EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE

WEEK 7: THE ANALECTS – CHINESE places. Of these twenty-seven differences, the

LITERATURE received text only agrees with the old text version
in two places
The Analects are a collection of the teachings and
thoughts of Confucius; they also contain Emperor Cheng of Han, Zang Yu (d. 5 BC)
fragments of dialogues between the great Chinese synthesize the Lu and Qi version by taking the Lu
philosopher and his disciples. The name in version as authoritative and selectively adding
English derived from the word "analect" which sections from the Qi version, and produced a
means a fragment or extract of literature, or a composite text of the Analects known as the
collection of teachings. "Zhang Hou Lun". This text was recognized by
Zhang Yu's contemporaries and by subsequent
In Chinese, the book is literally called "discussion
Han scholars as superior to either individual
on the words [of Confucius]." The Analects are
version, and is the text that is recognized as the
believed to have been collected by the disciples of
Analects today
Confucius and not by the sage himself.
Before the late twentieth century the oldest
Some scholars have proposed dates as late as 140
existing copy of the Analects known to scholars
BC for the text's compilation. Liu Xiang (Han
was found in the "Stone Classics of the Xinping
Dynasty Scholar) two versions of the Analects :
Era", a copy of the Confucian classics written in
Lu version contains 20 chapters stone in the old Eastern Han dynasty.
Archaeologists have since discovered two
Qi version contains 22 chapters, including handwritten copies of the Analects that were
chapters that are not found in the Lu version written around 50 BC, during the Western Han
Both versions had in common; the Lu version had dynasty. They are known as the "Dingzhou
more passages. Each version had its own masters, Analects", and the "Pyongyang Analects"
scholars, The Dingzhou Analects was discovered in 1973,
Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157 – 141 BC) Third but no transcription of its contents was published
version (the “old text version”) it was hidden in a until 1997. The Pyongyang Analects was
wall of the home then believed to be Confucius discovered in 1992. Academic access to the
when the home then believed to be Confucius Pyongyang Analects has been highly restricted,
when the home was in the process of being and no academic study on it was published until
destroyed by King Gong of Lu (r. 153-128 BC) to 2009.
expand the king’s palace The Dingzhou Analects was damaged in a fire
The new version did not contain the two extra shortly after it was entombed in the Han dynasty.
chapters found in the Qi version, but it split one It was further damaged in an earthquake shortly
chapter found in the Lu and Qi version in two, so after it was recovered, and the surviving text is
it had twenty-one used chapters, and in order of just under half the size of the received text of the
the chapters was different Analects. Of the sections that survive It shorter
than the received Analects, implying that the text
The old text version got its name because it was of the Analects was still in the process of
written in a character system not used since the expansion when the Dingzhou Analects was
earlier Warring State period (i.e. before 221 BC), entombed. There was evidence that "additions"
when it was assumed to have been hidden. may have been made to the manuscript after it had
Huan Tan scholar of Han Dynasty, the old text been completed, indicating that the writer may
version had four hundred characters different from have become aware of at least one other version of
the Lu version (from which the received text of the Analects and included "extra" material for the
the Analects is mostly based), and it seriously sake of completeness.
differed from the Lu version in twenty-seven
1
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
The Pyongyang Analects is similar to the 9. The superior man is always candid and at
Dingzhou Analects; but, because of the secrecy ease (with himself or others): the inferior man is
and isolationism of the North Korean government, always worried about something.
only a very cursory study of it has been made
10. A gentleman is ashamed that his words are
available to international scholars, and its contents
better than his deeds.
are not completely known outside of North Korea.
Scholars do not agree about whether either the 11. Reading without thinking gives one a
Dingzhou Analects or the Pyongyang Analects disorderly mind, and thinking without reading
represent the Lu version, the Qi version, the old makes one flighty.
text version, or a different version that was.
12. That type of scholarship which is bent on
remembering things in order to answer people’s
questions does not qualify one to be a teacher.
ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS
ANALECTS (Lunyu) simplified Chinese,
traditional Chinese: WEEK 8: INDIAN LITERATURE
Lún Yǔ; literally "Selected Sayings“ also known INDIA - is the world’s 7th largest country located
as the Analects of Confucius, is the collection of in South Asia
sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese
philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries. - Second most populous country about 3,000
km (1,865mi) wide, shoreline about 7,000km
1. Do not do unto others what you don’t want (4,350mi) along Bay of Bengal.
others do to you.
- India and Bharat are both official names
2. Men are born pretty much alike, but through
their habits they gradually grow further and - Derived from Indus river used by Greeks
further apart from each other. - India civilization grew up in the Indus
3. To know what you know and know what Valley 4000 to 2500 BC
you don’t know is the characteristics of one who - Divided into three main topographic
knows. regions:
4. It is easy to be rich and not haughty; it is 1. Himalayan Mountain system on the North
difficult to be poor and not grumble.
2. Northern plain, drained by the Indus,Ganges
5. Do not worry people about not knowing and Bramaputra rivers in North central India
you, but strive so that you may be worth knowing
If a man would be severe towards himself and 3. Peninsular India in the South
generous toward others, he would never arouse
resentment.
PEOPLE: - over thousand years, countless group
6. A man who does not think a plan long have migrated into the subcontinent and many of
ahead will find trouble right by his door. these groups have maintained distinctive cultures
7. To repay evil with kindness is the sign of a down through years. The earliest Indians may
generous character. To repay kindness with evil is have migrated from Australia and the Pacific
a sign of criminal. Islands.

8. When you see good man, try to emulate his LANGUAGE: - more than 200 languages are
example, and when you see bad man, search spoken in India
yourself for his faults. Don’t criticize other - FOUR (4) MAJOR LANGUAGES:
people’s fault; criticize your own.
2
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
1. Indo-Arab –branch of the Indo-European · Free and open
group (the major linguistic family in Europe)
· 8 years in primary
2. Dravidian language group
· 2 years in lower secondary
3. Hindi – the fourth most widely spoken
· 2 years in upper secondary
language in the world
· Compulsory in 6-14 years old
4. Indo – Aryan language
· University are large with cluster of
affiliated colleges.
RELIGION:
FOUR MAJOR RELIGIOUS
HISTORY OF INDIA:
TRADITIONS have emerged from this area:
The history of India as a sovereign state
1. Hinduism – 83%
under its own constitutional government began on
2. Jainism (and Islam) – 11% August 15, 1947, when the subcontinent was
partitioned into the two states of India and
3. Buddhism - less than 1%
Pakistan. Pakistan became an Islamic state while
4. Sikhism – India opted to become a secular state.

