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Spatial mapping of groundwater quality in the municipality of Santa Ignacia,

Tarlac, Philippines

Article in Applied Water Science · October 2021

DOI: 10.1007/s13201-021-01513-2

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Applied Water Science (2021) 11:174
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01513-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Spatial mapping of groundwater quality in the municipality of Santa

Ignacia, Tarlac, Philippines
Jessamine Gail M. Inson1 · Christian E. Supsup1 · Mary Jane C. Flores1

Received: 27 April 2021 / Accepted: 11 October 2021

© The Author(s) 2021

Abstract
The municipality of Santa Ignacia in the Province of Tarlac is highly dependent on groundwater as its major water supply
for various purposes, but there is inconsistency in monitoring groundwater quality in the area which may impact the health
of consumers. This study presented the preliminary assessment of groundwater quality through the application of spatial
mapping. Out of 6,815 wells in the municipality, groundwater samples were collected from 274 hand pump wells. The
measurements of selected groundwater quality parameters such as pH, conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, and iron of groundwater
samples were determined on-site. The geographical coordinates of sampled wells and measurements of groundwater quality
parameters were used in Geographic Information System software, QGIS, to construct the spatial distribution and spatial
variation maps. The values of measured parameters were interpolated using the inverse distance weighted technique to predict
the parameters at other sites in Santa Ignacia. Spatial variation maps revealed that the groundwater quality parameters varied
in the municipality. All measured parameters, except the nitrite content, were within the acceptable limits set by the World
Health Organization for drinking water. The high level of nitrite content in groundwater may be attributed to the application
of fertilizers during agricultural activities. The nitrite content of groundwater, which exceeded the permissible limit, may
cause long-term public health problems. Hence, an upscale evaluation and monitoring of groundwater quality and existing
anthropological activities in the municipality are highly recommended. The identification of other possible source(s) of
nitrite is necessary to lessen possible contamination risk and to protect the groundwater sources in the municipality. The
results of this preliminary study would be useful in prospect studies of groundwater quality in the study area and in other
provinces in the Philippines.

Keywords Groundwater · Groundwater quality · Drinking water · Spatial mapping · Geographic information system

Introduction to withdraw water from underground aquifers and are con-

sidered level 1 water supply. Level 1 water supply provides
Groundwater refers to water found beneath the ground sur- a protected well with an outlet but lacking in the distribu-
face in cracks and spaces in soils, sands, and rocks. It com- tion system; hence, it is adaptable for rural areas where it is
prises about 20% of freshwater resources worldwide and accessible, and houses are not crowded (Greenpeace 2007;
used for domestic and irrigation purposes in urban and rural Usha et al. 2011; World Bank 2012; Margat and van der Gun
populations. In terms of frequency and volume, it is the most 2013; Shakerkhatibi et al. 2019).
extracted raw material worldwide and the Philippines has an Degradation of water quality is one of the problems of
extensive groundwater reservoir with an aggregate area of the twenty-first century. Water contamination degrades the
approximately 50,000 square kilometers. In the Philippines, quality of water making it unsafe to use, leading to detri-
groundwater is the preferred water source in rural water sup- mental health effects. Water quality is determined by its
ply systems, particularly wells. Wells are holes constructed physical properties, chemical composition, and biologi-
cal parameters. The levels of parameters indicate whether
* Jessamine Gail M. Inson the water is safe for consumption. Otherwise, the water is
jessamine.inson@dlsu.edu.ph needed to be treated to acceptable standards by reducing
them to levels determined by regulatory authorities. Further-
1
Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Manila, more, when raw water quality is fully understood, the most
Philippines

