CE 411 Program Learning Outcomes:

After completing this course, the student must be able to:

THEORY OF STRUCTURES I 1. Know the history of structural engineering, identify various
Overview: types of structural systems, appreciate the importance of
codes and specifications and decide the appropriate loads to
Self-Learning activity will be focused in this module, the apply into the structures;
student must learn on their selves with the guidance of this book, 2. Idealize real structures to obtain analytical models; identify
they can use other references to easily understand each topic. In the state of determinacy and stability of structures; to know
every topic there are Instructive Problems to be solved by the student the various structural analysis theorems and principles;
with their own understanding. At the end of each chapter there is 3. Apply the equations of static equilibrium to analyze the
solutions and answers in the instructive problem to check their trusses, beams, frames, cables and arches;
work. 4. Develop intuition on deflected shapes of structures under
loading;
To evaluate their self for each chapter, the students must
5. Analyze moving loads on highway and railway bridges using
solve the Review Exercises at the end of each chapter. Their will be
influence lines;
an evaluation at every end of the Chapter to be given by the
6. Develop confidence in structural analysis in preparation for
instructor with time allotted.
design courses;
Each Chapter will have a laboratory exercises to be given by 7. Reflect on the consequences of analysis results to life and
the instructor provided the Laboratory Manual. safety of people; and
8. Develop ethnical responsibility to their clients to produce
Course Description: strong and safe structures;

The course covers the different types of structural systems, loads REFERENCES:
and its combinations and placement, applicable codes and specifications,
and methods of analysis for statically determinate structures. Hibbeler, R.C., Structural Analysis, 9th Edition, Prentice Hall
Rajan. S.D., Introduction to Structural Analysis and Design,
Number of Units: John Wiley & Sons, 2001
Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and Wilbur, J.B., Elementary
3-units Lecture and 1-unit Laboratory Structural Analysis, 14th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991

Prerequisite:
Mech 321 (Mechanics of Deformable Bodies)
TABLE OF CONTENTS Module Review
MODULE 1: TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS MODULE 4: INTERNAL LOADINGS DEVELOPED IN STRUCTURAL
MEMBERS
1.1 Introduction
4.1 Internal Loadings at a Specified Point
1.2 Classification of Structures
4.2 Shear and Moment Functions
1.3 Loads
4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam
1.4 Structural Design
4.4 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Frame
1.5 National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015,
4.5 Moment Diagrams Constructed by the Method of
Volume 1, 7th Edition
Superposition
Module Exercises
Module Exercises
Module Review
Module Review
Computation Exercises
MODULE 5: CABLES AND ARCHES
MODULE 2: ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE 5.1 Cables
STRUCTURES 5.2 Cable Subjected to Concentrated Loads
5.3 Cable Subjected to a Uniform Distributed Load
2.1 Idealized Structure
5.4 Arches
2.2 Principle of Superposition
5.5 Three-Hinged Arch
2.3 Equations of Equilibrium
Module Exercises
2.4 Determinacy and Stability
Module Review
2.5 Application of the Equations of Equilibrium
Module Exercises MODULE 6: INFLUENCE LINES FOR STATICALLY DETEMINATE
Module Review STRUCTURES
6.1 Influence Lines
MODULE 3: ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES
6.2 Influence Lines for Beams
3.1 Common Types of Trusses 6.3 Qualitative Influence Lines
3.2 Classification of Coplanar Trusses 6.4 Influence Lines for Floor Girders
3.3 The Method of Joints 6.5 Influence Lines for Trusses
3.4 Zero-Force Members 6.6 Maximum Influence at a Point due to a Series of Concentrated
3.5 The Method of Sections Loads
3.6 Compound Trusses 6.7 Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment
3.7 Complex Trusses Module Exercises
3.8 Space Trusses Module Review
Module Exercises
 MODULE 1 supported and connected together. The loadings are determined from codes and
local specifications, and the forces in the members and their displacements are
TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS found using the theory of structural analysis.
OBJECTIVE: The result of the analysis can be used to redesign the structure, accounting
for a more accurate determination of the weight of the members and their size.
To identify and classify various types of structures systems, appreciate
Structural Design, therefore, follows a series of successive approximation in which
the importance of codes and specifications and decide the appropriate loads to
every cycle requires a structural analysis.
apply into the structures.

