LABORATORY MANUALS Laboratory 2

OTE, RAISAH C.
BS ME
 I. Title: PHYSICAL STUDY OF STEAM GENERATING UNIT

II. Objectives:
A. To familiarize students with the physical aspects of steam generating units commonly
used in industrial and power generation processes.
B. To identify the parts and function or components of the steam generation unit.
C. To determine the classification of steam generating unit.
D. To determine the application and uses of steam generating unit
III. Theoretical Concept
In a steam generating unit, several key components work together to facilitate the
efficient conversion of water into steam. The boiler, acting as the heart of the unit, applies heat
to water through combustion processes, following principles of heat transfer and
thermodynamics. The resulting steam passes through a superheater, where its temperature is
further elevated to achieve superheated steam, improving efficiency and thermal properties.
Meanwhile, the economizer optimizes energy utilization by preheating feedwater using waste
heat from flue gases, enhancing overall efficiency. Combustion chambers facilitate efficient fuel
combustion while minimizing emissions, guided by combustion theory and safety regulations.
Additionally, the steam drum ensures proper separation of steam and water, maintaining steam
quality and system performance through fluid mechanics principles and control systems. These
components collectively form the core of a steam generating unit, embodying the principles of
heat transfer, thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, combustion, and safety regulations to enable
efficient and safe steam generation.
To create steam or hot water for distribution in various building areas, boilers are
heating system components that produce steam or hot water. However, steam boilers are
employed in central systems where hot water is piped to delivery devices since water cannot be
used in these systems (e.g., base board radiators, unit heaters, convectors, or AHUs). After the
delivery device has been heated, the water is returned to the boiler to be warmed, and the
water circulation cycle continues.
They are used in boilers to convert water into steam or hot water under high pressure.
In water tube boilers, fossil fuels are burnt to generate heat. When using a water-tube boiler,
the hot combustion gas can either be ducted around the tubes carrying water or it can flow
through the tubes that contain water(fire-tube boiler).

IV. Materials and Apparatus :

1. Steam generating unit (preferably a model or a functional unit in the laboratory)
2. Safety goggles
3. Thermometers
4. Pressure gauges
5. Hand tools for maintenance (wrenches, screwdrivers, etc.)
6. Protective gloves
7. Lab coats
8. Water source
9. Fuel source (if applicable)
10. Instruction manual for the steam generating unit (if available)
 V. Set-up of Apparatus
Draw a schematic diagram.

VI. Procedures:

Experiment 1: Familiarization with Components

Safety precautions:
● Wear safety goggles and lab coats.

● Ensure the steam generating unit is turned off and cooled down before inspection.
Identify and label the major components of the steam generating unit:
● Boiler

● Furnace

● Superheater

● Economizer

● Steam drum

● Water tubes
 ● Combustion chamber

● Control panels

Experiment 2: Measurement of Temperature and Pressure

Safety precautions:
● Wear safety goggles and protective gloves.

● Handle pressure gauges and thermometers carefully.

1. Connect the pressure gauges to the steam drum and measure the steam pressure.
2. Measure the temperature at different points within the steam generating unit (steam drum,
superheater, economizer, etc.).
3. Record the readings and compare them with expected values.

Experiment 3: Operation of the Steam Generating Unit

Safety precautions:
● Ensure proper ventilation in the laboratory.

● Follow instructions for starting up the steam generating unit.

● Keep clear of moving parts.

1. Start up the steam generating unit following the manufacturer's instructions.
2. Observe and record the sequence of operations during startup, including ignition, fuel
supply, water flow, and steam generation.
3. Monitor temperature and pressure changes during operation.

Experiment 4: Shutdown Procedure

Safety precautions:
● Follow proper shutdown procedures provided by the manufacturer.

● Allow the unit to cool down before performing any maintenance.

1. Perform a safe shutdown of the steam generating unit.
2. Close valves and isolate fuel and water supply.
3. Allow the unit to cool down completely.
4. Record observations during the shutdown process.

Experiment 5: Maintenance and Inspection

Safety precautions:
● Ensure the unit is completely shut down and cooled down.

● Use appropriate hand tools and protective equipment.

1. Inspect the unit for any signs of wear, corrosion, or leaks.
 2. Clean the components as necessary, including removing ash or scale buildup.
3. Lubricate moving parts according to the manufacturer's recommendations.
4. Record maintenance activities and any repairs needed.