Indian Caste system – major social system that Mahatma Gandhi- the father of modern
groups people according to birth India was assassinated on January 20, 1948 by the
militant Hindu who believed him to be too kind to
1. Brahmins – priests, the highest caste Muslim. During Gandhi’s first decade in office
2. Kshatriyas – warriors and kings agriculture production increased. India exploded
in 1974, its first nuclear weapon and Sikkim
3. Vaishyas – merchants became state of India.
4. Shudras – manual laborers In June 1975 – Gandhi persuaded president
CASTE SYSTEM: Fakhuruddin Ali Ahmend to evoke as state of
emergency that gave her near-dictatorial power -
Some people do not fall into any caste, opposition leads were jailed without trial and
these are called dalits or untouchables. many constitutional freedoms were curtailed. In
Untouchables also known as Harijans. Dalits have March 1977, Gandhi suddenly called new
traditionally been tasked with work such as election, perhaps to legitimatize the powers she
cleaning streets and working with human and had taken under the emergency. Surprisingly, a
animal corpses and waste. Caste-based coalition of parties ranging in ideology from
discrimination is now illegal in India, and socialist to conservative Hindus (the Janata party)
affirmative-action policies aim to improve won control of the Lok Sabha. Morarji Desai, a
standards of living in lower castes, but inequalities long time opponent of Gandhi became prime
persist. minister. President Ahmed died that same year and
Nelan Sanjavi Reddy was elected president. The
Janata party almost immediately began to break
EDUCATION: apart and Desai resign as prime minister in July
· 1950 and 1988 – India literacy was 1979.
doubled. Gandhi was born in Pobandan India on
· Literacy is higher on man than woman. October 2, 1869- his father was a chief minister
for the maharaja of Porbandan, and the family

3
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
came from traditional caste of grocers and · MACAULAY –established English
moneylenders. His mother was a devout adherent language schooling of Indians
Jainism, a religions in which ideas of nonviolence
· Michael MADHUSUDAN DUTT and
and vegetarianism. Gandhi stated that he was most
JAYASHANKAR PRASAD (1889- 1937)
influenced by his mother. He married by
introduced black verse in sonnet into Indian
arrangement at 13. He went to London to study
poetry.
law when he was 18. He works for an Indian firm
in South Africa. He experiences overt racial · ARUNACALA KAVI – developed a
discrimination. He assumed leadership of protest utilitarian prose style
campaign and gradually developed his techniques
of nonviolent resistance known as Satyagraha. · MADHUSUDAN DUTT – wrote the first
Gandhi also fought to improve the status of the plays modeled on Western Drama
lowest classes of society, the castes untouchables, · SIR RABINDRANATH TAGORE –
whom he called Harijans. introduced the short story to vernacular writing in
He believed in manual labor and simple India.
living. Non-violence or non-injury is a percept · LAKSMINATH BEZBARUA and
common to three faiths, HINDUISM, JAINISM, MUHAMMAD IQBAL – major poets of the
and BUDDHISM: period
1. HINDUISM – adherent to the prescription HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE falls into
against violence toward living things can escape TWO PERIODS:
from the cycle of rebirth and the doctrine also
form a basis for vegetarian. 1. The Verdic Period

2. BUDDHISM – non-violence manifests in 2. The Sanskrit Period

the Buddha’s emphasis on compassion and is also RELIGIOUS WORKS
part of the faith’s moral codes.
· POETRY –:
3. JAINISM – non-violence is a core religious
duty and followed so strictly that the most 1. The RIG VEDA –a book of sacred hymns
Orthodox devotes cover their faces with mask to 2. The YAJUR VEDA – a book of knowledge
prevent accidentally harming insect. and melodies for the hymns.
SANSKRIT LITERATURE: 3. The SAMA VEDA – descriptions of the
· ORAL TRADITION produced the Vedic materials for sacrifice
holy text. 4. The ATHARVA VEDA – contains magic
· Mahabharata and Ramayana – two great spells and other folk knowledge
books, sources for countless literary · The BRAHMANAS
· 400 B.C. – Panini produced his Sanskrit · The UPANISHADS
grammar
· MAYA
· Second Century AD – Prakrits being used
in literature · THE SUTRAS

· Middle Ages Sanskrit – used in religious

context by priesthood SECULAR WORKS:
· Ghazal – stylized form of lyrical folk song 1. EPICS:
and notable exponents of the form.

4
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
· The Mahabharata SACRED WRITINGS:
· Bhagavad gita · The Vedas – collections of Sanskrit hymns
(written down 1200-900BCE, but based on older
· Nala and Damayanti
oral versions)
· The Ramayana
· The Upanishads – which means the inner
2. DRAMAS: or mystic teaching that were passed down from
guru (teacher) to disciple (student).
3. The toy clay cart
4. Sakuntala or the fatal ring
MAHABHARATA – Sanskrit for Great Story, is
5. The Jatakas one of the great epic poems of ancient India.
6. The Panchatantra · It was written between 300 BC and AD 300
7. Romanorum · The story is about the battle of one family
8. The Hitopdesa over a kingdom in northern India.

9. The Sukasaptati · The Bhagavad Gita (Song of God) is

contained in the Mahabharata. It is a dialogue
KARMA AND REINCARNATION: between Krishna and the hero Arjuna on the
· REINCARNATION – is the belief that the meaning of life.
soul repeatedly goes through a cycle of being born RAMAYANA – was written in 3rd century BC,
into a body, dying, and being reborn again in a and tells story of Rama, and his wife, Sita. Rama
new body. and Sita are generally seen as ideal examples of
· KARMA – a force that determines the great manly heroism and wifely devotion.
quality of each life, depending on how well one · Reciting the Ramayana is considered a
behaved in a past life. religious act, and scenes from the epic are
· HINDUISM – says we create karma by our portrayed throughout India and Southeast Asia.
actions on earth. If you live a good life, you create
good karma. If you live a bad life, you create bad
karma. HINDU LIFE GOALS
· HINDUISM –is about the sort of life one
should lead in order to be born into a better life
MOKSHA: next time and ultimately achieve liberation. There
· Each time a Hindu soul is born into a better are four legitimate goals in life:
life, it has the opportunity to improve itself 1. DHARMA – appropriate living
further, and get closer to ultimate liberation. This
liberation is called Moksha. 2. ARTHA –the pursuit of material gain by
lawful means
· One attains Moksha when one has
“overcome ignorance”, and no longer desires 3. KAMA –delight of the senses.
anything at all. 4. MOKSHA – release from rebirth
· The ones who reach this state no longer
struggle with the cycle of life and death.
· HINDU DUTIES: Each Hindu has 4 daily
· The way to get to Moksha is to not create duties:
any karma.
5
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
1. Revere the deities
2. Respect ancestors ANCIENT HEBREW LITERATURE
3. Respect all beings · Literature in Hebrew begins with the Oral
Literature of the Leshon Hakodesh or the “Holy
4. Honor all humankind
Language”. The most important work of Ancient
WEEK 9: HEBREW LITERATURE Hebrew is the Hebrew Bible
named Tanakh. Mishna – primary rabbinic
HEBREW comes from Middle English word codification of laws as derived from the torah, it
‘EBREU” which comes from the Old French was written in Mishnaic Hebrew.
derived from the Latin word “HEBRAES”
· Hebrew were the ancestors of Samaritan
and Jew. Jews were the descendants of the MEDIEVAL HEBREW LITERATURE
Hebrews. Hebrews claim to be the descendants of
· During the medieval period, the majority of
biblical patriarch, Abraham.
Jewish and Hebrew was composed by Islamic
· Hebrews live in the Ancient Middle East. North Africa, Spain, Palestine, and Middles East.
Around 1,400 BC, they settled in Canaan Many works of medieval philosophical literature
(formerly known as Israel), the country of the such as Maimonides Guide to the Perplexed and
Eastern coast Mediterranean Sea, the territory of the Kuzari, as well as many works of fiction, were
modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. written in Judeo-Arabic.

