Final alumno regular :

1. Establish the connection between the notion of context of interaction and the choice
of proclaiming and referring tones.
2. What is the difference between the general and existential paradigm.How do they
both come into play in the act of selection in which the speaker is involved.
3. State the meaning of social selection. Which is the tone commonly used to express
togetherness.

First mid term exam:

1. Characterise the elements that constitute the prosodic system (thought group,
focus word, stress and peak syllable). Explain how they combine to create rhythm
in the English language.
The elements that constitute the prosodic system are the thought group, the focus word, stress
and peak.
The thought group is the base of the system. It may be a short sentence, a clause, or a phrase
within a larger sentence. In written English, punctuation is used to separate thought groups,
however, in spoken English, this is done through PROSODIC MARKERS: a pause, a drop in pitch,
lengthening of the last stressed syllable.
The focus word is the most important word in the thought group. It is the word that the speaker
wants the listener to notice most through intonation. The basic principle at play when emphasising
a focus word is contrast. Intonational emphasis highlights the focus word so that it stands out,
leaving important information in the thought group to fade into background.
Stress is given to the focus word, to one syllable. This stressed syllable represents the peak of
information in the thought group. It is the most important syllable within the most important word,
and therefore, the sounds in the peak syllable must be heard clearly. The SIGNALS OF STRESS
are: loudness, contrastive vowel length, contrastive vowel quality, pitch change.
Peak is the syllable that carries the tone. It is also called the nucleus. The sounds in the peak
syllable must be clear and easily recognized because it is the centre of meaning of the thought
group. The aim is that this syllable will be easy for the listener to notice and recognize.
Prosodic system and English rhythm: Prosody is the combination of rhythm and melody. According
to the way the prosodic elements are combined, they create the rhythm in the English Language. In
English, rhythm and melody signal the speaker’s intention. Prosodic elements communicate
emphasis and make clear the relationship between ideas so that listeners can identify these
relationships and understand meaning. The way we highlight the most important piece of
information in an utterance is a way to help listeners distinguish between new and old
information. As a result, as new information is highlighted, the listener understands that this is the
most important piece of information. The basic unit of English rhythm is the syllable. A syllable is
explained as something with a vowel at its centre. The systematic use of contrastive
highlighting/obscuring is essential to the English stress and emphasis system.
2. What is the connection David Brazil (1997) establishes between intonation and
pragmatics? Why do we study them? Why is it beneficial for teachers?
Intonation is the way in which the level of the voice changes in order to add meaning to the
information. Pragmatics covers that part of meaning of an utterance that can be explained only
by reference to the situation, by the context.
According to Brazil in his book the Communicative Value of Intonation, speakers use intonation to
convey meaning and to express different attitudes according to the context (pragmatics).
Intonation is affected by the way speakers use language in context. Brazil’s Discourse Intonation
system is based on the pragmatic use of language. Thus, pragmatics and Brazil’s intonation
system consider language as action, as human behaviour. The speaker chooses tones in order to
perform actions like making requests, giving orders, and asking questions.
Native speakers expect foreigners to have inconsistencies in the production of sounds. However,
they rely on the correct use of the tonality, tonicity, and tone systems. As a consequence, failure
of the use of any of these systems may lead to a misunderstanding of the message. Intonation
choices will be studied by pragmatics to account for the speaker’s intentions and to understand
the meaning of an utterance in a particular context.
By knowing what native speakers expect from foreigners, teachers can benefit from this to teach
students how to use language in a more natural and efficient manner. Thus, giving them more
classroom tools to be a more efficient teacher.
3. Establish the difference between general and existential paradigm. Explain the role
they play in the speaker’s selection of prominence.
Existential paradigm comprises the set of possibilities that a speaker can regard as available in a
given situation.
General paradigm comprises the set of possibilities that are available in the language system.
Prominence has been characterised as the feature that determines the beginning and end of a
tonic segment. The speaker’s decision to make a particular syllable prominent or
non-prominent has conversational implications. This distribution of prominence is an act of
selection of the speaker. They are placed in such a way as to draw the listener’s attention
to particular words. This decision depends on the speaker and on the communicative value of
the word or syllable at that point of the conversation to help the listener to follow the
message and help them to know which words they should pay particular attention to.
The relation between prominence and the general paradigm is that the speaker has several
choices in relation to the grammar, lexical choices of the language. The relation with the
existential paradigm is that the choices will depend on the context.
When the two paradigms coincide: there can be no possibility of selection in the existential
paradigm because there is none in the general paradigm.
EXAMPLE: if someone asks “Where are you from” the general paradigm would be all the places in
the world. The existential paradigm would be narrowing down the answers to, for example,
Argentina (all the cities in Argentina), then it would be narrowed down ever more if the
speaker says the province of Buenos Aires to the cities there.
4. Discuss the uses of p (fall) and r (fall-rise) tones (consider speaker-hearer
convergence and social significance of tone choice)
Referring tones (fall rise and rise) project that what we are saying is already known, it is
“common ground”.
Proclaiming tones (fall and rise fall) enlarge the interlocutor’s world, it is new information.
The area of convergence between hearer and speaker is their common ground knowledge, what
they share. In the area of convergence referring tones are used because it is shared
information and there’s nothing to be added, while proclaiming tones add new information.
The social connotation of referring tones can be described as an assumption of solidarity
between speaker and hearer.
* Social meaning:
Referring tones (Fall-rise): convergence, solidarity, agreement.
Proclaiming tones (Fall): divergence, separateness, disagreement
5. Explain tone choices in the following dialogue:
Q: did everyone leave?
R: //p actually NOT// r DAvid// p is in the LIVing room//
The proclaiming tones refer to new information given to the hearer. In the first part of the
sentence, the tone goes on “nOT” for contrastive purposes. The referring tone on David implies
that David is someone both, speaker and hearer know, and that he is the only one who did not
leave.

