2)
Step 1.3 Definition of Consequences of Failure C1, C2:
C1 : Localised failure without appreciable consequence on safety of persons and stability of structure.
C2 : Failure whose local occurrence may cause the global collapse of the structure with disastrous
consequences for persons and economy.

APPLIED METALLURGY
(E3)
Step 2 Definition of Defect Size:
- Semi elliptical surface defect
- Depth (a) equal to natural logarithm of thickness (t) a = ln (t) (mm)
- Length (2c) equal to 5 times depth: 2c = 5 ln (t) (mm)
(E4)
Step 3 Computation of Lr and Kr:
Lr is computed as a function of defect size and stress level.
Kr is computed as a function of Lr from the Fracture Assessment Diagram.
(E5)
Step 4 Computation of Kmat
Kmat is the necessary toughness that must be shown by the material.
Kmat is derived from the KI corresponding to the loading conditions imposed on the structure and the Kr
value derived according to (E5).
A safety factor (γ) is introduced to account for the failure condition:
γ = 1 for C1
γ = 1,5 for C2
(E6)
Step 5 Derivation of TK28
The rules of the French method are followed but are translated for KIC values in N/mm3/2 instead of MPa √m
(E7)
Table 11-1 Application Parameters of the Eurocode Rules
1. EXPRESSION OF KIC
KIC is the toughness required from the material taking account of its thickness and the service conditions
prevailing for the structure.
APPLIED METALLURGY
(E'1)
Re is the material yield stress guaranteed by the standard for the required thickness (t).
Units: KIC in N/mm3/2
Re in MPa
t in mm
(E'2)
γ = 1 for condition C1
γ = 1,5 for condition C2
(E'3)
ln is natural logarithm
Stress level
S1 S2 S3
ka 0,18 0,18 0,10
kb 0,40 0,15 0,07
kc 0,03 0,03 0,04
Table 11-2 Application Parameters of the Eurocode Rules
1. EXPRESSION FOR TK28
(E'4)
TS : Service temperature of the structure

APPLIED METALLURGY
Table 12 Some Requirements Derived from the Eurocode Rules
Re t K1S1 K1S2 K1S3 β1 β2 β3 Tv TK28@Ts=0°C TK28@Ts=0°C TK28@Ts=0°C
(MPa) (mm) (N/mm3/2) (N/mm3/2) (N/mm3/2) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)@0,001/s (°C)@S1 (°C)@S2 (°C)@S3
280 10 655 939 1216 -158 -121 -96 19 81 56 37
280 20 813 1185 1514 -136 -98 -74 19 66 39 21
280 30 933 1364 1726 -122 -84 -61 19 56 29 12
280 60 1192 1744 2159 -98 -60 -38 19 39 11 -4
280 80 1324 1933 2368 -87 -49 -29 19 31 4 -11
280 110 1489 2167 2622 -75 -38 -19 19 23 -4 -18
350 10 818 1174 1520 -135 -99 -73 17 67 41 22
350 20 1017 1481 1893 -114 -76 -51 17 51 24 7
350 30 1166 1705 2157 -100 -62 -38 17 41 14 -3
350 60 1490 2180 2698 -75 -37 -16 17 24 -3 -19
350 80 1654 2416 2960 -65 -27 -7 17 16 -11 -25
350 110 1861 2709 3277 -53 -16 3 17 8 -19 -32
410 10 958 1375 1781 -119 -83 -58 16 56 31 12
410 20 1191 1735 2218 -98 -60 -36 16 41 14 -4
410 30 1366 1997 2527 -84 -46 -23 16 31 4 -13
410 60 1745 2553 3161 -60 -21 0 16 14 -14 -29
410 80 1938 2830 3467 -49 -11 9 16 6 -21 -35
410 110 2180 3173 3839 -37 0 19 16 -2 -29 -43
480 10 1122 1610 2085 -104 -68 -42 14 46 21 2
480 20 1395 2031 2596 -82 -44 -20 14 31 4 -14
480 30 1599 2338 2958 -68 -30 -7 14 21 -6 -23
480 60 2043 2989 3700 -44 -6 16 14 4 -24 -39
480 80 2269 314 4059 -33 5 25 14 -4 -31 -45
480 110 2552 3715 4494 -22 16 35 14 -12 -39 -53
510 10 1192 1711 2215 -98 -62 -36 13 43 17 -2
510 20 1482 2158 2759 -76 -38 -14 13 27 0 -17
510 30 1699 2484 3143 -62 -24 -1 13 17 -10 -27
510 60 2171 3176 3932 -38 0 22 13 0 -27 -43
510 80 2411 3521 4313 -27 11 31 13 -8 -35 -49
510 110 2711 3947 4775 -15 22 41 13 -16 -43 -57
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a R1 strain rate (0,001/s) and C1 failure consequences.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Table 13 Some Requirements Derived from The Eurocode Rules
280 10 818 1174 1520 -135 -99 -73 61 36 10 -9
280 20 1017 1481 1893 -114 -76 -51 61 20 -7 -24
280 30 1166 1705 2157 -100 -62 -38 61 10 -17 -34
280 60 1490 2179 2698 -75 -37 -16 61 -7 -34 -50
280 80 1654 2416 2959 -65 -27 -7 61 -15 -42 -56
280 110 1860 2708 3277 -53 -16 3 61 -23 -50 -64
350 10 1023 1467 1900 -113 -77 -51 55 24 -2 -21
350 20 1271 1851 2366 -91 -54 -29 55 8 -19 -36
350 30 1457 2131 2696 -78 -40 -16 55 -2 -29 -46
350 60 1862 2724 3372 -53 -15 6 55 -19 -46 -62
350 80 2068 3020 3699 -43 -5 16 55 -27 -54 -68
350 110 2326 3386 4096 -31 7 26 55 -35 -62 -76
410 10 1198 1719 2226 -97 -61 -35 50 16 -10 -29
410 20 1489 2168 2772 -75 -38 -13 50 0 -27 -44
410 30 1707 2496 3158 -62 -24 0 50 -10 -37 -54
410 60 2181 3191 3950 -37 1 22 50 -27 -54 -70
410 80 2422 3538 4333 -27 11 31 50 -35 -62 -76
410 110 2724 3966 4798 -15 23 42 50 -43 -70 -83
480 10 1402 2012 2606 -81 -45 -19 45 8 -17 -36
480 20 1743 2538 3245 -60 -22 2 45 -7 -34 -51
480 30 1999 2922 3697 -46 -8 16 45 -17 -44 -61
480 60 2554 3736 4625 -21 17 38 45 -34 -62 -77
480 80 2836 4142 5073 -11 27 47 45 -42 -69 -83
480 110 3189 4643 5617 1 38 57 45 -50 -77 -91
510 10 1490 2138 2769 -75 -39 -13 42 6 -20 -38
510 20 1852 2697 3448 -54 -16 9 42 -10 -37 -54
510 30 2124 3105 3928 -40 -2 22 42 -19 -47 -63
510 60 2713 3970 4914 -15 23 44 42 -37 -64 -79
510 80 3013 4400 5390 -5 33 53 42 -44 -72 -86
510 110 3389 4933 5968 7 44 63 42 -53 -80 -93
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a R1 strain rate (0,001/s) and C2 failure consequences.
Table 14-1 Conversion Between Energy and Transition Temperature in the Charpy V Test
In the French method, the dependency between KIC and the transition temperature is defined through a set of
experimental results which are the basis of the various correlations between TK28 and TKIC. This relationship
can be expressed by an analytical formula as follows:
(ET1)
where KIC is expressed in MPa √m .
∆T is the difference between the temperatures at which KIC corresponds respectively to a given value and
100 MPa √m

