READING AND WRITING SKILLS

(Handout)

A. TEXT AS A CONNECTED DISCOURSE d) Sentence Outline - more specific outline technique

Discourse - comes from the word “discursus,” in because it already states the main idea and the
medieval Latin means “argument” while in late Latin supporting ideas in full sentences
means “conversation” C. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT IN
- the way that language is used to convey WRITING ACROSS DISCIPLINES
meanings or to propel action or provoke a specific a) Narration - gives an account of an incident or
response reports a series of events leading to a conclusion or
Types of Discourse: ending
a) Argumentation - aims to persuade the audience or b) Description - provides information on what a
readers by presenting valid claims or counterclaims; person, an object, a place, or a situation is like;
appeals to logic or reason appeals to the reader’s senses
b) Description - aims to transmit that impression c) Definition - clarifies the meaning of a word or an
through concrete, colorful, and vivid language; idea in a simple and understandable language
triggers the senses of readers d) Exemplification & Classification – [exemplification]
c) Exposition - aims to inform about, clarify, and explains the main idea by giving an extended
explain a phenomenon example or a series of detailed examples;
d) Narration - recalls events chronologically and aims [classification] sorting or arrangement of subjects
to relate a series of events (e.g., persons, places, things, ideas) into groups or
e) Literary Discourse - creative works such as poetry, categories according to their common or shared
short stories, novels, plays, and even nonfiction characteristics
 Poetic Discourse - creative works like e) Comparison & Contrast – has a unifying idea or
poems, novels, short stories, and plays purpose; [comparison] illustrate how people, things,
 Expressive Discourse - found in academic places, events, situations, or even ideas are similar
journals, letters, diaries, and blogs; a to each other; [contrast] illustrate how people,
personal narrative and can also referred to things, places, events, situations, or ideas are
as creative nonfiction different from each other
 Transactional Discourse - commonly f) Cause & Effect - helps the writer explain how an
found in instructional materials, event or action leads to another
advertisements, and editorial articles; g) Problem-Solution - used to deal with topics that
encourages the reader to do something or logically pose problems and present solutions
to take action h) Process Analysis - discusses the steps taken in a
f) Academic Discourse - presents an individual’s given process
insights regarding a concept or method in a D. PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
scholarly way; includes academic journals and a) Organization – consistent development and
essays completeness of ideas in a text
B. TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING & ORGANIZING b) Coherence & Cohesion – reinforced by transitional
INFORMATION devices; [coherence] connection of ideas at the idea
a) Brainstorming – thinking of ideas based on the topic level; [cohesion] connection of ideas at the
and making a list sentence level; focuses on the “grammatical”
b) Graphic Organizer - visually organize information aspects of writing
that shows how ideas relate to one another. Logical Order of Coherence:
 Mind Map - represent knowledge of a  Chronological Order - tells what happened
concept or idea first, second, third, and so on
 Venn Diagram - show the similarities and  Spatial Order - arranged according to how
differences things fit together in a physical space
 Flow Chart - show the different steps in a  Order of Importance - arranged from the
process least important idea to the most important
 Hierarchical Topical Organizer - shows the one, or vice versa
order of ideas  Compare and Contrast - arranged
c) Topic Outline - a list of ideas arranged in a specific according to how two or more things are
order, and it shows how information is presented in similar to and different from one another
writing; it is divided into two levels: the headings  Topical Order - arranged according to
and the subheadings different subtopics within a larger topic, or
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 the “types” of things that fall within a larger o World Wide Web (www) - a global
category hypertext system of information residing
c) Language Use on servers linked across the internet
 Informal/Personal – slang, local o Uniform Resource Locator (URL) -
expressions, text messaging that is usually colloquially termed a web address, is a
used in writing for family, friends, and reference to a web resource that specifies
colleagues its location on a computer network and a
 Standard/Academic – widely accepted mechanism for retrieving it
words and phrases found in books, b) Intertext or Intertextuality - a process of text
magazines, and newspapers development that merges two more processes such
 Business/Technical – scientific terms, as imitation and creation in doing a text; has its
jargons, and special expressions roots in the work of a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
d) Mechanics Saussure (1857-1913) but the term itself was first