· Hebrew is a member of the Canaanite group

of Semitic languages. They lived in tents. –
· One work of fiction which was written in
Wealthier people live in the houses built in of sand
Hebrew was the “Fox Fables” by Berechiah ben
dried mud bricks, the roof of the house was flat.
Natronai H-Nakdan. Hebrew fables which
The church of the Hebrew was called Jerusalem
resemble Aesop’s fable.
Temple (the 1st temple was built by King
Solomon) It was covered with gold. (Jerusalem
Temple)
· Much medieval Jewish poetry was written
· Hebrew food was similar to the food of in Hebrew, including the liturgical Piyyutim in
other Mediterranean people. They ate homemade Palestine in the 7th and 8th centuries by Yose ben
bread that the lady of the house would bake in the Yose, Yanai, and Eleazar Kalir. This liturgy was
big clay (the yard, lentils, cheese, olives, and fresh compiled in book from “the siddur” by rabbis
fruits) Meat and fish were also available. The including Amram Gaon and Saadia Gaon.
popular drink was wine.
· Hebrews wear fringes (edge of garment)
MODERN HEBREW LITERATURE
and tekhelet ribbon. Tekhelet was translated in the
King James version (KJV) to mean blue, however, · In addition to writing traditional rabbinic
it means violet in Hebrew, not blue. It looks like a literature in Hebrew, MODERN Jews developed
Tyrian purple. new forms of fiction, poetry and essay writing
which are called “Modern Hebrew Literature.”
HEBREW LITERATURE
· It consists of ancient, medieval and modern
writings in the Hebrew language. It is one of the 18th CENTURY
primary forms of Jewish Literature. It was
produced in many different parts of the world
throughout the medieval and modern eras.
6
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
· “La-Yesharim Tehillah” – it is an allegorical · My Michael and Black Box –novels by
drama – 1st product of modern Hebrew Literature. Amos Oz. The Lover and Mr. Mani – by A.B.
It was written by Moses Hayyim Luzattor Yehoshua. Anton Shammas – Israel author who
published the Hebrew novel “Arabesque.”

· Moses Mendelsshon’s translation of the

Hebrew Bible into German inspired interest in the SAMPLE HEBREW LITERATURE:
Hebrew language that led to the founding of a SUMMARY OF THE STORY OF RUTH
quarterly review written in Hebrew. “Shire
A woman by the name of Naomi packed
Tif’eret” and “Mosiade”- poems made by
up and moved from Judah to Moab due to a
Nephtali Hirz and Wessely
terrible famine that was affecting her family. She
and her husband moved there with their two sons,
who eventually took wives while living in Moab.
19th CENTURY
Tragically, Naomi lost her husband and
· In the 19th century Galicia poets, scholars,
two sons. Broken and empty, Naomi decided to
and popular writers who contributed to the
move back to Bethlehem in Judah. Her daughter-
discrimination of Hebrew and to the emancipation
in-law Ruth came with her, since she had also lost
of the Jews of Galicia.
her husband. Keep in mind that Ruth was a
· Joseph Perl- writer and educator. In 1819, Moabite woman, and she was now moving to
he published Revealer of Secrets, the 1st Hebrew Judah as a foreigner. This was a big
novel.
deal in their culture, but she was committed to
· Nachman Krochmal – a philosopher, Naomi as her daughter-in-law, and she wanted to
theologian, and historian. follow after the God of Israel.

· Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport – a rabbi, While in Judah, God worked out an
poet, and biographer. amazing plan for a man named Boaz to take Ruth
as his wife, give her a child, and provide for her
· Isaac Erter – a satirical poet, whose and Naomi. What’s remarkable about this plan
collection of essays, “Ha-Tzofet le-Bet Yisrael, is was that Boaz was qualified as a “kinsman
one of the purest works of modern Hebrew redeemer” to take her as his wife. “Kinsman
Literature. redeemer” is a custom in those days, based upon
· Meir Halevy Letteris – a lyric poet, Julius Deuteronomy 25:5-6, that directed that a relative
Barasch – a notable Jewish author in Romania. of a man who dies should marry that man’s widow
in order to perpetuate his lineage through this
woman.
20th CENTURY According to God’s remarkable
· Hayim Nahman Bialk – one of the pioneers sovereignty, it turned out that Boaz was a relative
of modern Hebrew poets. Yitzhag Shami- novelist, to Ruth’s husband who had passed away; so, he
Palestinian Jewish native of Hebron. 2004 – he was qualified to marry her and perpetuated his
was recognized by Palestinian Academic Society lineage. So, even in the midst of Ruth and
as one of the important Palestinian writers. Naomi’s awful affliction, God still had a plan to
take care of them.
· Leah Goldberg – prolific writer and pioneer
of Israel Children’s Literature. WEEK 10: PERSIAN LITERATURE
THE PERSIAN LANGUAGE