APPLIED METALLURGY
In the same method, it is also considered that the Charpy V energy and the KIC value are linked by the
following relationship:
CV = (ET2)
Table 14.2 Conversion Between Energy and Transition Temperature in the Charpy V Test
Combining Equations (ET1) and (ET2) leads to:
(ET3)
where ∆T is the difference between the temperature at which CV must be calculated, e.g. the service
temperature, and TK28.
Thus, it becomes:
(ET4)
where
TS is the service temperature
TK28 is the transition temperature at 28 J
For a service temperature of 0°C:
(ET5)
Table 15 Some Results of the Belgian Method for Comparison with the French Procedure
Re e 2a Rm/Re CV TK28
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (J) (°C)
280 10 3 1,5 6 77
280 20 5 1,5 10 47
280 30 8 1,5 16 24
280 60 15 1,55 28 0

APPLIED METALLURGY
280 80 20 1,55 37 -12
280 110 28 1,55 53 -25
350 10 3 1,4 7 67
350 20 5 1,4 11 39
350 30 8 1,4 18 17
350 60 15 1,45 32 -6
350 80 20 1,45 43 -17
350 110 28 1,45 62 -30
410 10 3 1,3 8 55
410 20 5 1,3 14 29
410 30 8 1,3 23 8
410 60 15 1,35 39 -13
410 80 20 1,35 52 -24
410 110 28 1,35 75 -37
480 10 3 1,23 10 44
480 20 5 1,23 17 19
480 30 8 1,23 28 -1
480 60 15 1,28 46 -20
480 80 20 1,28 63 -31
480 110 28 1,28 91 -44
510 10 3 1,2 12 38
510 20 5 1,2 20 14
510 30 8 1,2 32 -6
510 60 15 1,25 51 -23
510 80 2- 1,25 70 -35
510 110 28 1,25 101 -48

APPLIED METALLURGY
Table 16 Some Results of the Belgian Method for Comparison with the British Procedure
Re e 2a Rm/Re CV
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (J)#
280 10 4 1,5 5
280 20 8 1,5 9
280 30 12 1,5 14
280 60 24 1,55 27
280 80 32 1,55 37
280 110 44 1,55 51
350 10 4 1,4 5
350 20 8 1,4 10
350 30 12 1,4 15
350 60 24 1,45 29
350 80 32 1,45 39
350 110 44 1,45 54
410 10 4 1,3 5
410 20 8 1,3 11
410 30 12 1,3 16
410 60 24 1,35 31
410 80 32 1,35 42
410 110 44 1,35 58
480 10 4 1,23 6
480 20 8 1,23 11
480 30 12 1,23 17
480 60 24 1,28 33