Experiment 6: Troubleshooting
Safety precautions:
● Follow proper safety procedures when troubleshooting.

● Do not attempt repairs beyond your expertise.

1. Identify common problems such as low pressure, high temperature, water leaks, etc.
2. Analyze possible causes for each problem.
3. Develop solutions or recommendations for resolving the issues.
4. Document the troubleshooting process and outcomes.
VII. Discussion
A. Questions
1. Explain the principle behind steam generation in a steam generating unit.
2. Describe the role of the superheater in the steam generating unit.
3. Explain the purpose of the economizer in a steam generating unit.
4. Discuss the importance of maintaining proper water level in the steam drum
of a steam generating unit.
5. Explain the concept of steam pressure and its significance in a steam
generating unit.
B. Answers

VIII. Conclusion
I. Title : TEST OF CENTRIFUGAL FAN AND ROTARY BLOWER
II. Objectives:
1. To understand the principles of operation of centrifugal fans and rotary blowers.
2. To investigate the performance characteristics of centrifugal fans and rotary
blowers under different operating conditions.
3. To compare the efficiency and airflow characteristics of centrifugal fans and rotary
blowers.
III. Theoretical Concept
Centrifugal fans and rotary blowers are both types of turbomachinery used for
generating airflow. Centrifugal fans operate by converting kinetic energy into pressure
energy through the action of centrifugal force. This force is generated as air enters the
fan inlet and is accelerated by rotating blades, then directed outward by the centrifugal
force, increasing pressure. On the other hand, rotary blowers operate by using rotating
lobes or screws to draw air into the blower and compress it within the housing before
discharging it. This compression action results in increased pressure and airflow. Both
types of machines are essential for various industrial applications, including ventilation,
HVAC systems, and pneumatic conveying.

Discussion of Airflow Principles:

Airflow principles govern the behavior of air within centrifugal fans and rotary
blowers. Axial flow refers to airflow parallel to the axis of rotation, commonly observed
in axial fans and propellers. Radial flow, on the other hand, involves airflow
perpendicular to the axis of rotation, as seen in centrifugal fans, where air is directed
outward from the center. Centrifugal force plays a crucial role in centrifugal fan
operation, as it causes air to move radially outward due to the rotation of the fan blades.
Understanding these airflow principles is essential for optimizing fan and blower design
and performance.

Description of Performance Parameters:

Performance parameters such as airflow rate, pressure rise, and efficiency are critical
indicators of fan and blower performance. Airflow rate, measured in cubic meters per
second (m^3/s) or cubic feet per minute (CFM), indicates the volume of air moved by
the fan or blower per unit time. Pressure rise refers to the increase in air pressure as it
passes through the fan or blower, measured in pascals (Pa) or inches of water gauge (in.
WG). Efficiency represents the ratio of useful work output (airflow) to the energy input
(power consumption), expressed as a percentage. These parameters provide valuable
insights into the effectiveness and energy efficiency of fan and blower systems, guiding
engineers in selecting and optimizing equipment for specific applications.

Introduction to Fan Laws and Their Applications:

Fan laws, such as the affinity laws and Euler's turbomachinery equations, provide
valuable tools for predicting fan and blower performance under different operating
conditions. The affinity laws describe how changes in fan speed, diameter, or impeller
geometry affect airflow rate, pressure rise, and power consumption. Euler's equations
relate these parameters to fluid dynamics principles, offering insights into the behavior
of airflow within the fan or blower. By applying fan laws, engineers can optimize fan
performance, select appropriate operating conditions, and design efficient ventilation
and air handling systems tailored to specific requirements.

Discussion on Formulas Used:

Airflow Rate Calculation:
The airflow rate (Q) is calculated using the formula:
Q=A×V
where:
● A is the cross-sectional area of the duct or testing chamber through which the
air flows.
● V is the velocity of the airflow measured using an anemometer.
This formula is essential for determining the volume of air moved by the fan or blower
per unit time.

Pressure Rise Calculation:

The pressure rise (∆P) across the fan or blower is calculated using the formula:
∆P=ρ×V2/2
where:
● ρ is the density of air.

● V is the velocity of the airflow measured using an anemometer.

This formula calculates the increase in air pressure as it passes through the fan or
blower, providing insights into the fan or blower's ability to generate pressure.