1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION:
It is important for a structural engineer to
As a civil engineer we must know the different types of structures; its
recognize the various types of elements composing a
systems, its analysis, its design, and its methods. The “Theory of Structures” is
structure and to be able to classify structures as to their
concerned with establishing an understanding of the behavior of structures, when
form and functions. Some of the more common elements
subjected to applied loads or other actions which have the effect of changing the
from which structures are composed are as follows:
state of stress and deformations. The process of ‘structural analysis’ applied the
principles established by the Theory of Structures, to analyze a given structure Tie Rods a structural element subjected to a
under specified loading and possibly other disturbances such as temperature tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing
variation or movement of supports. struts. Due to the nature of this load, these members are
rather slender, and are often chosen from rods, bars,
angles, or channels. (See Figure 1-1)
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Beams are usually straight horizontal members
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. used primarily to carry vertical loads. (See Figure 1-2:
(e.g. buildings, bridges, towers, ship and aircrafts frames, tanks, pressure vessels). Classification of Beam). Beams are primarily designed
When designing a structure, the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and to resist bending moment.
serviceability, while taking into consideration economic and environmental
Columns are structural members that are
constraints. This design process is both creative and technical and requires a
generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads.
fundamental knowledge of material properties and the laws of mechanics which
Tubes and wide-flange cross-sections are often used for
govern material response.
metal columns, and circular and square cross-sections
Once a preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the structure must with reinforcing rods are used for those made of concrete. Columns are subjected
then be analyzed to ensure that it has its required stiffness and strength. To analyze to both axial and bending moment are referred to as beam columns. (See Figure 1-
a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the members are 4)
 The combination of structural elements and the 1.3. LOADS
materials from which they are composed is referred to as a
structural system. Each system is constructed of one or Once the structural form has been determined, the actual design begins with
more of four basic types of structures, they are as follows: those elements that are subjected to the primary loads the structure is intended to
carry and proceeds in sequence to the various supporting members until the
Trusses consist of slender elements, usually foundation is reached. Thus, a building floor slab would be designed first, followed
arranged in triangular fashion. Planar trusses are composed by the supporting beams, columns and last, the foundation/footings.
of members that lie in the same plane and are frequently
used for bridge and roof support, whereas space trusses The design loading for a structure is often specified in codes. In general,
have members extending in three dimensions and are the structural engineer works with two types of codes: general building codes and
suitable for derricks and towers. Due to the geometric design codes. General building codes specify the requirements of government
arrangement of its members, loads that cause the entire truss bodies for minimum design loads on structures and minimum standards for
to bend are converted into tensile or compressive forces in construction. Design codes provide detailed technical standards and are used to
the members. Because of this, one of the primary establish the requirements for the actual structural design. In the Philippines,
advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that it uses less material to support a engineers used the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) and
given load. Building Codes as basis of design. Some of the government agencies like DPWH,
NIA, DENR, and others have different codes used in designing a structure.
Cables and Arches these are other forms of structures used to span long
distances. Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension, they are The following are different types of loads must consider in designing a
commonly used to support bridges and building roofs. Arch achieves its strength in structure:
compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be Dead Loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and
rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape, and this results in secondary loadings the weights of any object that are permanently attached to the structure. The
involving shear and moment, which must be considered in its design. Arches are densities of typical materials used in construction are listed in Table 204-1 and
frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs and for openings in masonry walls. Table 204-2 of the National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015 (NSCP-2015).
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns Live Loads are those loads produced by the use and occupancy of the
that are either pin or fixed connected. The loadings on a frame causes bending of its building or other structure and do not include dead load, construction load, or
members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure is generally environmental loads. It can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be
“indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis. caused by the weights of objects temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles,
Surface Structures is made from a material having a very small thickness or natural forces. The minimum uniform and concentrated live load used in
compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible and can construction are listed in Table 205-1 of the NSCP-2015. In Table 205-2 are special