APPLIED METALLURGY
480 80 32 1,28 44
480 110 44 1,28 62
510 10 4 1,2 6
510 20 8 1,2 12
510 30 12 1,2 18
510 60 24 1,25 34
510 80 32 1,25 46
510 110 44 1,25 64
# Required Charpy Energy is here computed assuming that the design stress is equal to 2/3
Re so as to fit with the British model.
Table 17 Requirements from Eurocode 3 at 0,1/s Strain Rate and C1 Failure Consequences
280 10 655 1174 1520 - -99 -73 41 50 24 5

135
280 20 1017 1481 1893 - -76 -51 41 34 7 -10

114
280 30 1166 1705 2157 - -62 -38 41 24 -3 -20

100
280 60 1490 2179 2698 -75 -37 -16 41 7 -20 5
280 80 1654 2416 2959 -65 -27 -7 41 -1 -28 -10
280 110 1860 2708 3277 -53 -16 3 41 -9 -36 -20
350 10 818 1174 1520 - -99 -73 37 52 26 8

135
350 20 1017 1481 1893 - -76 -51 37 37 10 -8

114
350 30 1166 1705 2157 - -62 -38 37 27 0 -17

100
350 60 1490 2180 2698 -75 -37 -16 37 9 -18 -33
350 80 1654 2416 2960 -65 -27 -7 37 2 -25 -40
350 110 1861 2709 3277 -53 -16 3 37 -6 -33 -47
410 10 958 1375 1781 - -83 -58 34 43 17 -1

APPLIED METALLURGY
119
410 20 1191 1735 2218 -98 -60 -36 34 28 1 -17
410 30 1366 1997 2527 -84 -46 -23 34 18 -9 -26
410 60 1745 2553 3161 -60 -21 0 34 0 -27 -42
410 80 1938 2830 3467 -49 -11 9 34 -7 -34 -49
410 110 2180 3173 3839 -37 0 19 34 -15 -42 -56
480 10 1122 1610 2085 - -68 -42 30 35 9 -10

104
480 20 1395 2031 2596 -82 -44 -20 30 19 -8 -25
480 30 1599 2338 2958 -68 -30 -7 30 9 -18 -35
480 60 2043 2989 3700 -44 -6 16 30 -8 -35 -51
480 80 2269 3314 4059 -33 5 25 30 -16 -43 -57
480 110 2552 3715 4494 -22 16 35 30 -24 -51 -64
510 10 1192 1711 2215 -98 -62 -36 29 32 6 -13
510 20 1482 2158 2759 -76 -38 -14 29 16 -11 -28
510 30 1699 2484 3143 -62 -24 -1 29 6 -21 -38
510 60 2171 3176 3932 -38 0 22 29 -11 -38 -54
510 80 2411 3521 4313 -27 11 31 29 -19 -46 -60
510 110 2711 3947 4775 -15 22 41 29 -27 -54 -68
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a slow strain rate (0,1/s) and C1 failure consequences.
Table 18 Requirements from Eurocode 3 at 0,1/s Strain Rate and C2 Failure Consequences
280 10 818 1174 1520 - -99 -73 41 50 24 5

135
280 20 1017 1481 1893 - -76 -51 41 34 7 -10

114
280 30 1166 1705 2157 - -62 -38 41 24 -3 -20

100
280 60 1490 2179 2698 -75 -37 -16 41 7 -20 5
280 80 1654 2416 2959 -65 -27 -7 41 -1 -28 -10
280 110 1860 2708 3277 -53 -16 3 41 -9 -36 -20

APPLIED METALLURGY
350 10 1023 1467 1900 - -77 -51 37 36 10 -8

113
350 20 1271 1851 2366 -91 -54 -29 37 21 -6 -24
350 30 1457 2131 2696 -78 -40 -16 37 11 -16 -33
350 60 1862 2724 3372 -53 -15 6 37 -7 -34 -49
350 80 2068 3020 3699 -43 -5 16 37 -14 -41 -56
350 110 2326 3386 4096 -31 7 26 37 -22 -49 -63
410 10 1198 1719 2226 -97 -61 -35 34 27 2 -17
410 20 1489 2168 2772 -75 -38 -13 34 12 -15 -33
410 30 1707 2496 3158 -62 -24 0 34 2 -25 -42
410 60 2181 3191 3950 -37 1 22 34 -16 -43 -58
410 80 2422 3538 4333 -27 11 31 34 -23 -50 -65
410 110 2724 3966 4798 -15 23 42 34 -31 -58 -72
480 10 1402 2012 2606 -81 -45 -19 30 19 -7 -26
480 20 1743 2538 3245 -60 -22 2 30 3 -24 -41
480 30 1999 2922 3697 -46 -8 16 30 -7 -34 -50
480 60 2554 3736 4625 -21 17 38 30 -24 -51 -66
480 80 2836 4142 5073 -11 27 47 30 -32 -59 -73
480 110 3189 4643 5617 1 38 57 30 -40 -67 -80
510 10 1490 2138 2769 -75 -39 -13 29 16 -10 -29
510 20 1852 2697 3448 -54 -16 9 29 0 -27 -44
510 30 2124 3105 3928 -40 -2 22 29 -10 -37 -54
510 60 2713 3970 4914 -15 23 44 29 -27 -54 -70
510 80 3013 4400 5390 -5 33 53 29 -35 -62 -76
510 110 3389 4933 5968 7 44 63 29 -43 -70 -84
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a slow strain rate (0,1/s) and C2 failure consequences.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.6: Weldability of Structural Steels