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174 Page 2 of 8 Applied Water Science (2021) 11:174

appropriate water purification method can be determined. Groundwater sampling

Groundwater is generally accepted as a safe water source
for human consumption; however, it is not ubiquitously free A total number of 274 groundwater samples were collected
from contaminants. Regular monitoring of groundwater is from hand pump wells, used for drinking and/or bathing,
necessary to ensure that water is safe and usable, and the from January to March 2019 (Fig. 2). Geographical coordi-
quality of water is acceptable (Oki and Akana 2016; Murphy nates (latitudes and longitudes) of the wells were recorded
et al. 2017; Patella et al. 2017; AlSuhaimi et al. 2019; Dev using a calibrated hand-held Global Positioning System
and Bali 2019). (GPS) (eTrex®—Garmin). Water samples were collected
A groundwater quality map is an important tool for man- using 1 L sterile, properly labeled, polyethylene bottles.
aging groundwater to ensure optimal and sustainable use and Before the collection of water samples, sampling bottles
to protect public health. Inverse distance weighting (IDW) is were washed with distilled water, and the sample water itself
a Geographic Information System (GIS) interpolation tech- 2–3 times, and wells were pumped for 5 to 10 min before the
nique that is widely used to produce groundwater quality sampling. Collected water samples were kept in an icebox
map. It is a technique performed to interpolate measured and transported to De La Salle University, Science and Tech-
data to show spatial variations, and it follows a determin- nology Research Center laboratory for processing.
istic model approach in which unknown values are com-
puted based on nearby points. It is not always feasible to
Groundwater quality parameters
sample groundwater at every location due to high costs and
time involved in sampling; hence, this technique provides a
Five groundwater quality parameters were measured in situ
solution to optimally predict groundwater quality at other
which include pH, conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, and iron. The
locations based on measured parameters. Understanding dif-
selected parameters were based on the Philippine Depart-
ferences in groundwater quality is necessary to effectively
ment of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
monitor groundwater (e.g., the extent of groundwater con-
groundwater quality guidelines. The pH and conductivity
tamination). Generating such information is useful in facili-
(μmho/cm) of the groundwater samples were measured
tating groundwater management and in decreasing contami-
using pH meter (ExStik®) and conductivity meter (Yellow
nation risk of groundwater sources (Ketata-Rokbani et al.
Spring Instrument Co., Inc., Yellow Springs, Ohio, USA),
2011; Adnan and Iqbal 2014; Korbel et al. 2016; Kawo and
respectively. The levels of nitrate, nitrite, and iron were
Karuppannan 2018; Chaudhry et al. 2019; Masocha et al.
determined using water quality test strips and testing kits
2019).
(OMEGA Engineering, Singapore).
To date, studies on groundwater quality assessment using
Geographic Information System are lacking in the Philip-
pines. The present study measured selected groundwater Statistical analysis and mapping of groundwater
quality parameters and produced spatial variation maps to quality parameters
determine possible drinking water contamination.
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the measurements
of groundwater quality parameters. Using the Geographic
Information System software, QGIS version 2.18.24, a map
Materials and methods showing the distribution of sampled wells from the study
area and spatial variation maps of measured groundwater
Study area quality parameters were constructed using the recorded geo-
graphical coordinates and inverse distance weighted inter-
The municipality of Santa Ignacia is a second-class munici- polation method, respectively.
pality in Central Luzon and is situated on the western side of
Tarlac Province (15.5841°N and 120.4588°E; Fig. 1). It has
a total land area of 14,607 hectares consisting of 24 baran-
Results and discussion
gays in which two are in the urban area while the rest are in
rural areas. The topography of the municipality is roughly
The characterization of groundwater in Santa Ignacia
rolling to hilly and mountainous. It has two well-defined sea-
based on pH, conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, and iron is sum-
sons, the wet (June to October) and dry seasons (November
marized in Table 1 and Fig. 3. The pH of groundwater
to May). Based on the data obtained from the Field Health
samples ranged from 6.00 to 8.00 with an average of 6.56.
Service Information System in 2017–2018, from the Munici-
The conductivity of water samples ranged from 0.00 to
pal Health Office, the municipality has a total number of
500.00 (μmho/cm) with an average of 97.16 (μmho/cm).
6,815 deep wells and shallow wells as groundwater sources.