take the form of a tent or air-inflated structure. Surface structures may also be made loads and Table 205-3 are minimum roof live loads used in construction.
of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. As such they may be shaped as folded Impact Loads, moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over
plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as thin plates or a bridge, and therefore they impact to the deck. The percentage increase of the live
shells.
loads due to impact is called the impact factor. This factor is generally obtained Allowable-Stress Design (ASD) methods include both the material and load
from formulas developed from experimental evidence. uncertainties into a single factor of safety. The loads can occur simultaneously on a
structure, but it is very unlikely that the maximum of all these loads will occur at
Wind Loads, the effect of wind on a structure depends upon the density and
the same time. For ASD the computed elastic stress in the material must not exceed
velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness of the
the allowable stress for each of various load combinations. Typical load
structure, and the roughness of its surface. In determining the wind loads of a
combinations are specified in Section 203.4 of NSCP-2015.
specified location see Section 207 of the NSCP-2015.
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) this method is called strength
Earthquake Loads, earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its
design since uncertainty can be considered using probability theory, there has been
interaction with the ground and its response characteristics. These loadings result
an increasing trend to separate material uncertainty from load uncertainty. For
from the structure’s distortion caused bu the ground’s motion and the lateral
example, to account for the uncertainty of loads, this method uses load factors
resistance of the structure. The earthquake loads are provided in Section 208 of the
applied to the loads or combination of loads. Typical load combinations of factored
NSCP-2015.
loads are specified in Section 203.3 of NSCP-2015.
Soil Lateral Loads, basement, foundation and retaining walls shall be
designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil loads are specified in Section 209 of the
NSCP-2015, these provisions shall be used as the minimum design lateral soil loads 1.5. NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE
unless specified otherwise in a soil investigation report approved by the building PHILIPPINES 2015, Volume 1, 7 Edition
th
official.
The purpose of this code is to provide minimum requirements for the design
Rain Loads, are specified in Section 210 of the NSCP-2015. of buildings, towers and other vertical structures, and minimum standards and
Flood Loads, all new construction of buildings, structures and portions of guidelines to safeguard life or limb, property and public welfare by regulating and
buildings and structures, including substantial improvement and restoration of controlling the design, construction, quality of materials pertaining to the structural
substantial damage to buildings and structures, shall be designed and constructed aspects of all buildings and structures.
according to Section 211 of the NSCP-2015 to resist the effects of flood hazards Buildings and other structures shall be classified based on the nature of
and flood loads. occupancy, according to Table 103-1 for purposes of applying wind and earthquake
loads. Each building or other structures shall be assigned to the highest applicable
occupancy category or categories. When buildings or other structures have multiple
1.4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN uses (occupancies), the relationship between the uses of various parts of the building
and the independence of the structural system for those various parts shall be
Whenever a structure is designed, it is important to give consideration to examined.
both material and load uncertainties. This uncertainties include a possible variability
in material properties, residual stress in materials, intended measurements being Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all portions thereof shall
different from fabricated sizes, loadings due to vibration or impact, and material be designed and constructed to sustain, within the limitations specified in the NSCP-
corrosion or decay. 2015. Design shall be in accordance with Strength Design, Load and Resistance
Factor Design and Allowable Strength Design Methods.
MODULE EXERCISES: 1.2. A two-story office building (offices) shown in
the photo has interior columns that are
1.1. The floor beam in the figure is used to
spaced 5 m apart in two perpendicular
support the 5-m width of a
directions. If the roof loading is 1.5 kN/m2,
lightweight plain concrete slab
determine the reduced live load supported
having a thickness of 0.12-m. The
by a typical interior column located at
slab serves as a portion of the ceiling
ground level.
for the floor below, and therefore its
bottom is coated with plaster. SOLUTION:
Furthermore, a 3.5-m high, 0.15-m
As shown in each interior column has a
thick lightweight solid concrete
block wall is directly over the top tributary area or effective loaded area of 𝐴 𝑇 =
(5𝑚)(5𝑚) = 25 𝑚2 . A ground floor column
flange of the beam having a weight
of 1.5 kN/m. Determine the loading therefore supports a roof live load of
on the beam measured per meter of length of the beam. 𝐹𝑅 = (1.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )(25 𝑚2 ) = 37.5 𝑘𝑁
SOLUTION: This load cannot be reduced, since it is not a
Using the Table 204-1 and Table 204-2 in the NSCP-2015, we have floor load. For the second floor, the live load is taken from Table 205-1 (NSCP-
2015), for office building the uniform live load is 𝐿𝑜 = 2.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
Density of lightweight plain concrete slab = 0.015 kPa per mm
Ceilings, plaster on concrete = 0.24 kPa For reduced live load of the supported column, from Section 205.6 (NSCP-
Lightweight concrete masonry = 16.5 kN/m3 2015), the equation is