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
The lecture briefly discusses the basics of the welding process and then examines the factors governing the
weldability of structural steels.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 2.3: Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities
Lecture 2.5: Selection of Steel Quality
Lecture 3.3: Principles of Welding
Lecture 3.4: Welding Processes
Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections
SUMMARY
The fundamental aspects of the welding process are discussed. The lecture then focuses on the metallurgical
parameters affecting the weldability of structural steels. A steel is considered to exhibit good weldability if
joints in the steel possess adequate strength and toughness in service.
Solidification cracking, heat affected zone - liquation cracking, hydrogen-induced cracking, lamellar tearing,
and re-heat cracking are described. These effects are detrimental to the performance of welded joints.
Measures required to avoid them are examined.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 A Brief Description of the Welding Process
Welding is a joining process in which joint production can be achieved with the use of high temperatures,
high pressures or both. In this lecture, only the use of high temperatures to produce a joint is discussed since
this is, by far, the most common method of welding structural steels. It is essentially a process in which an
intense heat source is applied to the surfaces to be joined to achieve local melting. It is common for further
"filler metal" to be added to the molten weld pool to bridge the gap between the surfaces and to produce the
required weld shape and dimensions on cooling. The most common welding processes for structural
steelwork use an electric arc maintained between the filler metal rod and the workpiece to provide the
intense heat source.
If unprotected, the molten metal in the weld pool can readily absorb oxygen and nitrogen from the
atmosphere. This absorption would lead to porosity and brittleness in the solidified weld metal. The
techniques used to avoid gas absorption in the weld pool vary according to the welding process. The main
welding processes used to join structural steels are considered in more detail below.
APPLIED METALLURGY
1.2 The Main Welding Processes
a. Manual Metal Arc welding (MMA)
In this process, the welder uses a metal stick electrode with a fusible mineral coating, in a holder connected
to an electrical supply. An arc is struck between the electrode and the weld area which completes the return
circuit to the electricity supply. The arc melts both the electrode and the surface region of the workpiece.
Electromagnetic forces created in the arc help to throw drops of the molten electrode onto the molten area of
the workpiece where the two metals fuse to form the weld pool.
The electrode coating of flux contributes to the content of the weld pool by direct addition of metal and by
metallurgical reactions which refine the molten metal. The flux also provides a local gaseous atmosphere
which prevents absorption of atmospheric gases by the weld metal.
There are many types of electrodes. The main differences between them are in the flux coating. The three
main classes of electrode are shown below:
1. Rutile: General purpose electrodes for applications which do not require strict control of mechanical
properties. These electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide in the flux coating.
2. Basic: These electrodes produce welds with better strength and notch toughness than rutile. The
electrodes have a coating which contains calcium carbonate and other carbonates and fluorspar.
3. Cellulosic: The arc produced by this type of electrode is very penetrating. These electrodes have a high
proportion of combustible organic materials in their coating.
b. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
This process uses a bare wire electrode and a flux added separately as granules or powder over the arc and
weld pool. The flux protects the molten metal by forming a layer of slag and it also stabilises the arc.
The process is used mainly in a mechanical system feeding a continuous length of wire from a coil whilst
the welding lead is moved along the joint. A SAW machine may feed several wires, one behind the other, so
that a multi-run weld can be made. Submerged arc welding produces more consistent joints than manual
welding, but it is not suitable for areas of difficult access.
c. Gas shielded welding
In this process, a bare wire electrode is used and a shielding gas is fed around the arc and weld pool. This
gas prevents contamination of the electrode and weld pool by air. There are three main variations of this
process as shown below:
1. MIG (metal-inert gas) welding - Argon or helium gas is used for shielding. This process is generally used
for non-ferrous metals.
2. MAG (metal-active gas) welding - Carbon dioxide (usually mixed with argon) is used for shielding. This
process is generally used for carbon and carbon-manganese steels.
3. TIG (tungsten-inert gas) - Argon or helium gas is used for shielding and the arc struck between the
workpiece and a non-consumable tungsten electrode. This process is generally used for thin sheet work and
precision welding.
1.3 Welded Joint Design and Preparation

APPLIED METALLURGY
There are two basic types of welded joints known as butt and fillet welds [1]. Schematic views of these two
weld types are shown in Figure 1. The actual shape of a weld is determined by the preparation of the area to
be joined. The type of weld preparation depends on the welding process and the fabrication procedure.
Examples of different weld preparations are shown in Figure 2. The weld joint has to be located and shaped
in such a way that it is easily accessible in terms of both the welding process and welding position. The
detailed weld shape is designed to distribute the available heat adequately and to assist the control of weld
metal penetration and thus to produce a sound joint. Operator induced defects such as lack of penetration
and lack of fusion can be difficult to avoid if the joint preparation and design prevent good access for
welding.