Compare B and C.

a. Speaker a: she’s a fast runner, isn’t she?

Speaker b: //r she TRAINS hard// Speaker B chooses the use of a referring
tone to avoid answering directly to the question: she trains hard but she is not a
fast runner.

b. Speaker a: how old is he?

Speaker b: // r he’s in his THIRties// Speaker B implies that he is not certain

about the age.

c. Speaker a: how old is he?

Speaker b: //p he’s in his THIRties// Speaker B implies that he is certain

about the age.

6. Relate the concept of implicature (derived from Grice’s Cooperative Principle) to

the study of intonation.
Implicature is something that the speaker suggests or implies with an utterance, even though it is
not literally expressed. The use of intonation results is very important because by using pitch
movements the speaker would be able to convey meaning beyond the words, vocabulary and
grammar that is used.
The cooperative principle implies that the interlocutors attempt to be cooperative by observing the
four maxims Grice proposed. To observe a maxim is to obey them, that is to say, to say the
right amount of information (maxim of quantity), to say what you have evidence for (maxim of
quality), to say what it is relevant (maxim of relation), and to be brief, clear and unambiguous
(maxim of manner).
Speakers imply something when they violate or flout at least one of the maxims. To violate a
maxim is to fail to observe, but to do so with the assumption that the hearer will not realise that
one maxim is being violated. To flout a maxim is to disobey the maxim , but the hearer will realise
about the violation of the maxim.
First mid term make up exam (questions do not asked in the first exam):