 Spelling used by Bulgarian-French philosopher and
 Punctuation - system of symbols used to psychoanalyst Julia Kristeva in the 1960s
give structure to a text Common Examples:
 Capitalization - writing the first letter of a  Deliberate Intertextuality – intertextuality is
word in uppercase while the rest of the the result of an author’s choice
letters of the word are in lowercase  Latent Intertextuality – when author isn’t
 Use of Boldface, Italics, and Underline - deliberately employing intertextuality
ways to emphasize words in writing Methods:
E. CLAIMS  Retelling - restatement of a story or re-
- a statement that an author discusses, explains, or expression of a narrative
proves in his/her writing  Quotation - directly lifting the exact
- often explicitly or directly stated (explained and statements or set of words from a text
justified using evidence) another author has made
- sometimes implicitly stated too (only implied in a  Allusion - a writer or speaker explicitly or
text, often made in narrative or descriptive texts) implicitly pertains to an idea or passage
Thesis – the central claim; determines and limits the found in another text without the use of
scope of the topic quotation
a) Claim of Fact - affirms or asserts that a statement is  Pastiche - copies the style or other
true or untrue properties of another text without making
b) Claim of Value - states whether the author thinks fun of it unlike in a parody
the idea is good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or G. CRITICAL READING AS REASONING
unethical, or just or unjust Critical Reading - engaging in analytic activity which
c) Claim of Policy – proposes an action that should be involves the reader by asking questions about the text
undertaken as a solution to a particular problem and the author’s claim
F. CONTEXT Reasoning - an act of giving statements for justification
a) Hypertext - a non-linear way to present information and explanation; the ability of someone to defend
and is usually accomplished using “links”; coined by something by giving out reasons
Theodore “Ted” H. Nelson in 1963 Steps Used in Critical Reading As Reasoning
Common Examples: by Maxine Rafaella C. Rodriguez and Marella Therese
 Static Hypertext – prepared, encoded, and A. Tiongson
stored in advance [ex. historical articles & 1) Identifying assertions
online encyclopedias] 2) Formulating counterclaim
 Dynamic Hypertext – changes 3) Determining evidence
continuously depending on and in H. EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS
response to user’s input [ex. blogs & social - a statement that states one's sound judgement
media platforms] about something through writing which is supported
Other Related Terms: by reasons and evidence
o Hyperlinks - typically activated by a mouse Assertion - declarative sentences that give one’s belief
click, keypress set or by touching the about something else as if it is true though it may not be;
screen expressed as an argument
o Hypermedia - forms of multimedia such as Four Types Assertion:
a) Fact - a statement that can be proven
pictures, sounds, and videos that stimulate
objectively by direct experience, testimonies of
more senses
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 witnesses, verified observations, or the results o Main Body
of research o Conclusion
b) Convention - a way in which something is done o References
similar to traditions and norms Strategies of Literature Review:
c) Opinion - based on facts but is difficult to  Summary - state briefly the argument and
objectively verify because of the uncertainty of main points of relevant research
producing satisfactory proofs of soundness  Analysis - examine closely the elements or
d) Preference - states a personal choice in which structure of the research
the writer is under no obligation to support or  Synthesis - combine ideas to form an
prove the truthfulness of the statement integrated theory or system
Counterclaims - claims made to rebut a previous claim;  Evaluation - assess the research based on
[rebut] means to contradict someone’s statement the criteria or rubric that you choose, state,
through a formal argument and explain
Four Elements of Argument: c) Research Report - a long, formal essay, usually five
a) Claim - asserts facts based on one’s to fifteen pages in length, which presents the
understanding about a particular topic or issue writer’s views and findings on a chosen subject
b) Counterclaim - opposite of claim; contradicts Components of a Research Report:
one’s claim and is usually proven and o Title
supported by both reasons and evidence o Abstract
c) Reason - offers an explanation behind a party’s o Introduction
claim
o Methodology
d) Evidence - proves the truth of a claim and
o Results
generally leads to the conclusion of an
o Discussion
argument
I. TEXTUAL EVIDENCE o References
- the details given by the author in order to support d) Project Proposal - a document that is written for
his/her claims problem solving, service provision, event planning,
Ways to Present Textual Evidence: or equipment selling. An informal proposal is about
a) Paraphrasing - restating the text in your own words, 2-4 pages long. Meanwhile, a formal proposal has 5
b) Summarizing - stating in a shorter way the text or more pages.
c) Referencing - mentioning a specific section in the Standard Parts of a Project Proposal:
text 1) Introduction
d) Quoting - directly restating a part of the text a. Rationale
J. COMPOSING ACADEMIC WRITING b. Objectives
a) Book Review - describes and evaluates a work of c. Benefits
fiction or nonfiction and offers the book’s overall 2) Project Description
purpose, structure, and style of narration to the a. Methodology
unknown readers b. Schedule
- the length of the review depends upon the c. Budget
length of the book itself, and a review should e) Position Paper - a composition that highlights an
not be less than 100 words opinion of an author or specified entity about an
- book review title should be based on your total issue
impression of a book [strong title] “A Night Owl that Supporting Evidence Used in a Position Paper:
Seldom Sleeps even during Daytime” [weak title] 1) Factual knowledge - valid and verifiable
“Five Stars” information
o describe the content of the pages 2) Statistical inferences - conclusions drawn
o analyze how the book achieved its from data gathered
3) Informed opinions - based on knowledge
purpose
of the facts and carefully considered
o express your most personal comments,
principle, and rely on evidence instead of
reactions, and suggestions
limited personal experience
b) Literature Review - a type of academic essay that
4) Personal testimony - personal or first-hand
examines what has already been written about a
experience of the writer or knowledgeable
topic; summarizes and synthesizes the conducted
party
research driven by guiding principles
Components of a Position Paper:
Components of Literature Review:
a) Introduction
o Introduction
b) Body
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 c) Conclusion company departments) and external communication
(communication between a company to another
K. COMPOSING PROFESSIONAL CORRESPONDENCE firm) to assist the flow of business processes
a) Resume - originated from the French word résumé Business Letter - traditional way of communicating
which means, “summary”; a concise document that information from one company to another or used in
highlights your education, work experiences, and external correspondence
other qualifications such as your skills and Examples of Business Letters:
strengths o sales letter
Parts of a Resume: o order letter
1) Personal Details (includes name, address, o complaint letter
contact info) o inquiry letter
2) Career Objective/Summary (goals) o adjustment letter
3) Education (all educational attainment o acknowledgement letter
starting w/ the most recent first)
o follow-up letter
4) Work Experience (uses action verbs for
o cover letter
descriptive phrases and starts w/ the most
o letter of recommendation
recent first)
5) Additional Information (optional part; could o letter of resignation
be languages, awards, achievement, Business Memorandum (memo) - a written
skills, etc.) communication strictly between the company’s
6) References (2-3 reliable people to offices to another or used in internal
endorse you; could be former professor or correspondence; has its title line and series number
employer) Parts of a Business Memorandum:
b) Application Letters 1) Heading of a Business Memo
College Admission Letter - known as the "letter of  TO (name of recipient/s)
intent"; a brief discussion of your intention to be  FROM (name of sender)
admitted in a specific course in college  DATE (complete and current
Employment Application Letter - widely known as a date)
"cover letter"; used to introduce yourself to a  SUBJECT (what the memo is
prospective employer about)
Three Letter Formats: 2) Body (has 2 parts: the purpose statement
 Block - most common layout for business and the explanation)
letter; all parts of the letter are aligned to 3) Special Notation (used to indicate specific
the left thing to the reader like attachment or
 Modified Block - the heading, date, enclosure)
complimentary close, and signature are Business E-mail - an office correspondence that
placed slightly to the right of the center of can either be internal or external; no required
the paper format in writing e-mail correspondence, but it is
 Semi-block - similar with modified block expected that the writer maintains a professional
except that the paragraphs of the body are tone
indented Parts of a Business E-mail:
Parts of an Application Letter: 1) Header
1) Heading (sender’s mailing address)  From (contains name and email
2) Date (date when the letter is written) of sender)
3) Inside Address (receiver’s name, job title,  To (contains name and email of
and address) recipient)
4) Salutation (usually begins w/ “dear” and  Cc (means carbon copy or
uses colon at the end) courtesy copy to be sent to other
5) Body (consists of opening, middle, and email address)
closing paragraphs)  Bcc (means blind carbon copy
6) Complimentary Close (polite way of because the other recipients
ending a letter; ends with a comma) won’t be able to see that
7) Signature (signature over printed name) someone else has been sent a
c) Various Forms of Office Correspondence copy of the email)
Office/Business Correspondence - a written 2) Salutation
interchange of internal (communication between 3) Body

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4) Complimentary Close
5) Signature

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