CONTEMPORARY HEBREW LITERATURE

7
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
The Persian Language between Arabic and pre-Islamic past in aspects including its meter
Turkish Modern Persian, a derivative of Old (attuned to Arabic), its lexis, and major themes.
Persian, “belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the
Through a diachronic study of classical Persian
Indo-European languages.” This ancestry makes
poetry we can study the consequence of
its grammar and vocabulary similar to those of
loanwords and syntactical arrangements from
Kurdish and Pashto. Persian also includes many
Arabic. Furthermore, as Arabic vocabulary has
loanwords from Arabic. The script is modified
itself changed significantly through time, it is
from Arabic, and like Arabic it has a highly
essential to keep in mind the deviations in norm
developed calligraphy, a leading Islamic art form.
and the different semantic relations of the same
This script is just as vital to the structure of the
words when used in Persian and Arabic in
poetry, and it is thoroughly blended with Persian
different historical periods.
prosody and poetic metaphors.
An additional factor in the transition of Middle
The Persians also absorbed themselves in Muslim
Persian to Persian was the geographical range of
culture through Arabic. Their most distinguished
this language in the awakening that accompanied
scholars and the clerical classes at court were
the Arab invasion. Following the path of the Arab
skilled in both languages. Bilingualism among
conquest, Persian spread from its heartlands to
leading cultural figures was a noteworthy feature
Central Asia (Transoxiana). For their conquests,
of the time. Far from bringing to an end the use of
the Arabs enlisted native peoples in their armed
the Persian language, both spoken and written, in
forces. These local populations did not speak a
Persia or elsewhere, the Arab invasion of Iran in
consistent Persian and in many cases did not even
the seventh century merely heralded a process of
use Persian among themselves.
evolution.
Nevertheless, the Persian of the time served as a
In this process Middle Persian, the language of
lingua franca for these recruited men. They spread
the Sassanid court (circa. 225–651/ 823–1249),
this new version in the occupied provinces, from
evolved into Persian, which became the language
Azerbaijan to Central Asia, to the detriment of
of early literary landmarks such as Firdawsī’s
other Iranian languages and other dialects of
Shāh-nāma and Bal‘amī’s translation and
Persian. Such was the case 3 Copyright © 2015 by
adaptation of Ṭabarī’s History, and which in turn
Bahman Solati, all rights reserved. Iran Chamber
developed into Modern Persian. If the Persians
Society has the privilege to publish this article
played more than just a passive role in Arabic
on www.iranchamber.com. of Sughdian, a
literature, and even in the greater formulation of
language belonging to an ancient culture that was
Islamic traditional culture, this is in great measure
mainly overwhelmed by Persian.
because the entire extent, and not merely a part, of
the ancient Sāsāniān empire, with all of its Therefore Persian became, in time, the court
institutions and cultural traditions, fell to the lot of language of the first semi-independent Muslim
the Arab conquerors. They conquered the Persians territories, most particularly those established in
but did not do away with the age-old cultural the Greater Khurāsān. With the arrival of
institutions of that people; on the contrary, the translations and interpretations of the Qurʾān,
Arabs were in their turn conquered, culturally Persian began to display its flexibility as a
speaking, by the Persians. language for transmission of religious and
spiritual considerations as well as administrative
The Middle Persian language itself survived
and cultural concerns. The geographical growth of
among populations of Zoroastrians in Persia in the
the language was now from a new course, from
first three centuries after the rise of Islam, and
Bukhara to Tabriz, and from Ghazna to Shiraz.
substantial religious texts in Middle Persian
For a while the province of Fārs in southern Persia
survive from this period. But classical Persian
sustained many of the distinct qualities of Middle
poetry relies heavily on tradition and cultural
Persian, while Central Asia, the first site of the
memory, displaying strong connections with the
8
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
new culture inspired by Islam, was for ten sketch of this cultural proliferation. Even today,
centuries the heartland of scientific and literary Istanbul remains a treasury of Persian
Persian. Throughout these lands, however, manuscripts. Settling between two seas and a gulf,
substantial elements of pre-Islamic Iranian culture the Iranian highland provided a perfect setting for
were maintained, a critically important fact in the the exchange of cultures―its own spreading west
overall history and culture of the Islamic realm. to the Mesopotamian rivers and east to the Oxus
Persian delivered to the Muslim world a wealth of (Āmū Daryā) and the Indus.
Iranian art, stories, traditions, and mythologies as
well as history, ethical teaching, political
guidance, and religious essays rooted in the pre- The Beginnings of Persian Poetry
Islamic period. The abundant literary
accomplishments of the Abbasid age and the In Persian literature, the difference between
notable sparkle of Muslim mysticism are indebted poetry and prose has always been obvious and
to the Iranian input, completed through the rather deliberate, with poetry almost always taking
medium of the Arabic language. Ṭabarī (d. precedence. It distinguishes itself from prose not
923/1521), in his two enormous works History only through rhyme and rhythm but also through
and Tafsir (commentary on the Qurʾān), and the the ingenious play between clear connotation and
great anthologist and scholar from Nayshābūr, inherent nuance. For Ehsan Yarshater, 4 Copyright
Abū Manṣūr Ṭaʿālabī (d. 440/1038), in his © 2015 by Bahman Solati, all rights reserved. Iran
creative writings on literature and ethics and Chamber Society has the privilege to publish this
behavior, are expressive representatives of this article on www.iranchamber.com. a fairly
deeply rooted Persian presence. By start of the extensive prose literature, mainly of narrative,
ninth century, Persian was being shaped from a anecdotal, and moralizing kind also flourished, but
somewhat different direction, this time by the it is overshadowed by poetry in terms of quality
Turks. Soon after the Umayyad period, High and quantity alike. In fact, poetry is the art par
Turkish officials and ranked officers were a excellence of Persia, and her salient cultural
relentless feature of the Persian political and achievement. Despite their considerable
military structure, always close to the rulers. In the accomplishments in painting, pottery, textiles, and
northeastern provinces of Persia, the system of architecture, in no other field have the Persians
ghulāms (slavery) demanded the association of succeeded in achieving the same degree of
Turks in Muslim militaries. They became eminence.Abū ‘Abdullāh Jaʿfar Rūdakī (d.
Muslims, adopted the Persian language, and began 342/940), originally from Rūdak near Samarqand,
to move up the military ladder. Conquerors of a was committed to the court of the Sāmānids Naṣr
state that in one century extended from Baghdad b. Aḥmad (r. 266–94/864–92) at Bukhārā. Also a
to Anatolia and to the Indus, the Turks in turn singer artist and a musician, he stands without a
were won over by Persian culture, while doubt at the summit of the history of Persian
maintaining control of their new states for poetry. His surviving works (the versified Indian
centuries. After them, Mongol and Mughal patrons Bidpai fables otherwise known as Kalila va
nurtured the same customs and explored the same Dimna), composed at the court of the Sāmānids in
heritage. If Tamerlane gathered an elite coterie of Bukhārā, are the first chefs-d'oeuvre of Persian
scientists, artists, and men of letters in Samarqand poetry, serving as a model for later
by force and oppression, his heirs through generations.This testifies to how a great poet
generous sponsorship shrewdly made the Herat of created his art at the beginning of the eleventh
the fifteenth century a supreme center of the century. As we have seen, a division of labor was
Persian literary world. The prevalent admiration still at work―poet, copyist, and storyteller were
and impact of the ample poetry of ʿAbdu’l three different functions. Minstrels and wandering
Raḥmān Jāmi (d. 894/1492), spreading from Herat musicians in the West followed similar patterns.
to India and into the Near East is a noteworthy