1. Explain the concept of prominence and its connection to word stress.

 Prominence is the feature that determines the beginning and end of the tonic segment.
Stress is the degree of emphasis given to a sound or syllable in speech.The relation
between prominence and word stress is that prominences only occur in the stress part
of the syllable, in the primary or secondary stress. Prominent syllables are placed in such
a way by the speaker’s decision to draw the listener’s attention to particular words. In
this way, the speaker helps the listener to follow the message.
2. Minimal vs extended tone units. Name and characterise the elements that
constitute a tone unit in the following example using Brazil’s concepts:
//r HOW are you DOing today//
A tone unit is the speech broken into pieces. Each tone unit has either 1 or 2 prominent syllables.
The choice of prominence has meaningful significance. Tone units are recognisable by the pauses
speakers make between them. The prominent syllable which carries the tone is the tonic syllable
and it is the last prominent syllable of the tone unit. The first prominent syllable is the onset
syllable and has no pitch movement. The system associated with the onset is key, and the
system associated with the tonic is termination.
Extended tone unit is the one where there is more than one prominent syllable. Therefore,
meaningful choices can be made at two different places: the onset and the tonic syllable.
Minimal tone unit is the one where there is only one prominent syllable. This syllable is the tonic
syllable, thus, all the intonation choices are made on that syllable.
Proclitic Segment is the segment which includes all the words before the first prominent syllable.
Tonic segment is the segment which includes the first prominent syllable up to the tonic syllable,
including it.
Enclitic segment is the segment which includes all the words after the tonic syllable.
In the example given there is no proclitic segment. The tonic segment is formed by the phrase
(HOW (onset) are you DO (tonic syllable). And finally, the enclitic segment is formed by a suffix
(-ing) and a word (today)

3. Explain the prominence and tone choices in the following tone units:

a. Q: Is Paul a good student?

R: //r he is well-beHAVED//

The use of a referring tone implies that Paul is not a good student and that
speaker b tries to avoid saying it explicitly.

b. Q: Would you like some coffee?

R: //p i DON’T// r Usually// p HAVE coffee in the evening//

The use of a referring tone in the adverbial implies that the respondent is politely
declining the offer of drinking.

Second mid term make up exam

1. Explain the intonation patterns used in yes/no questions, information

questions and declarative mood questions. Provide examples of them. What
 are the expected intonation patterns in phatic questions? Is there a chance to
produce phatic questions using a different tone? why?
● Yes-no questions: the proclaiming tone projects that the speaker is trying to get
further information from the hearer. E.x /p do you want to COME/ (please tell me,
i’m asking for a yes/no answer). The referring tone projects an assumption that
requires confirmation on the part of the hearer. E.x /r do you want to COME/ (I’m
assuming a yes as an answer). It also projects that the speaker needs to be
reminded of something temporarily forgotten. E.x /r is the CONcert on TUESday/
● Information questions/wh- questions: the proclaiming tone is used to find out
information. E.x /p WHAT’s your NAME/. The referring tone is used to check
information. E.x /r WHAT TIME is it/ (is it as late as I think it is?). The referring
plus to signal that the speaker needs to be reminded of something that is
common ground. E.x /r+ WHATs your NAME/ (can you remind me of your name
please. A secretary at the doctor’s office to a patient)
● Phatic questions: are asked to elicit information of any kind. They have a social
function, such as to start a conversation or greet. The tone used is a referring
tone. It is language to share feelings or establish a mood of sociability or
togetherness rather than to communicate ideas or information. E.x /r HOW ARE
you/.

Phatic questions should not be produced with proclaiming tones because it may
produce the speaker to sound rough or impolite. E.x / p WHO ARE you/.

2. Refer to the concept of uptalk: definition, origin and users. Provide an

example.

It is the use of a rising tone on statements where traditionally was the falling tone at the
end of sentences so that everything sounds like a question.
It is believed to have originated in New Zealand, but other sources believed to have originated in
Australia, California and British regional accents.
Uptalk is associated with people who were born after 1980.
E.x /p HI/ p my name is CAthy/ (traditional way)
/p HI/ r my name is CAthy/ (uptalk)

3. Explain the choices available to dominant and non-dominant speakers in terms

of intonation. How can dominant speakers exploit the intonation system
differently from non-dominant speakers?

The person who has the dominant role has the position of authority. When a person
occupies a dominant role, he/she is in charge and controls what happens, so he/she uses
the rising tone (r+) to emphasise the fact that he/she occupies that role. We use the
rising tone because we do not want to be interrupted until we’ve finished (control of
discourse) the dominant speaker has the choice of using the r or the r+ tones.
 If a non-dominant speaker uses a rising tone, the implication is of agressivenes and
unamiable (not friendly or sociable) traits, implications that are not appropriate
(rudeness)

The p+ and r+ tones belong exclusively to the repertoire of the dominant speaker, then a
choice of a plus tone at any time serves to project a context of interaction in which the
speaker is dominant.