APPLIED METALLURGY

APPLIED METALLURGY
1.4 The Effect of the Welding Thermal Cycle on the Microstructure
The intense heat involved in the welding process influences the microstructure of both the weld metal and
the parent metal close to the fusion boundary (the boundary between solid and liquid metal). As such, the
welding cycle influences the mechanical properties of the joint.
The molten weld pool is rapidly cooled since the metals being joined act as an efficient heat sink. This
cooling results in the weld metal having a chill cast microstructure. In the welding of structural steels, the
weld filler metal does not usually have the same composition as the parent metal. If the compositions were
the same, the rapid cooling could result in hard and brittle phases, e.g. martensite, in the weld metal
microstructure. This problem is avoided by using weld filler metals with a lower carbon content than the
parent steel.
The parent metal close to the molten weld pool is heated rapidly to a temperature which depends on the
distance from the fusion boundary. Close to the fusion boundary, peak temperatures near the melting point
are reached, whilst material only a few millimetres away may only reach a few hundred degrees Celsius.
The parent material close to the fusion boundary is heated into the austenite phase field. On cooling, this
region transforms to a microstructure which is different from the rest of the parent material. In this region
the cooling rate is usually rapid, and hence there is a tendency towards the formation of low temperature
transformation structures, such as bainite and martensite, which are harder and more brittle than the bulk of
the parent metal. This region is known as the heat affected zone (HAZ).
The microstructure of the HAZ is influenced by three factors:
1. The chemical composition of the parent metal.

2. The heat input rate during welding.
3. The cooling rate in the HAZ after welding.
The chemical composition of the parent metal is important since it determines the hardenability of the HAZ.
The heat input rate is significant since it directly affects the grain size in the HAZ. The longer the time spent
above the grain coarsening temperature of the parent metal during welding, the coarser the structure in the
HAZ. Generally, a high heat input rate leads to a longer thermal cycle and thus a coarser HAZ
microstructure. It should be noted that the heat input rate also affects the cooling rate in the HAZ. As a
general rule, the higher the heat input rate the lower the cooling rate. The value of heat input rate is a
function of the welding process parameters: arc voltage, arc current and welding speed. In addition to heat
input rate, the cooling rate in the HAZ is influenced by two other factors. First, the joint design and
thickness are important since they determine the rate of heat flow away from the weld during cooling.
Secondly, the temperature of the parts being joined, i.e. any pre-heat, is significant since it determines the
temperature gradient which exists between the weld and parent metal.
1.5 Residual Welding Stresses and Distortion
The intense heat associated with welding causes the region of the weld to expand. On cooling contraction
occurs. This expansion and subsequent contraction is resisted by the surrounding cold material leading to a
residual stress field being set up in the vicinity of the weld. Within the weld metal the residual stress tends to
be predominantly tensile in nature. This tensile residual stress is balanced by a compressive stress induced in
the parent metal [2]. A schematic view of the residual stress field obtained for longitudinal weld shrinkage is
shown in Figure 3. The tensile residual stresses are up to yield point in magnitude in the weld metal and
HAZ. It is important to note that the residual stresses arise because the material undergoes local plastic strain.
This strain may result in cracking of the weld metal and HAZ during welding, distortion of the parts to be
joined or encouragement of brittle failure during service.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Transverse and longitudinal contractions resulting from welding can lead to distortion if the hot weld metal
is not symmetrical about the neutral axis of a fabrication [2]. A typical angular rotation in a single V butt
weld is shown in Figure 4a. The rotation occurs because the major part of the weld is on one side of the
neutral axis of the plate, thus inducing greater contraction stresses on that side. This leads to a distortion
known as cusping in a plate fabrication, as shown in Figure 4b. Weld distortion can be controlled by pre-
setting or pre-bending a joint assembly to compensate for the distortion or by restraining the weld to resist
distortion. Examples of both these methods are shown in Figure 5. Distortion problems are most easily
avoided by using the correct weld preparation. The use of non-symmetrical double sided welds such as those
shown in Figure 2e and 2i accommodates distortion. The distortion from the small side of the weld
(produced first) is removed when the larger weld is put on the other side. This technique is known as
balanced welding.

APPLIED METALLURGY
It is not possible to predict accurately the distortion in a geometrically complicated fabrication, but one basic
rule should be followed. This rule is that welding should preferably be started at the centre of a fabrication
and all succeeding welds be made from the centre out, thus encouraging contractions to occur in the free
condition.
If distortion is not controlled, there are two methods of correcting it; force and heat. The distortion of light
sections can be eliminated simply by using force, e.g. the use of hydraulic jacks and presses. In the case of
heavier sections, local heating and cooling is required to induce thermal stresses counteracting those already
present.