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Applied Water Science (2021) 11:174 Page 3 of 8 174

Fig. 1  Constructed map, using Geographic Information System software, QGIS, showing the entire land area of the study area, Santa Ignacia,
Tarlac, Philippines

For both nitrate and nitrite, minimum and maximum val- the groundwater quality in the municipality of Santa Ignacia
ues were 0.00 and 20.00 mg/L while average nitrate and varied greatly across sites (Fig. 4).
nitrite were 0.81 mg/L and 0.51 mg/L, respectively. The Slightly acidic pH values (< = 6.29) of groundwater were
iron content of the samples ranged from 0.00 to 2.00 mg/L observed in groundwater in Botbotones, Caanamongan,
with an average of 0.03. Generally, the mean values of all Cabaruan, Cabugbugan, Macaguing, Nambalan, Pinpinas,
groundwater parameters were within the permissible limits Poblacion East, Poblacion West, San Francisco, San Vicente,
set by the DENR and WHO. Taguiporo, and Vargas, which were below the permissible
Santa Ignacia has a total number of 6815 wells; however, limit for pH (6.5 to 8.5) set by the World Health Organiza-
in this study, only 274 groundwater samples were obtained tion (2008). Slightly acidic and neutral pH values (> 6.58)
due to time and resource limitations. Thus, the inverse dis- were recorded in Botbotones, Cabugbugan, Caduldulaoan,
tance weighting technique was used to interpolate meas- Calipayan, Nambalan, Padapada, Pilpila, Pugo Cecilio, San
ured data from various sites and predict the groundwater Sotero, Santa Centro, Santa Ines East, Santa Ines West,
quality at other sites in Santa Ignacia. Using inverse dis- Taguiporo, and Vargas, which were within the permissible
tance weighting, spatial maps for each groundwater quality limit. The value of pH is influenced by the amount of hydro-
parameter were constructed to visualize the overall quality of gen present in groundwater. It measures from 0 to 14 where
groundwater in Santa Ignacia. As shown in the spatial maps, 7 is neutral. Also, the formation of carbonic acid, through

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174 Page 4 of 8 Applied Water Science (2021) 11:174

Fig. 2  Spatial distribution of

sampled wells in Santa Ignacia,
Tarlac, Philippines

Table 1  Descriptive statistical pH Conductivity Nitrate (mg/L) Nitrite (mg/L) Iron (mg /L)
analyses of measured selected (μmho/cm)
groundwater quality parameters
Minimum 6.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Maximum 8.00 500 20.00 20.00 2.00
Mean 6.56 97.16 0.81 0.51 0.03
SD 0.55 156.50 2.34 2.48 0.14
Median 6.65 40.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
DENR* 6.5–8.5 – 7 – 1
WHO* 6.5–8.5 1,000 50 3 0.3

*- Permissible limits set by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR 2016) & the
World Health Organization (World Health Organization 2008)
The bold texts represent the permissible limits set by the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources & the World Health Organization

the combination of carbon dioxide and water, affects the pH of groundwater (Khan et al. 2005; Nagaraju et al. 2006;

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Applied Water Science (2021) 11:174 Page 5 of 8 174

Fig. 3  The mean values of measured groundwater quality parameters across study sites. The error bars represent standard error

Krishna et al. 2015; Hejaz et al. 2020). Trace metals significantly affect groundwater quality and
High conductivity (> 199 μmho/cm) was observed in affect human health if the level is higher than the accept-
groundwater in Cabugbugan, Nambalan, Pilpila, San Fran- able limit (Bibi et al. 2007; Oseke et al. 2021). Nitrate
cisco, and Vargas, but within the permissible limit (1000 and nitrite are the forms of nitrogen compounds usually
μmho/cm). The efficiency of groundwater to conduct elec- present in groundwater. Nitrite is known to be more toxic
tricity is expressed by electrical conductivity. The avail- to human health than nitrate. Nitrite is hazardous, particu-
ability of electrolytes in the groundwater system is the larly to infants and pregnant women (Varol and Davraz
consequence of the dissolution of minerals by water. Water 2015; Baba et al. 2020).
from precipitation infiltrates the soil, dissolves minerals, All measured groundwater quality parameters, except
and carries suspended particles along its path (Prakash and the nitrite content, were found to be within the permissible
Somashekar 2006; Chegbeleh et al. 2020). limits set by the World Health Organization for drinking
High nitrate concentration (> 3.53 mg/L) in ground- water. The means of livelihood among the populace of Santa
water was observed in Pilpila and Vargas but within the Ignacia is agriculture. The majority of the total land area of
acceptable limit (50 mg/L). The highest nitrite content in the municipality is devoted to the cultivation of agricultural
groundwater was in Padapada (> 14.5 mg/L) which has products. Fertilizers applied to the soil during agricultural
exceeded the permissible limit (3 mg/L). The highest iron activities may contain organic nitrogen that is broken down
concentration (> 0.0938 mg/L) in groundwater sources to nitrite and nitrate. Nitrate and nitrites can readily move
was in Nambalan and Vargas but also within the accept- with groundwater during leaching and may accumulate in
able limit (0.3 mg/L). Nitrate, nitrite, and iron are trace the aquifer. Consequently, the high concentration of nitrite
metals that are usually present in groundwater sources. in groundwater can be attributed to the high agricultural