Weight: 1
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 [0.25 + 4.57 ( )]
√𝐴𝐼
Slab = (0.015 kPa/mm)(120 mm)(5 m) = 9 kN/m
Ceilings = (0.24 kPa)(5 m) = 1.2 kN/m the influence area 𝐴𝐼 must be greater than 40 m2, (𝐴𝐼 is four times the tributary area
Masonry = (16.5 kN/m3)(3.5 m)(0.15 m) = 8.6625 kN/m for a column)
Beam = 1.5 kN/m
𝐴𝐼 = 4(𝐴 𝑇 ) = 4(25) = 100 𝑚2
Total Weight = 9 + 1.2 + 8.6625 + 1.5
1
𝐿 = 2.4𝑘𝑃𝑎 [0.25 + 4.57 ( )]
Total Weight = 20.3625 kN/m (Ans.) √100𝑚2

𝐿 = 1.70 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1.70
The load reduction is ( ) × 100% = 70.83% > 50% (ok!)
2.4
Take note that the reduced live load shall not be less than 50% of the unit live load The Wind Directionality Factor, 𝐾𝑑 for Buildings is 0.85.
for members receiving load from one level only, nor less than 40% of the unit live • Exposure Category (Section 207A.7)
load for other members. The Surface Roughness of an open flat terrain is C (See Section
207A.7.2). The Exposure Category of the building is C.
𝐹2 = (1.70𝑘𝑃𝑎)(25𝑚2 ) = 42.5 𝑘𝑁
• Topographic Factor, 𝐾𝑧𝑡 (Section 207A.8)
The total live load supported by the ground-floor column is The calculation design of wind loads using the factor 𝐾𝑧𝑡 is
calculate by 𝐾𝑧𝑡 = (1 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3 )2 where 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 and 𝐾3 are given in
𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹2 = 37.5 𝑘𝑁 + 42.5 𝑘𝑁 Figure 207A.8-1. If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet
𝑭𝑻 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟎 𝒌𝑵 (Ans.) all the conditions specified in Section 207A.8.1, then 𝐾𝑧𝑡 = 1.0.
• Gust-effect Factor (Section 207A.9)
The gust-effect factor for a rigid building or other structure is
1.3. The enclosed building shown in the photo permitted to be taken as 0.85.
and in the figure is used for storage • Enclosure Classification (Section 207A.10)
purposes and is located outside of For the purpose of determining internal pressure coefficients, all
University Town, Catarman, Northern buildings shall be classified as enclosed, partially enclosed or open as
Samar on open flat terrain. When the defined in Section 207A.2.
wind is directed as shown, determine • Internal Pressure Coefficient, 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 (Section 207A.11)
the design wind pressure acting on the The Internal Pressure Coefficients, 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 shall be determined from
roof and sides of the building using the Table 207A.11-1 based on building enclosure. For Enclosed Buildings the
NSCP-2015 specifications. 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 is ±0.18.
Solution: • Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, 𝐾𝑧 or 𝐾ℎ (Table 207B.3-1)
For Exposure C with a 10 m height is 1.00 (using interpolation)
To determine the design wind pressure, • Velocity Pressure, 𝑞𝑧 or 𝑞ℎ (Equation 207B.3-1)
see Section 207 of the NSCP 2015. Equation 207B.3-1, 𝑞𝑧 = 0.613𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2 ; 𝑉 in m/s
The steps to determine the wind loads 1000𝑚 1ℎ𝑟
𝑉 = 310 𝑘𝑝ℎ × × = 86.11 𝑚/𝑠
on the MWFRS for enclosed, partially enclosed and open buildings of all heights 1𝑘𝑚 3600𝑠