9
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
Arabic poetry began before the arrival of Islam in supporting different schools of poetry, the era’s
fifth and sixth centuries, and its first centuries princes contributed to the formation of enduring
following the rise of Islam have been the subject mores, such as the Khurāsānī, ‘Irāqī, Azerbaijani,
of abundant debate and investigation. The and Hindi (Indian). Court poets ever since Rūdakī,
historical patterns of Persian poetry are quite or poets reciting their verses on religious
different. The Parthians of the pre-Islamic era occurrences or in Sufi congregations since at least
were minstrels who often performed at traditional Abū Saʿid Abu’l Khayr (d. 440/1038)42 in early
events and banquets, telling epic tales and reciting eleventh century, had to present themselves before
lyrical poetry. They offered material and an audience and prove their worth. The spectators
motivation for later works of classical Persian were able to judge the poet’s art and technique
literature such as Vis u Rāmin, the tale of two immediately, and they particularly valued his
lovers. Some Zoroastrian and Buddhist texts have ability to extemporize in public. Creativity
also survived from the early days of Persian (badiha-sarāʾi) could elicit instant appreciation for
literature. The Iranians certainly added richness to a great poet such as Farrukhī (d. 429/1027). Art, 5
Arabic literature in various fields. Arabic literature Copyright © 2015 by Bahman Solati, all rights
reached its summit during the ‘Abbāsid culture reserved. Iran Chamber Society has the privilege
(ca. 750–860/1348–1458), to which Iranians had to publish this article on www.iranchamber.com.
made a vital contribution: the prose writer technique, and improvisation were means through
‘Abdullāh b. al-Muqqafa‘ (killed ca. 142/759–60), which the poet encountered the expectations of his
the jurist and first of four authorized Imāms audience and, drawing on his own erudition to
Ḥanīfa (d. ca. 150/767), the linguist Sibavayhī (d. exert his authority, sought to reshape prevailing
166/782), the disbeliever, poet, and satirist al- poetic traditions.
Bashshār b. Burd (killed 167/783), and the poet
Abū Nuvās (d. 198/810) can be numbered among
its most brilliant exponents. A Persian poem is Technical Rudiments of Persian Poetry
shaped to delight the eye as well as the ear.
Behind the art are rules and skills that already The fundamental unit of a Persian poem is a line
appear to be deeply rooted in the works of Rūdakī. of verse comprised of two parts, each containing
References by Shams-i Qays Rāzī (d. circa the same number of syllables and set to the same
628/1226),39 however, suggest that there was a rhythm. In keeping with Arabic poetry, this distich
period of less skillful literary production before form is called a bayt (couplet), with the long and
Rūdakī emerged. At first, the obstacles appeared short syllables arranged according to set
to be of a practical nature; theory was to follow. In structures. The principles of these patterns are also
practice, in terms of rhythm, one moved from a borrowed from Arabic, though we must bear in
pre-Islamic poetry dependent on interchanging mind that the great Persian meters are not very
strains, seldom returning to the ictus (stress on a common in Arabic and are most likely modified
syllable in a line of verse), to a poetry based on from ancient Persian stress systems. Such is the
the variation of long and short syllables, as in case of the quatrain, the rubāʿī, so typical of
Arabic poetry. We are better able to reconstitute Persian and known before Islam. It is also the case
these moments of change and retrenchment, in for the mutaqārib, a reinterpretation of a stressed
which the ancient rhythms were reinterpreted as rhythm found in Middle Persian and the meter
new rhythms, and doctrines of Arabic rhyme used for many famous long narrative poems in
triumphed once the Arabic alphabet was accepted. Persian, including Firdawsī’s Shāh nāma. The
In the poems of Rūdakī, the new technique seems specific use of this meter and some others is in
thoroughly concealed in writing that is certain and itself a perfect illustration of the way literary
vibrant, yet malleable for this period. It was not genres existed and differed markedly from each
until the twentieth century that Rūdakī’s prosody other in their use of meters. The splendor of a
became outdated and called into question. By Persian poem, however, also lies in its public
oration (a fairly fresh and significant area for
10
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
research), where many other factors interfere. his bed and makes his solitary way through the
Sequentially, rhyme is needed for the poetic effect black tents of the great encampment to the
of a Persian poem. It was the imitation of Arabic quarters of Peran-Wisa, commander of the Tartar
poetry that led to its extensive use. A simple army. Sohrab is the youthful champion of the
voiced refrain at first, it soon became more Tartars. Hardly more than a boy, he had developed
difficult and organized. In Persian poetry, the into the mightiest fighter of the Tartar host. Young
arrangement of rhymes defines the poem’s form. A in years and famous in arms, he is nevertheless
form is considered to be classical when both parts restless and discontented. Above everything else,
of the first bayt rhyme. The most common and he wants to find his father whom he has never
simple poem consists of two bayts (the quatrain), seen, the incomparable Rustum, invincible
the second of which must rhyme with the first. chieftain of the Persians.
Usually the first bayt (or distich) of the entire
Peran-Wisa awakens when Sohrab enters and asks
poem conveys the rhyme, its two hemistiches
an unusual favor of him: Sohrab wishes to
rhyming with each other. The mathnawī is a form
challenge a leader of the Persians to single
of unusual meter whose every hemistich rhymes
combat. He hopes that his fame as a fighter will
with its matching part and whose rhyme changes
thereby reach the ears of his father. Peran-Wisa
with each line. It is consequently free from the
urges patience and questions his wisdom in thus
limitations of monorhyme and flexible enough to
tempting fate. He fears that he would lose. He
be used in long poems. In contrast, in the ghazal,
advises him to uses the mean of non-violence to
also in a special meter, all the bayts rhyme, and
find his father. But young as he is, Sohrab is not
ghazals are, in contrast to mathnawīs, rather short.
ready to listen to him. Since he has heard that he is
The qaṣida, an older and more advanced form than
the son of a famous warrior, he too wants to
the ghazal, bear a resemblance to the latter in
impress his unknown father with his strength. Just
form. They are also in monorhyme but can
as a lions club cannot be held back, Peran-Wisa
conform significantly in length and generally
realized that he could hold back Sohrab and grants
include three separate thematic portions. We
him the permission to fight a Duel.
should note that the qaṣida, the ghazal, and the
quatrain were the three forms on which Persian The following morning, both the armies come out
medieval handbooks dealing with bombast, form their camp. The hosts were ready to engage
prosody, and poetic descriptions focused themselves in the war. There is a scene where both
(frequently echoing Arabic manuals), and the armies await the order of their respective
quotations from them were the center of commander. Just as they were about to engage in
examination, giving them an advantaged place the battle, Perena-Wisa appeared on the battle
relative to other vital forms, most particularly that front. He then announced that instead of war, there
of the mathnawī and its diverse subject matter, would be a duel. This meant that one champion
which received rather less consideration in the form the Persian army and the other form the
earlier works on poetry. Tartar army would fight with each other. This was
a death match where in the last man standing
would gain victory for his entire army.
SAMPLE OF PERSIAN POETRY: SOHRAB
Meanwhile in the Persian camp, Gudurz, one of
AND RUSTUM
the member of the council goes to call Rustum to
The poem begins with the scene where, the two face the champion of the Tartar army. But Rustum
powerful armies of the Tartars and the Persians are says that the king himself should choose some
encamped along the banks of the Oxus River. young men to meet up to the challenge put by
During the night the soldiers are asleep. The Sohrab. He admits that he is older than his