APPLIED METALLURGY
1.6 Residual Stress Relief
The most common and efficient way of relieving residual stresses is by heating. Raising the temperature
results in a lower yield stress and allows creep to occur. Creep relieves the residual stresses through plastic
deformation. Steel welded components are usually heated to a low red heat (600°C) during stress relieving
treatments. The heating and cooling rates during this thermal stress relief must be carefully controlled
otherwise further residual stress patterns may be set up in the welded component. There is a size limit to the
structures which can be thermally stress relieved both because of the size of the ovens required and the
possibility of a structure distorting under its own weight. It is possible, however, to heat treat individual
joints in a large structure by placing small ovens around the joints or by using electric heating elements.
Other methods of stress relief rely on thermal expansion providing mechanical forces capable of
counteracting the original residual stresses. This technique can be applied in-situ but a precise knowledge of
the location of the compressive residual stresses is vital, otherwise the level of residual stress may be
increased rather than decreased. Purely mechanical stress relief can also be applied provided sufficient is
available to accommodate the necessary plastic deformation.
2. THE WELDABILITY OF STRUCTURAL STEELS

2.1 Introduction
If weld preparation is good and operator induced defects (e.g. lack of penetration or fusion) are avoided, all
the common structural steels can be successfully welded. However, a number of these steels may require
special treatments to achieve a satisfactory joint. These treatments are not convenient in all cases. The
difficulty in producing satisfactory welded joints in some steels arises from the extremes of heating, cooling
and straining associated with the welding process combined with microstructural changes and environmental
interactions that occur during welding. It is not possible for some structural steels to tolerate these effects
without joint cracking occurring. The various types of cracking which can occur and the remedial measures
which can be taken are discussed below.
2.2 Weld Metal Solidification Cracking
Solidification of the molten weld pool occurs by the growth of crystals away from the fusion boundary and
towards the centre of the weld pool, until eventually there is no remaining liquid. In the process of crystal
growth, solute and impurity elements are pushed ahead of the growing interface. This process is not
significant until the final stages of solidification when the growing crystals interlock at the centre of the
weld. The high concentration of solute and impurity elements can then result in the production of a low
freezing point liquid at the centre of the weld. This acts as a line of weakness and can cause cracking to
occur under the influence of transverse shrinkage strains. Impurity elements such as sulphur and phosphorus
are particularly important in this type of cracking since they cause low melting point silicides and
phosphides to be present in the weld metal [3]. A schematic view of solidification cracking is shown in
Figure 6.

APPLIED METALLURGY
Weld metals with a low susceptibility to solidification cracking (low sulphur and phosphorous) are available
for most structural steels, but cracking may still arise in the following circumstances:
a. If joint movement occurs during welding, e.g. as a result of distortion. A typical example of this is
welding around a patch or nozzle. If the weld is continuous, the contraction of the first part of the weld
imposes a strain during solidification of the rest of the weld.
b. If contamination of the weld metal with elements such a sulphur and phosphorus occur. A typical example
of this is the welding of articles with a sulphur rich scale, such as a component in a sulphur containing
environment.
c. If the weld metal has to bridge a large gap, e.g. poor fit-up. In this case the depth to width ratio of the
weld bead may be small. Contraction of the weld results in a large strain being imposed on the centre of the
weld.
d. If the parent steel is not suitable in the sense that the diffusion of impurity elements from the steel into the
weld metal can make it susceptible to cracking. Cracking susceptibility depends on the content of alloying
element with the parent metal and can be expressed in the following equation:
Hot cracking susceptibility =
Note: The higher the number, the greater the susceptibility.
Solidification cracking can be controlled by careful choice of parent metal composition, process parameters
and joint design to avoid the circumstances previously outlined.

APPLIED METALLURGY
2.3 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Cracking
2.3.1 Liquation cracking (burning)
The parent material in the HAZ does not melt as a whole, but the temperature close to the fusion boundary
may be so high that local melting can occur at grain boundaries due to the presence of constituents having a
lower melting point than the surrounding matrix. Fine cracks may be produced in this region if the residual
stress is high. These cracks can be extended by fabrication stresses or during service [3]. A schematic view
of liquation cracking is shown in Figure 7.
In steels the low melting point grain boundary films can be formed from impurities such as sulphur,
phosphorus, boron, arsenic and tin. As with solidification cracking, increased carbon, sulphur and
phosphorous make the steel more prone to cracking.
There are two main ways of avoiding liquation cracking. First, care should be taken to make sure that the
sulphur and phosphorus levels in the parent metal are low. Unfortunately, many steel specifications permit
high enough levels of sulphur and phosphorus to introduce a risk of liquation cracking. Secondly, the risk of
liquation cracking is affected by the welding process used. Processes incorporating a relatively high heat
input rate, such as submerged arc or electroslag welding, lead to a greater risk of liquation cracking than, for
example, manual metal arc welding. This is the case since the HAZ spends longer at the liquation
temperature (allowing greater segregation of low melting point elements) and there is a greater amount of
thermal strain accompanying welding.