are provided in Table 207B.2-1. The following wind load parameters shall be 𝑞𝑧 = 0.613𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2
determined in accordance with Section 207A.
𝑞𝑧 = 0.613(1.00)(1.0)(0.85)(86.11)2
• Basic wind speed, V (Section 207A.5)
The Occupancy Category of the building is Category IV or 𝑞𝑧 = 3,863.55𝑁/𝑚2
Standard Occupancy Structures (Section 103). The Basic Wind Speed, V is
• External Pressure Coefficient, 𝐶𝑝 or 𝐶𝑁 (Figure 207B.4-1 for walls and flat,
310 kph from Figure 207A.5-1A for Northern Samar Province.
gable, hip, monoslope or mansard roofs)
• Wind directionality factor, 𝐾𝑑 (Section 207A.6)
 Roof Pressure Coefficient:
Windward: 𝑝 = 3,863.55(0.85)(−0.70) −
3,863.55(0.18) = −2,994.25 𝑁/𝑚2

Leeward: 𝑝 = 3,863.55(0.85)(−0.30) −
3,863.55(0.18) = −1,680.64 𝑁/𝑚2

Wall Pressure Coefficients, 𝑪𝒑

𝑳 𝟏𝟔
Surface = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 𝑪𝒑 Use With
𝑩 𝟏𝟓
Windward Wall All values 0.80 𝑞𝑧
Leeward Wall 1.07 -0.50 𝑞ℎ
Side Wall All values -0.70 𝑞ℎ

Roof Pressure Coefficients, 𝑪𝒑 for use with 𝒒𝒉

Wind Direction Windward Leeward
-0.70
Normal to Ridge for 𝜃 = 10° -0.30
-0.18

• Calculate wind pressure, 𝑝 on each building surface (Equation 207B.4-1 for

rigid buildings)

𝑝 = 𝑞𝐺𝐶𝑝 − 𝑞𝑖 (𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 ) (N/m2) MODULE REVIEW:

Wall pressure: 1. The floor of a heavy storage warehouse building is made of 120 mm thick
reinforced concrete. If the floors slab having a length of 10 m and width of 5 m,
Windward Wall: 𝑝 = 3,863.55(0.85)(0.80) − 3,863.55(0.18) = 1,931.775 𝑁/𝑚2 determine the resultant force caused by the dead load and live load.
Leeward Wall: 𝑝 = 3,863.55(0.85)(−0.50) − 3,863.55(0.18) = −2,337.45 𝑁/𝑚2
Side Wall: 𝑝 = 3,863.55(0.85)(−0.70) − 3,863.55(0.18) = −2,994.25 𝑁/𝑚2
2. The T-beam in Figure 1 is made from concrete having a specific weight of 150
lb/ft3. Determine the dead load per foot length of beam. Neglect the weight of
the steel reinforcement.
3. The “New Jersey” barrier (Figure 2) is commonly used during highway
construction. Determine its weight per meter length if it is made from a stone
plain concrete.
COMPUTATION EXERCISES:
4. A four-story classroom building has interior columns spaced at 8 m apart in two
perpendicular sections. If the flat-roof live loading is estimated to be 2.4 kPa, EXERCISE 1:
determine the reduced live load supported by a typical interior column located Submit a plan of a three-story building with roof deck:
at ground level. (Hint: first determine the loading at the top most area of the
building) • Architectural Plans
✓ Perspective
5. Wind blows on the side of a fully ✓ Vicinity Map
enclosed hospital located on open flat
✓ Site Development Plan
terrain in Palawan. Determine the ✓ Floor Plans
velocity pressure acting over the
✓ Elevations
windward wall which has a height of ✓ Ceiling Plans
15 m. The roof is flat.
• Structural Plans
6. A closed storage building (Figure 3) is ✓ Foundation Plan
located on Metro Manila. If the side ✓ Schedule of Footing and Columns
wall of the building is 10 m high, ✓ Floor Framing Plans
determine the external wind pressure ✓ Schedule of Slabs
acting on the building. ✓ Schedule of Beams
Criteria:
✓ Length: ≥ 15 𝑚 (both direction)
✓ Shape: Irregular shape
✓ Indicate all materials used in your building (flooring, ceiling, railings,
exterior design, walling, etc.)