Power Consumption Calculation:

The power consumption (P) of the fan or blower is calculated using the formula:
P=VI
where:
● V is the voltage applied to the fan or blower.

● I is the current drawn by the fan or blower.

This formula determines the electrical power input to the fan or blower, which is
essential for assessing energy consumption and efficiency.
Efficiency Calculation:
 The efficiency (η) of the fan or blower is calculated using the formula:
η=(Q×∆P)/(P×100)
where:
● Q is the airflow rate.

● ∆P is the pressure rise.

● P is the power consumption.

This formula evaluates the efficiency of the fan or blower in converting electrical power
input into useful airflow and pressure rise, expressed as a percentage.

IV. Materials and Apparatus :

1. Centrifugal fan
2. Rotary blower
3. Flow rate measuring apparatus (e.g., anemometer)
4. Pressure measuring apparatus (e.g., manometer)
5. Power meter
6. Ductwork or testing chamber
7. Data acquisition system
8. Safety goggles and gloves

V. Set-up of Apparatus

1. Position the centrifugal fan and rotary blower in the testing area.
2. Connect the flow rate measuring apparatus and pressure measuring apparatus to
appropriate points in the ductwork or testing chamber.
3. Ensure all connections are secure and sealed to prevent air leakage.
4. Connect the power meter to measure the electrical power input to each fan.
5. Set up the data acquisition system to record airflow rate, pressure, and power
readings during the test.
VI. Procedures:
1. Start by calibrating the measuring instruments and ensuring all connections are
properly set up.
2. For each fan, vary the operating conditions such as fan speed or inlet/outlet
configurations.
3. Measure and record the airflow rate, pressure rise, and power consumption for each
set of operating conditions.
4. Repeat the measurements for different operating conditions to gather sufficient data.
5. Calculate the efficiency of each fan under different conditions using appropriate
formulas.
6. Compare the performance characteristics of the centrifugal fan and rotary blower
based on the experimental data collected.

VII. Discussion
A. Questions
1. How do the performance characteristics of centrifugal fans and rotary blowers
differ? Discuss observed trends in airflow rate, pressure rise, and efficiency.
2. Compare the efficiency of centrifugal fans and rotary blowers. What factors
contribute to differences in efficiency?
3. Analyze the impact of fan speed variations on airflow rate and pressure rise for
both fan types.
4. Discuss the influence of blade design on airflow characteristics and efficiency.
5. Evaluate the effect of inlet and outlet configurations on fan performance.
 6. Compare the suitability of centrifugal fans and rotary blowers for different
applications.
7. Consider practical implications for selecting and optimizing fan systems based
on experimental findings.
8. Discuss limitations of the experimental setup and potential sources of error.
9. Explore the relationship between electrical power input and fan performance.
10. Reflect on the broader implications of the findings for energy efficiency and
sustainability.
B. Answers

VIII. Conclusion

I. Title : TEST OF AIR COMPRESSOR

II. Objectives:
● Evaluate the performance of a typical two-stage air compressor.

III. Theoretical Concept

Air compressors play a crucial role in various industries by converting mechanical
energy into compressed air, which can then be used for powering pneumatic tools,
industrial processes, and other applications. The compression process within an air
compressor involves several key components working together. The compressor itself is
responsible for drawing in atmospheric air and compressing it to a higher pressure. This
compressed air is then stored in a tank for later use. The motor provides the necessary
power to drive the compressor, while the tank serves as a reservoir to store the
compressed air, ensuring a steady supply during peak demand periods. The compression
process is governed by principles of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics, with airflow
principles dictating the movement of air through the compressor, pressure rise occurring
as air is compressed, and power consumption reflecting the energy required to drive the
compression process.

In air compressor systems, airflow rate, pressure ratio, and adiabatic efficiency are key
performance parameters used to assess compressor performance. Airflow rate,
measured in cubic meters per minute (m^3/min) or cubic feet per minute (CFM),
represents the volume of air delivered by the compressor per unit time. Pressure ratio,
calculated as the ratio of discharge pressure to inlet pressure, indicates the degree of
compression achieved by the compressor. Adiabatic efficiency quantifies the
effectiveness of the compression process in converting input energy into compressed air,
considering losses due to friction and heat transfer. It is calculated using the formula:

Adiabatic Efficiency= (Actual Compression Work /Ideal Compression Work) ×100%

where "Actual Compression Work" represents the work done on the air by the
compressor, and "Ideal Compression Work" represents the work required to compress
the air adiabatically. Adiabatic compression is based on the ideal gas law, which
describes the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature for an ideal gas
undergoing adiabatic compression:

PV γ =constant
where
● P is pressure,

● V is volume, and

● γ is the ratio of specific heats (typically around 1.4 for air).