4. Describe and exemplify the uses of r+ and p+. Under which circumstances
would a speaker choose p+ instead of p? What is the implied meaning of such
selection?

R+: - reminding: when reminding you are in a dominant position since you are the one
who has the information.
- Giving directions: the person who is giving the directions has the information , so
he/she adopts a dominant role.
- Listing, counting: we use rising tones in order not to be interrupted.
- Syntactic incompleteness: (if clauses) in a redundant/not informative item: there is
more to come (not interrupt) or to say something. The assumption of common
ground. The speaker wants to retain the initiative.
- Story telling: telling an anecdote to “hold the floor”
- Request: the normal convention is a r tone: /r CAN i help you?/. When the intention
is for real we use a r+ tone: /r+ CAN i help you?/
P+: speakers would use p+ tones over p tones in situations where dominance serves to mark
the here-and-now modifications of the speaker’s world view. P+ implies that the speaker would go
on speaking, that he/she has more to say. E.x /he is clever isn’t he/
/p+ YES/ p he IS/
With the use of the non-dominant p there is no way of knowing whether he proclaims news that
he had known for some time, or whether it’s something that has just been noticed. E.x /p it’s
RAIning/
When the speaker says something with surprise, he modifies his world because he knows
something new by surprise /p+ its RAIning/
The p+ is also used to convey strong feelings of approval or disapproval.
Interrogatives with p+ invites a response, but a forcefulness or insistence can be traced.
/p+ WHY don’t you ASK him/

5. Pragmatics. Identify the Locutionary, illocutionary and Perlocutionary

forces/acts in the following example: “It’s a little hot in here”. What type of
speech act is it (expressive, commissive, declarative, etc.) is it direct or
indirect? Why?

A speech act is an act that the speaker performs when making an utterance. Is
everything a speaker does with language. The act of speaking is an act. Its components
are:

● Locutionary act: is speaker based. The basic linguistic act of conveying meaning.
 ● Illocutionary act: is speaker based. Is what you intend to do by means of saying
it.
● Perlocutionary: is hearer based. Is what is actually achieved by means of the
speech act.

Types of speech acts:

- Representatives: they represent the speaker's beliefs of something that can be

true or false. E.x. I have 5 toes in my foot.
- Directives: they are acts which expect the listener to do something as a
response. E.x. Shut the door.
- Comissives: they commit the speaker to some future action (a promise, threaten)
E.x. I’ll meet you at the library.
- Expressives: they occur in conversation when the speaker expresses his/her
psychological state to the listener. E.x. I’m sorry for being late.
- Declaratives: it is a speech act that changes the reality. E.x I now pronounce you
husband and wife.

Direct speech act is an act where there is a direct relationship between a structure and
a function. The locutionary and the illocutionary acts coincide. The intention is expressed in the
message.

Indirect speech act is one where there is no coincidence between the type of illocutionary
act and the syntactic structure of the message. The intention is not explicitly expressed in the
message.

“It’s a little hot in here”.

Locutionary act: it is the description of the temperature in the room.

Illocutionary act: could you open the window?

Perlocutionary: hearer opens the window.

The sentence is an indirect speech act because what the speaker implies is not stated in the
sentence. It is also a representative speech act because it reports the temperature of the room.

“I apologise for my behaviour”

Locutionary act: I’m sorry for the way I behave.

Illocutionary: please forgive me.

Perlocutionary: the listener forgives or not.

The sentence is a direct speech act because what it says is what the speaker means. It is an
expressive speech act because it expresses the psychological state of being sorry to the
listener.

6. Explain the intonation patterns used in declarative mood questions. Provide an

example.

A declarative mood question is an utterance that has the form of a statement.