following day, they are about to witness a great opponent. Therefore he refuses to take part in the
battle. Sohrab, the hero of the Tartar army, fails to battle. Gudurz then taunts him by asking him a
sleep. In the grayness of the early dawn, he leaves rhetorical question as to what the people would
11
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
say once Rustum says no to the challenge. He on Rustums armor. Rustum in turn tries to fight
warns Rustum to take heed lest the people would back by attacking Sohrab with his club, but
consider his days concluded. Sohrab being young and using his agility skills,
dodges the strikes form of Rustum. The strike hits
These words of Gudurz, triggers the warrior’s
Rustum in return and Rustum falls to the ground.
spirit within Rustum and he decides to take part in
Sohrab removes his sword from his sheath and
the duel. Gudurz then returned to the camp while
pierce Rustum.
Rustum calls his followers and commands them to
bring his arms and his shield to take down his Sohrab then taunts Rustum asking him to prove
opponent. He also bid his horse Ruksh to follow his might. He reminds him that “Boy as I am. I
him. The horse follows him like a faithful dog. have seen battles too- Have waded foremost in
After this, Rustum makes his way towards the their bloody waves and heard their hollow roar of
arena. dying men”. He then invites him to give his best
in the fight and not to hold back.
Both the heroes make their way into the arena. At
this point Rustum tell Sohrab to back out. Rustum As Sohrab spoke, Rustum get up and gets hold of
tell this because he feels pity on the youth-hood of his spear. He was full of rage and shouts back
Sohrab. Rustum also points out that Sohrab is like “girl, nimble with thy feet, not with thy hands!”
a son to him, without knowing the fact that Sohrab He tells him that he will fight him with all his
was his actual son. might and he no longer feels pity for Sohrab
because he had shamed him in front of the entire
Sohrab looks at the mighty figure and as he looks,
army with “light skipping tricks and girl’s wiles”.
a strange hope is born in his breast. He runs
forward and kneeling before the mighty warrior At this point both the warriors rush towards each
says, “Art thou not Rustum? Speak! Art thou not other with all their strength ‘as two eagles on one
he?” Sohrab was only told about the name of his prey’ and dash each other. Rustum strikes the
father. Therefore hoping to be his father he falls Shield of Sohrab with his spear and manages to
on his feet catches his legs and asks him if he is make a hole through it but is not able to reach
Rustum. Sohrabs skin. Sohrab strikes Rustums Helm
(helmet) with his sword. This way, there is a tough
Rustum, thinks that it is a trick and rebukes
fight between the two warriors each trying to get
Sohrab’s amazement. He tells him of his fame as a
the better of each other. Because of the fight, a
proof that he himself is Rustum. He narrates to
thick dust emerges from the ground and covers the
him the story besides wherein he “challenged once
battle field and no one could see anything. Rustum
the two armies camped besides the Oxus, all the
finally manages to pierce his spear through
Persian lord, to cope with him in single fight: but
Sohrabs body. Sohrab takes a few steps behind
they shrank”. He taunts him to get up to his feet
and then fall to the ground for the last time.
and challenge him.
Finally when the dust settles, the two armies see
Sohrab gets up on his feet answers back saying
Rustum standing on his feet while Sohrab lying on
that he was not scared of him. “I am no girl, to be
the ground.
made pale by words.” He also warns him saying
that thought he was young, yet victory itself was Rustum with a bitter smile begin to sarcastically
not sure in whose court it would fall in and “only praise Sohrab. He tells that he was tough. He tells
even will teach us in tour” him that he has made his father and his friends
proud for having faced a tough warrior as himself.
With this conversation the two great heroes fight
But at the end he calls him a fool for having
for the honor of their kingdom. They fight with
challenged him and getting killed by an unknown
spear and club and both have gained mastery over
man. He insults him by saying, “dearer to the red
their respective weapons. In the fight Sohrab gains
jackals shall thou be than to thy friend, and to thy
the upper hand. He manages to impress damage
father old”
12
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
Sohrab then replies back to Rustum and tells him baby she bound the amulet of onyx on his arm and
that it was not an unknown man but Rustum who sent message to Rustum that a daughter had been
slew him. He also tells him that if there were 10 born instead. Rustum was disappointed for he had
more people as strong as Rustum against him he hoped for a brave son; but he sent five jewels for
would still defeat them. But it was the name of the child bade the mother to take good care of her.
‘Rustum’ which troubled him. Because of the He was busy in the battlefield and could not come
name he held back while fighting. He gives to see her.
Rustum the shock of his life when he ironically
When Rustum would still not believe that Sohrab
tells that his father ‘Rustum’ will avenge his
was his son, Sohrab then gives him a proof. He
death. Till now both the warriors have no idea that
loosened his belt and then removes the armor and
they are related to each other
shows him the seal which was given to him by his
Rustum rebukes this statement and tells that, “The mother. Rustum is shattered looking at the proof.
mighty Rustum never had a son”. Sohrab then He realizes that the Sohrab was his son and he
reveals that Rustum did have a son, it was he himself had killed him. In grief he utters out a
himself. He also reveals that Rustum was never loud cry, “O boy-thy father!”. He embraces
informed that he had a son. He also tells him that Sohrab and kisses him. But his grief is too much
he pities his mother “who in ader-baijan dwells for him to bear. He picks up his sword and is in
who with her father, who grows grey with age, the act of committing suicide. But then Sohrab
and rules over the valiant koords camp”. Rustum stops him by giving him solace. He tells him
finds it difficult to swallow the fact that the same “come, sit beside me on this sand, and take my
person who is dying in front of him was his own cheeks and wash then with thy tears and say – My
son. The poet then gives us a glimpse of the past. Son”.
One day Rustum was an honored guest at the
Ruksh, the same horse given by Tamineh to
king’s palace in a faraway city. Here he saw the
Rustum comes on the scene. Being an animal, he
king’s daughter, Tamineh, whom he loved for her
is able to comprehend the sad fate befallen on his
beauty and wisdom. So they were married, for the
master and his son. Sohrab ironically praises
king was glad to make an alliance with Rustum.
Ruksh for having privilege of spending more time
Time came when Rustum had to go back to his
with his father than his own son. Finally Sohrab
own city. He was sad and could not take his wife
makes his final wish to be carried to seistan and to
with him. He did not wish that his people should
be placed on a bed, and mourned for him. He also
know about his marriage for they expected him to
requests to put an inscription which read, ‘Sohrab,
marry a maiden of his own people. So he took a
the mighty Rustum’s son lies there, whom his
tender farewell of Tamineh and gave her an
great father did in ignorance kill’. Rustum
amulet made of onyx stone which he got from his
promises him that he would fulfill his last wish.
arm, and said: “If Heaven should grant thee a little
He also promises that he would let all his men go
daughter in my absence bind this onyx in her hair;
in peace without any bloodshed.
but if a son, place it upon his arm, then shall he be
strong of limb as Sahm, my grandsire, and At the end, Rustum drew out the spear from the
graceful of speech as Zal, my father.” side of Sohrab let him pass away peacefully.
After sometime, Tamineh gave birth to a lovely WEEK 11: JAPANESE LITERATURE
boy who smiled at the world from the moment he
came to it; and so they called him Sohrab, or the
child of smiles. He was as mighty as his father.
When he grew to nine years, he could fight and
ride better than any grown man in that land.
Tamineh was afraid for Rustum will be proud of
such a son and take him from her. While still a
13
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE

During the Heian Period, the Japanese were

fascinated with Chinese culture. The Imperial
Court emulated Chinese fashion and customs
while they pursued the arts. A noble was expected
to be well-versed in literature, poetry, painting,
dancing, calligraphy, and more. Noble men used
the Chinese language in the same way that
Medieval European nobles and priests used Latin.
In Heian Japan, Women were not allowed to speak
Chinese. The period expected women to remain
Japanese literature traces its beginnings to oral
separate from men. They would converse through
traditions that were first recorded in written form
fabric blinders dividing rooms. Genji shows how
in the early eighth century after a writing system
great the difference was between the genders by
was introduced from China. The Kojiki (Record of
having characters fall in love with each other
Ancient Matters) and Nihon shoki (Chronicle of
based on their handwriting.
Japan) were completed in 712 and 720,
respectively, as government projects. The former Classical Japanese literature generally refers to
is an anthology of myths, legends, and other literature produced during the Heian period, what
stories, while the latter is a chronological record some would consider a golden era of art and
of history. The Fudoki (Records of Wind and literature. Genji Monogatari (early eleventh
Earth), compiled by provincial officials beginning century) by Murasaki Shikibu is considered the
in 713, describe the history, geography, products, pre-eminent masterpiece of Heian fiction and an
and folklore of the various provinces. early example of a work of fiction in the form of a
novel. Other important works of this period
The most brilliant literary product of this period
include the Kokin Wakashu (905), a waka-poetry
was the Man'yoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand
anthology, and Makura no Soshi (990s), the latter
Leaves), an anthology of 4,500 poems composed
written by Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and
by people ranging from unknown commoners to
rival, Sei Shonagon, as an essay about the life,
emperors and compiled around 759. Already
loves, and pastimes of nobles in the Emperor's
emerging was a verse form comprising 31
court.
syllables (5-7-5-7-7) known as tanka. In 905 the
Kokin wakashu or Kokinshu (Collection of Poems The 10th century Japanese narrative, Taketori
from Ancient and Modern Times) was published Monogatari, can be considered an early example
as the first poetry anthology commissioned by an of proto-science fiction. The protagonist of the
emperor; its preface paid high tribute to the vast story, Kaguya-hime, is a princess from the Moon
possibilities of literature. who is sent to Earth for safety during a celestial
war, and is found and raised by a bamboo cutter in
Heian Period: 794-1185
Japan. She is later taken back to the Moon by her
The Gengi Monogatari formed a critical part of a real extraterrestrial family. A manuscript
noble woman’s education. illustration depicts a disc-shaped flying object
similar to a flying saucer.
Artists lavishly illustrated scrolls depicting the
story, making the story expensive. In this time the imperial court patronized the
poets, most of whom were courtiers or ladies-in-
Because of this, less well-off noblewomen
waiting. Editing anthologies of poetry was a
dreamed about owning a copy.
14
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
national pastime. Reflecting the aristocratic incisive logic of the Shobogenzo (Treasury of the
atmosphere, the poetry was elegant and True Dharma Eye) [before 1237 ] , one of the first
sophisticated and expressed emotions in a Buddhist texts written in Japanese rather than
rhetorical style. Chinese, marked a major development in Zen
thought. The Taiheiki (Chronicle of the Great
Peace), depicting the 50 years from 1318 to 1367
when two rival imperial courts struggled for
power, is a valuable historical record, while the
Noh plays perfected by Kan'ami and his son
Zeami are of great literary value. Zeami's Fushi
kaden (The Transmission of the Flower of Acting
Style) [1400] is a brilliant essay on dramatic art.
Medieval Japanese Literature is marked by the
Above is Tomoe Gozen, a female samurai strong influence of Zen Buddhism, where
legendary for her skill as a mo warrior and archer, characters are priests, travelers, or ascetic poets.
as well as her beauty. The central theme of the Also during this period, Japan experienced many
story is the Buddhist law of impermanence, civil wars which led to the development of a
especially as it applies to the fleeting nature of warrior class, and subsequent war tales, histories,
fortune. and related stories. Work from this period is
In the latter half of the twelfth century warriors of notable for its insights into life and death, simple
the Taira clan (Heike) seized political power at the lifestyles, and redemption through killing.
imperial court, virtually forming a new Other notable genres in this period were Renga, or
aristocracy. Heike Monogatari (The Tale of the linked verse, and Noh theater. Both were rapidly
Heike),which depicts the rise and fall of the Taira developed in the middle of the 14th century, the
with the spotlight on their wars with the early Muromachi period.
Minamoto clan (Genji), was completed in the first
half of the thirteenth century [before 1219 ]. It is a
grand epic deeply rooted in Buddhist ethics and
filled with sorrow for those who perished, colorful
descriptions of its varied characters, and stirring
battle scenes. In former times the tale was narrated
to the accompaniment of a Japanese lute. The Shin
kokin wakashu (New Collection of Poems from
Ancient and Modern Times), an anthology of
poetry commissioned by retired Emperor Go-
Toba, was also completed around this time [ca
1205 ?]; it is dedicated to the pursuit of a subtle, Around this time the function of literature as a
profound beauty far removed from the mundane means of social intercourse broadened.
reality of civil strife Composing Renga (successive linked verses by
several people forming a long poem) became a
This period also produced literature by recluses,
favorite pastime, and this gave birth to Haikai (a
typified by Kamo no Chomei's Hojoki (An
sort of comedic Renga) in the sixteenth century. It
Account of My Hut) [1212] , which reflects on the
was the renowned seventeenth century poet
uncertainty of existence, and Yoshida Kenko's
Matsuo Basho who perfected a new condensed
Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness) [ca 1330 ] , a
poetic form of 17 syllables (5-7-5) known as
work marked by penetrating reflections on life.
Haiku, an embodiment of elegant simplicity and
Both works raise the question of spiritual
tranquility.
salvation. Meanwhile, the profound thoughts and
15
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
In the Genroku era (1688-1704) city-dwelling Kyoden wrote Yomihon mostly set in the gay
artisans and merchants became the main quarters until the Kansei edicts banned such
supporters of literature, and professional artists works, and he turned to comedic Kibyoshi. Genres
began to appear. Two giants emerged in the field included horror, crime stories, morality stories,
of prose: Ihara Saikaku, who realistically comedy, and pornography -- often accompanied
portrayed the life of Osaka merchants, and by colorful woodcut prints.
Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who wrote Joruri, a
Nevertheless, in the Tokugawa, as in earlier
form of storytelling involving chanted lines, and
periods, scholarly work continued to be published
Kabuki plays. These writers brought about a great
in Chinese, which was the language of the learned
flowering of literature. Later Yosa Buson
much as Latin was in Europe.
composed superb Haiku depicting nature, while
fiction writer Ueda Akinari produced a collection
of gothic stories called Ugetsu monogatari (Tales
of Moonlight and Rain) [1776] .
Literature during this time was written during the
largely peaceful Tokugawa Period (commonly
referred to as the Edo Period). Due in large part to
the rise of the working and middle classes in the
new capital of Edo (modern Tokyo), forms of
popular drama developed which would later
evolve into Kabuki.
Many genres of literature made their debut during The Meiji period marks the re-opening of Japan to
the Edo Period, helped by a rising literacy rate the West, and a period of rapid industrialization.
among the growing population of townspeople, as The introduction of European literature brought
well as the development of lending libraries. free verse into the poetic repertoire; it became
Although there was a minor Western influence widely used for longer works embodying new
trickling into the country from the Dutch intellectual themes. Young Japanese prose writers
settlement at Nagasaki, it was the importation of and dramatists struggled with a whole galaxy of
Chinese vernacular fiction that proved the greatest new ideas and artistic schools, but novelists were
outside influence on the development of Early the first to successfully assimilate some of these
Modern Japanese fiction. Ihara Saikaku might be concepts.
said to have given birth to the modern
consciousness of the novel in Japan, mixing
vernacular dialogue into his humorous and In the early Meiji period (1868–1880s), Fukuzawa
cautionary tales of the pleasure quarters. Yukichi and Water Margin authored
Jippensha Ikku wrote Tokaidochu Hizakurige, Enlightenment literature, while pre-modern
which is a mix of travelogue and comedy. Tsuga popular books depicted the quickly changing
Teisho, Takebe Ayatari, and Okajima Kanzan were country. Then Realism was brought in by
instrumental in developing the Yomihon, which Tsubouchi Shoyo and Futabatei Shimei in the
were historical romances almost entirely in prose, mid-Meiji (late 1880s - early 1890s) while the
influenced by Chinese vernacular novels such as Classicism of Ozaki Koyo, Yamada Bimyo and
Three Kingdoms and Shui hu zhuan. Two Koda Rohan gained popularity. Ichiyo Higuchi, a
Yomihon masterpieces were written by Ueda rare woman writer in this era, wrote short stories
Akinari: Ugetsu monogatari and Harusame on powerless women of this age in a simple style
monogatari. Kyokutei Bakin wrote the extremely in between literary and colloquial. Kyoka Izumi, a
popular fantasy/historical romance Nanso Satomi favored disciple of Ozaki, pursued a flowing and
Hakkenden in addition to other Yomihon. Santo elegant style and wrote early novels such as The