This equation governs the behavior of air as it is compressed adiabatically within the
compressor. Additionally, formulas for calculating airflow rate, pressure ratio, and power
consumption in air compressor systems can be derived from basic principles of fluid
mechanics and thermodynamics, providing engineers with valuable tools for analyzing
and optimizing compressor performance.

Airflow Rate Calculation:

The airflow rate (Q) can be calculated using the formula:
Q=A×V
where:
 ● A is the cross-sectional area of the duct or testing chamber through which the air
flows.
● V is the velocity of the airflow measured using a flow meter.
This formula allows for the determination of the volume of air moved by the compressor
per unit time, providing valuable information about its capacity.

Pressure Rise Calculation:

The pressure rise (ΔP) across the air compressor can be calculated using the formula:
ΔP=ρ×V2/2
where:
● ρ is the density of air.

● V is the velocity of the airflow measured using a flow meter.

This formula quantifies the increase in air pressure as it passes through the compressor,
reflecting the compressor's ability to generate pressure.

Power Consumption Calculation:

The power consumption (P) of the air compressor can be calculated using the formula:
P=VI
where:
● V is the voltage applied to the compressor.

● I is the current drawn by the compressor.

This formula determines the electrical power input to the compressor, providing insights
into its energy consumption.

IV. Materials and Apparatus :

1. Air compressor unit
2. Pressure gauge
3. Flow meter
4. Power meter
5. Tank for storing compressed air
6. Safety goggles and gloves
7. Instruction manual for the air compressor unit
V. Set-up of Apparatus
1. Position the air compressor unit in a well-ventilated area with sufficient space for
airflow and operation.
2. Connect the pressure gauge to the outlet of the air compressor to measure the
discharge pressure.
3. Install the flow meter in the airflow path to measure the rate of airflow from the
compressor.
4. Connect the power meter to the electrical supply of the air compressor to
measure power consumption.
5. Ensure all connections are secure and sealed to prevent air leaks or electrical
hazards.
VI. Procedures:
1. Start by inspecting the air compressor unit and ensuring all connections are
properly set up and secure.
2. Turn on the air compressor and allow it to reach stable operating conditions.
3. Measure and record the discharge pressure using the pressure gauge.
4. Measure and record the airflow rate using the flow meter.
5. Measure and record the power consumption of the air compressor using the power
meter.
6. Repeat the measurements for different operating conditions, such as varying the
compressor speed or adjusting the discharge pressure.
7. Calculate the efficiency of the air compressor using the relevant formulas.
8. Analyze the experimental data and compare the performance characteristics of the
air compressor under different operating conditions.

VII. Discussion
A. Questions
1. How do changes in compressor speed or discharge pressure affect airflow and
pressure from the air compressor? Provide examples from the experiment.
2. Calculate the efficiency of the air compressor using the given formulas. Compare
the efficiencies obtained under different conditions and explain any trends
observed.
3. Describe the relationship between power consumption and airflow rate for the
air compressor. How does power consumption change with airflow rate, and
what factors influence this relationship?
4. Discuss how the design and configuration of the compressor impact airflow and
efficiency. Consider different compressor types and stages of compression.
 5. Calculate the adiabatic efficiency of the air compressor using experimental data
and theoretical predictions. Compare the two values and explain any differences.
6. What practical insights can be gained from the experiment regarding the
selection and operation of air compressor systems in real-world applications?
7. Identify potential limitations or sources of error in the experiment. How could
these be addressed to improve accuracy.
8. Explore the broader implications of air compressor testing for energy
management and environmental sustainability. How can improving compressor
efficiency contribute to reducing energy consumption and emissions?
9. Calculate the theoretical power required for adiabatic compression using the
ideal gas law. Compare this with the measured power consumption of the air
compressor and discuss any differences.
10. Reflect on the role of airflow principles and adiabatic compression theory in
understanding air compressor performance. How do these concepts help explain
the experiment's results?

B. Answers

VIII. Conclusion