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174 Page 6 of 8 Applied Water Science (2021) 11:174

Fig. 4  Spatial variation maps of measured groundwater quality parameters in Santa Ignacia, Tarlac. A- pH, B- conductivity (μmho/cm), C-nitrate
(mg/L), D- nitrite (mg/L), E- iron (mg/L)

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Applied Water Science (2021) 11:174 Page 7 of 8 174

and/or other anthropological activities in the area. It is also municipality. It is recommended to explore other significant
important to take note that other factors may affect the con- groundwater quality parameters not included in this prelimi-
centration of nitrite in groundwater, such as the oxidation of nary study. The identification of topographical features and
waste products from human and animal feces (World Health existing anthropogenic activities in the municipality would
Organization 2004; Daghara et al. 2019; World Water Qual- also be significant in identifying the exact possible source of
ity Alliance 2021). nitrite. The mentioned recommendations would be useful in
The general results revealed that there is a significant establishing proper intervention to lessen groundwater con-
variation in the measured groundwater quality parameters tamination risk and to protect the groundwater sources. Fur-
among the sampling sites in the study area. The identifica- thermore, the populace of Santa Ignacia must be informed
tion of the cause of groundwater contamination and pollu- about the possible risk of consuming untreated groundwater.
tion is challenging because the problem remains concealed
well below the surface. Diversity in topography causes vari- Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the sanitation inspec-
tor, barangay captains, and health workers in the municipality of Santa
ation in the physical and chemical composition of ground- Ignacia for their assistance during fieldwork.
water. Inputs from natural resources such as atmosphere,
soil and water–rock weathering, and anthropogenic factors Funding Financial support for this study was given by the Department
including mining, agriculture, and domestic and industrial of Science and Technology- Science Education Institute Accelerated
wastes are reflected in groundwater quality parameters. The Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program-
National Science Consortium (DOST-SEI ASTHRDP-NSC).
quality of groundwater also depends on the aquifer’s size and
the geological formation of underlying strata. Hence, con-
stant changes in daily, seasonal, and climatic factors, local
Declarations
and regional geology, water/rock interactions instinctively Conflict of interest The authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.
affect groundwater quality (Hussain et al. 2010; Ackah et al.
2011; Zaidi et al. 2015; Yuan et al. 2017). Ethical approval The manuscript does not include issue related to ethi-
In the Philippines, the minimum frequency of sampling cal compliance.
for level 1 water supply, such as wells, for physical and
chemical analysis, is once a year (Department of Health Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
2007). The sanitation officer of the study area claimed that bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
there is no regular monitoring of the physical and chemical as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
quality of groundwater used for drinking in the municipality. provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
That is because the analysis process of groundwater sam- were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
ples is costly and time-consuming; thus, the detection of included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
possible groundwater contamination in the area might be the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
difficult due to the monitoring inconsistency. Groundwater permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
is an important source of water in rural areas worldwide need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
such as in the case of Santa Ignacia; but published studies copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
regarding groundwater quality in developing countries, such
as the Philippines, are deficient. Consequently, this study
was executed to provide baseline information for an upscale
assessment and monitoring of groundwater quality in Santa References
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