E.x. /p john prefers THAT one/ (i’m telling you)

/r john prefers THAT one/ (he told me so, and you may as well know)

/r+ john prefers THAT one/ (I’m asking you)

The pattern used in declarative mood questions is the referring tone.

● Confirmation: to check. To seek confirmation under the assumption of common

ground from visual evidence (for example, someone is opening the door: /r you
are GOing OUT/) ( am I right in believing so). Or the assumption of common ground
from shared knowledge:

A: /p i have JUST been talking to JOHN/

B /r you’ve BEEN to the Office/

A /p YES/

● Echoing: when echoing what was said before. It implies that what has been said
wasn’t expected by the hearer.

A: /p i SAW him in OXford street/

B:/ r you SAW him in OXford street/ (did you say)

First mid term make up exam (questions do not asked in the first exam)

1. What does David Brazil mean by context of interaction? How is it connected

with the concept of projection?
The term CONTEXT OF INTERACTION is related to the specific place and time a tone unit
occurs. The here and now of the utterance provides for each tone unit a unique conversational
setting. There is a peculiar understanding between speaker and hearer. What makes a setting
unique is the fact that each step forward along the time continuum includes shared awareness of
what has been shared before. Intonation in a particular utterance projects a certain context of
interaction. What the speaker projects may incorporate features of a context of interaction which
he/she assumes the hearer will agree. The distribution of prominence will project a context of
interaction.
Emphasis and de-emphasis, prosodic markers and focus words (gilbert)

● Emphasis: to call attention to the important idea in a utterance through the stress of
content words.
● De-emphasis: the reduction of structure words when they are reduced or contracted
when peak syllables are highlighted making them difficult to be heard.
● Prosodic markers: listeners must rely on prosodic markers to know how words are
grouped together. Thought groups start on a higher pitch and then drop at the end through
one of these signals: a puse, a drop in pitch, lengthening the last stressed syllable.
● Focus words: loudness, contrastive vowel length, contrastive vowel clarity and pitch change
are signals of stressed syllables. Focus words are emphasised to show contrast.

Types of utterances: constatives and performatives (explicit and implicit

performatives). Establish the difference.

- Constatives: they are declarative utterances expressing some state of affairs which is
evaluated through their truth condition, for example, she walked out (I can see she’s gone)
- Performatives: they are sentences which perform the act that the sentence describes.
For example, I apologise to Mrs. Manor (the utterance itself is the apology)
- Explicit performative: the type of utterance that makes what kind of act it is. It
includes a performative verb (promise, apologise, thanks) e.x I promise I’ll clean my
room.
- Implicit performative: it has the same impact as explicit performatives, but does
not have the performative verb. E.x I’ll clean my room as soon as I finish my
homework. (implicit verb is I promise).

Draw the distinction between performative utterances and direct speech acts.

The distinction between performative utterances and direct speech acts is that there is a
connection between the structure and the communicative function of the utterance. Direct
speech acts explicitly illustrate the intended meaning.

Briefly describe the function of felicity conditions within speech acts theory. What
happens if they are not fulfilled?

Felicity condition refers to the conditions that must be placed and the criteria that must
be satisfied for a speech act to achieve its purpose. Some conditions are: context appropriate,
conventional existence, authority, speaker’s sincerity. The person and circumstances in each case
must be appropriate for the particular procedure. The procedure must be executed by all
participants both correctly and completely. If the conditions are violated, the speech act fails and
the intended act does not go through.

If the participants do not act as expected, there is no sincerity, so it is said that the speech act
is an abuse.
Explain the concepts of positive face and negative face. How do positive and
negative face come into play in a conversation? Think of a situation in which
positive politeness is shown?

POSITIVE FACE is a person’s desire for interaction and solidarity with others. Example: a painter
would, for instance, desire other people's appreciation of his/ her paintings.

NEGATIVE FACE is a person’s desire to be autonomous, to be respected and in effect to be left

alone. Example: the freedom of speech, which includes one's need not to be interrupted by
others while speaking.

TRUTH CONDITIONS: It is the condition under which a sentence is true.