16
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
Operating Room (1895) in literary style and later
ones including The Holy Man of Mount Koya
War-time Japan saw the début of several authors
(1900) in colloquial Japanese.
best known for the beauty of their language and
Romanticism was brought in by Mori Ogai with their tales of love and sensuality, notably
his anthology of translated poems (1889) and Jun'ichiro Tanizaki and Japan's first winner of the
carried to its height by Toson Shimazaki etc. and Nobel Prize for Literature, Yasunari Kawabata, a
magazines Myojo and Bungaku-kai in early master of psychological fiction. Ashihei Hino
1900s. Mori also wrote some modern novels wrote lyrical bestsellers glorifying the war, while
including The Dancing Girl (1890), Wild Geese Tatsuzo Ishikawa attempted to publish a
(1911), then later wrote historical novels. Natsume disturbingly realistic account of the advance on
Soseki, who is often compared with Mori Ogai, Nanjing. Writers who opposed the war include
wrote I Am a Cat (1905) with humor and satire, Denji Kuroshima, Mitsuharu Kaneko, Hideo
then depicted fresh and pure youth in Botchan Oguma, and Jun Ishikawa.
(1906) and Sanshirô (1908). He eventually
pursued transcendence of human emotions and
egoism in his later works including Kokoro (1914)
his last and unfinished novel Light and darkness
(1916).
Shimazaki shifted from Romanticism to
Naturalism which was established with his The
Broken Commandment (1906) and Katai
Tayama's Futon (1907). Naturalism hatched the "I
Novel" (Watakushi-shôsetu) that describes the
authors themselves and depicts their own mental World War II, and Japan's defeat, deeply
states. Neo-romanticism came out of anti- influenced Japanese literature. Many authors
naturalism and was led by Kafu Nagai, Jun'ichiro wrote stories of disaffection, loss of purpose, and
Tanizaki, Kotaro Takamura, Hakushu Kitahara the coping with defeat. Osamu Dazai's novel The
and so on in the early 1910s. Saneatsu Setting Sun tells of a soldier returning from
Mushanokoji, Naoya Shiga and others founded a Manchukuo. Shohei Ooka won the Yomiuri Prize
magazine Shirakaba in 1910. They shared a for his novel Fires on the Plain about a Japanese
common characteristic, Humanism. Shiga's style deserter going mad in the Philippine jungle. Yukio
was autobiographical and depicted states of his Mishima, well known for both his nihilistic
mind and sometimes classified as "I Novel" in this writing and his controversial suicide by seppuku,
sense. Ryunosuke Akutagawa, who was highly began writing in the post-war period. Nobuo
praised by Soseki, wrote short stories including Kojima's short story "The American School"
Rashomon (1915) with an intellectual and analytic portrays a group of Japanese teachers of English
attitude, and represented Neo-realism in the mid who, in the immediate aftermath of the war, deal
1910s. with the American occupation in varying ways.
During the 1920s and early 1930s the proletarian
literary movement, comprising such writers as
Takiji Kobayashi, Denji Kuroshima, Yuriko Prominent writers of the 1970s and 1980s were
Miyamoto, and Ineko Sata produced a politically identified with intellectual and moral issues in
radical literature depicting the harsh lives of their attempts to raise social and political
workers, peasants, women, and other downtrodden consciousness. One of them, Kenzaburo Oe wrote
members of society, and their struggles for his best-known work,
change.

17
 EM 14: SURVEY IN AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
A Personal Matter in 1964 and became Japan's
second winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Although modern Japanese writers covered a wide
variety of subjects, one particularly Japanese
approach stressed their subjects' inner lives,
widening the earlier novel's preoccupation with
the narrator's consciousness. In Japanese fiction,
plot development and action have often been of
secondary interest to emotional issues. In keeping
with the general trend toward reaffirming national
characteristics, many old themes re-emerged, and
some authors turned consciously to the past.
Strikingly, Buddhist attitudes about the
importance of knowing oneself and the poignant
impermanence of things formed an undercurrent
to sharp social criticism of this material age. There
was a growing emphasis on women's roles, the
Japanese persona in the modern world, and the
malaise of common people lost in the
complexities of urban culture.
Popular fiction, non-fiction, and children's
literature all flourished in urban Japan in the
1980s. Many popular works fell between "pure
literature" and pulp novels, including all sorts of
historical serials, information-packed docudramas,
science fiction, mysteries, detective fiction,
business stories, war journals, and animal stories.
Non-fiction covered everything from crime to
politics. Although factual journalism
predominated, many of these works were
interpretive, reflecting a high degree of
individualism. Children's works re-emerged in the
1950s, and the newer entrants into this field, many
of them younger women, brought new vitality to it
in the 1980s.
Manga (comic books) have penetrated almost
every sector of the popular market. They include
virtually every field of human interest, such as a
multi volume high-school history of Japan and,
for the adult market, a manga introduction to
economics, and pornography. Manga represented
between 20 and 30 percent of annual publications
at the end of the 1980s, in sales of some ¥400
billion per year.

18