APPLIED METALLURGY
2.3.2 Hydrogen induced cracking
This form of cracking (also known as HAZ, underbead, cold or delayed cracking) occurs in the HAZ at
temperatures less than 200°C. Cracks can form within minutes of welding or be delayed for several days.
Three factors must co-exist if cracking is to occur. These factors are:
a. The presence of hydrogen
Hydrogen is introduced into the molten weld pool during welding as a result of the decomposition of
hydrogen containing compounds in the arc, e.g. moisture, grease paint and rust. Once the gas has dissolved
in the weld metal, it can diffuse rapidly into the HAZ both during cooling and at ambient temperatures. In
due course, the hydrogen will diffuse out of the steel. The diffusion can take a period of weeks for a thick-
walled vessel.
b. A susceptible weld metal or HAZ
The cooling rate following most fusion welding processes is relatively rapid. This cooling can lead to the
formation of martensite or other hardened structures in the HAZ and possibly the weld metal. These
structures can be embrittled by the presence of only small quantities of hydrogen.
c. A high level of residual stress after welding.
Cracking develops under the action of the residual stresses from welding in the susceptible microstructure of
the HAZ or weld metal, where embrittlement has occurred due to the presence of hydrogen in solution [3]. A
schematic view of hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of different weld designs is illustrated in Figure 8.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The methods of avoiding hydrogen cracking involve removing or limiting one of the three factors which are
necessary for it to occur. Hydrogen cracking can be avoided by choosing a material which does not harden
in the HAZ or weld metal with the particular welding process employed. The likelihood of hardening in the
HAZ is controlled by the cooling rate after welding and the hardenability of the parent steel. The
hardenability of a steel is governed by its composition. A useful way of describing hardenability is to assess
the total contribution to it of all the elements that are present in the steel. This assessment is done by an
empirical formula which defines a carbon equivalent value (CEV) and takes account of the important
elements which affect hardenability. A typical formula for the CEV (accepted in British Standards) is shown
below:
CEV =
As a general rule, hardening in the HAZ can be avoided by using a steel with a CEV of less than 0,42
although it should be noted that the welding process parameters influence this value.
Increasing the heat input rate of the welding process (where possible) is beneficial since it results in a slower
cooling rate after welding and therefore a lower likelihood of hardening in the HAZ. For the same reason,
there is a less risk of hydrogen cracking when welding thin plates and sections, since the cooling rate in the
HAZ is less than in thick sections.
Limiting the presence of hydrogen by avoiding damp, rust and grease, by using controlled hydrogen
electrodes (properly dried basic coated electrodes) and low hydrogen welding processes (MIG or submerged
arc welding) is another step towards avoiding cracking.
If these precautions are not sufficient, preheating is necessary. Preheating and the maintenance of a
minimum interpass temperature during multi-pass welding has two effects. First, it results in softening of the
HAZ because the cooling rate is reduced. Secondly, it accelerates the diffusion of hydrogen from the weld
zone so that less remains after the weld has cooled. The minimum pre-heat temperature required to avoid
hydrogen cracking depends on the chemical composition of the steel, the heat input rate and the thicknesses
being joined.
The minimum pre-heat temperature can be calculated by interrelating these facts in a welding procedure
diagram [3]. An example of one of these diagrams for carbon manganese steels is shown in Figure 9. This
diagram is used in the following way:

APPLIED METALLURGY
1. Select the appropriate heat input (arc energy) on the horizontal scale.
2. Move vertically to intersect the appropriate combined thickness line for the joint design in question.
3. Move horizontally from the intersection point to read off the pre-heat temperature for the CEV of the
steel being welded.

APPLIED METALLURGY
2.4 Lamellar Tearing
This problem can arise if the residual stresses from welding are applied across the thickness of at least one
of the plates being joined [3]. Cracking occurs if the through-thickness ductility of the plate is very low. A
schematic view of this mode of cracking is shown in Figure 10.
Cracking normally occurs in the parent metal close to the outer boundary of the HAZ. The cracks have a
characteristic stepped appearance with the 'threads' of the steps being parallel to the rolling direction of the
steel plate. In contrast to hydrogen cracking, lamellar tears are not necessarily confined to the HAZ. In some
cases, cracking can occur at the mid-thickness of a plate if it is restrained by a weld on both sides.
Lamellar tearing arises because the through-thickness ductility of the plate is reduced by the presence of
planar inclusions lying parallel to the plate surface. All common structural steels contain large numbers of
inclusions which consist of non-metallic substances produced in the steelmaking process, e.g. sulphates and
silicates. These inclusions are formed as spheres, grain boundary films, or small angular particles in the steel
ingot as it cools down after casting. When the ingot is rolled to make steel plate the inclusions deform into
discs parallel to the plate surface. Different types of inclusions deform in different ways and break up during
rolling. The form, distribution and density of inclusions in a rolled plate determine the through-thickness
ductility. Only a small proportion of steel plates have a sufficiently low through-thickness ductility to be
susceptible to lamellar tearing.
Lamellar tearing can be avoided in four main ways:
a. Improved joint design
The design of a fabrication can be altered to avoid residual stresses in the through-thickness direction of a
plate. Examples are shown in Figure 11.

APPLIED METALLURGY
b. The use of forged products
The lamellar distribution of inclusions in a plate is a result of the plastic deformation occurring during
rolling. The inclusion distribution in forged products is not so detrimental.
c. Plate selection

APPLIED METALLURGY
The use of steel plates with a relatively low population of planar inclusions and thus adequate through-
thickness ductility.
d. Using a layer of low strength weld metal
This reduces the strain transmitted through the thickness of the welded steel plates since the soft weld metal
can deform plastically. This technique, known as 'buttering' is relatively expensive but can be used when
susceptible joints cannot be avoided.
2.5 Re-Heat Cracking
The removal or reduction of residual stresses after welding by thermal stress relief is recommended for
many fabrications. In this process, the joint reaches a temperature range where rapid creep can occur (about
a third to a half of the melting point). As a result, the welding residual stresses are relieved by plastic
deformation. Cracking can occur during this process if the ductility of the weld or HAZ is not sufficient to
accommodate the strain accompanying the residual stress relief [3]. A schematic view of re-heat cracking is
shown in Figure 12.

APPLIED METALLURGY
The residual tensile stress which acts as the driving force for the cracking process may be supplemented by
transient thermal stresses in the weld zone. These stresses arise from rapid non-uniform heating up to the
stress relieving temperature. The presence of geometric stress raisers, e.g. toes of fillet welds, and pre-
existing cracks, e.g. liquation and hydrogen cracks, accentuate the problem.
The cracking problem is most prevalent during stress relieving operations, but it can also occur in service
situations. In such cases the onset of cracking is expected to take much longer since the service temperature
is generally significantly below the stress relieving temperature.
Re-heat cracking is mainly confined in practice to alloy steels containing substantial amounts of strong
carbide forming elements, e.g. Cr, Mo and V. The presence of the alloy carbides inhibits grain boundary
sliding and thus reduces high temperature ductility. Cracking can usually be avoided by weld profiling, e.g.
grinding away any geometric stress raisers such as the toes of fillet welds, before heat treatment and by
control of the heating rate to avoid high transient thermal stresses.
• A structural steel can only be considered to be weldable if joints in the steel behave satisfactorily in
service.
• In order to achieve adequate levels of performance in structural applications, the integrity of the
welded joint must be good. A high level of integrity can only be achieved if the welded joint
microstructure possesses sufficient ductility to resist residual stresses, which arise from the welding
thermal cycle, without cracking.
• The chemical compositions of both the weld and parent metals (carbon equivalent value), together
with the parameters of the welding process (heat input and cooling rates), are influential in
determining joint ductility.
• The level of impurity elements, such as sulphur, phosphorous and hydrogen, is a particularly
significant factor in determining whether crack formation will occur during welding.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Hicks, J. G., "Welded Joint Design", BSP Professional Books, 1979.
[2] Pratt, J. L., "Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork", Steel Construction Institute, 3rd rev.
ed. 1989.
[3] Baker, R. G., "The Welding of Pressure Vessel Steels", The Welding Institute, 1973.

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APPLIED METALLURGY

Lecture 2.1 : Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys

Lecture 2.2 : Manufacturing and Forming Processes

Lecture 2.3.1 : Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels

Lecture 2.3.2 : Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels

Lecture 2.4 : Steel Grades and Qualities

Lecture 2.5 : Selection of Steel Quality

Lecture 2.6 : Weldability of Structural Steels

Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys

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1.2 The Scope of Lectures in Group 2

2. STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF STEEL

Slide 1 : Longitudinal stringers of inclusions in hot rolled steel. (x 500)

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2.2 The Components of Steel

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(a) The surface is polished but not etched.

(d) The appearance of etched grain boundaries of Figure 1c.

where σy is the yield strength

d is the grain size in mm

k is a material constant, which for mild steel is about 20N/mm-3/2

Thus, if the grain size is 0.01 mm, σy ≈ 250N/mm2.

2.3 The Crystal Structure

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Slide 6 : Polycrystalline structure of steel containing 0,4% carbon. (x 400)

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3.2 Solution of Carbon in bcc and fcc Crystals

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The following nomenclature is used by the metallurgist:

3.4 The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

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Weight of ferrite × FX = Weight of austenite × AX

The ratio of ferrite to austenite in the microstructure is then given by:

Prepared by WM Applied Metallurgy.doc Page 11 of 162

Weight of ferrite × F′ X′ = Weight of pearlite × F′ P

In this case, there should be about twice as much pearlite as ferrite.

Slide 7 : Microstructure of pearlite. (x 1000)

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4.2 Slowly Cooled Steels

4.2.1 Influence of carbon on the microstructure

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4.2.2 The need for control of grain size

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4.2.3 Grain size control by normalising

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4.2.4 Microstructural changes accompanying hot rolling of steels

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4.3 Rapidly Cooled Steels

4.3.1 Formation of martensite and bainite

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4.3.2 Martensite in welded structures

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4.3.3 Quenching and tempering

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4.3.4 Control of martensite formation

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