Lec 8-10

Conduction:
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid or between solids in direct contact. It occurs due to
molecular interactions within the material. The governing equation for conduction is Fourier's law of
heat conduction, which relates the heat flux (q) to the temperature gradient (dT/dx) and the thermal
conductivity (k) of the material:
dT
q = -k A
dx
q: Heat flux (rate of heat transfer per unit area) [W/m²] k: Thermal conductivity of the material
[W/(m·K)] dT/dx: Temperature gradient (change in temperature per unit distance) [K/m]
Convection:
Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). It involves
the combined effects of conduction (within the fluid) and fluid motion (advection). The
governing equation for convective heat transfer is the convective heat transfer equation, which
relates the heat transfer rate (Q) to the convective heat transfer coefficient (h), the surface area
(A), and the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid (ΔT):
Q = h * A * ΔT
where: Q: Heat transfer rate [W] h: Convective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m²·K)] A: Surface
area through which heat is transferred [m²] ΔT: Temperature difference between the solid
surface and the fluid [K]
Radiation:
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as infrared radiation. It
does not require a medium and can occur even in vacuum. The governing equation for radiation
heat transfer is the Stefan-Boltzmann law, which relates the heat transfer rate (Q) to the
emissivity (ε), the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ), and the absolute temperatures of the two
bodies (T₁ and T₂):
Q = ε * σ * A * (T₁⁴ - T₂⁴)
where: Q: Heat transfer rate [W] ε: Emissivity (a dimensionless property of the surface) σ:
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10^-8 W/(m²·K⁴)) A: Surface area through which radiation
occurs [m²] T₁, T₂: Absolute temperatures of the two bodies [K]
The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the heat transfer rate is proportional to the fourth power
of the temperature difference between the bodies.
North Pole as Radiation Block
Radiation at the North Pole is two to four times higher than at the equator. Furthermore,
radiation also increases sharply at higher altitudes. Every time flight attendants fly on the North
Pole route; they are exposed to as much radiation (0.1mSv) as if they were getting their chest X-
rayed.
Law of Thermal Expansion:
The law of thermal expansion states that when a material is heated, it undergoes an
increase in size or volume. This expansion occurs in all three dimensions: length, width,
and height.
The governing equation for linear expansion is given by:
ΔL = αL₀ΔT
Where:
 ΔL is the change in length of the material.
 α (alpha) is the coefficient of linear expansion, which is a material-specific constant.
 L₀ is the initial length of the material.
 ΔT is the change in temperature.
Similarly, the volumetric expansion is given by:
ΔV = βV₀ΔT
Where:
 ΔV is the change in volume of the material.

 β (beta) is the coefficient of volumetric expansion, also a material-specific constant.
 V₀ is the initial volume of the material.
 ΔT is the change in temperature.
The coefficient of volumetric expansion, β, represents the change in volume per unit change
in temperature.
Law of Thermal Contraction:
The law of thermal contraction states that when a material is cooled, it undergoes a
decrease in size or volume.
The governing equations for linear contraction and volumetric contraction are like those of
thermal expansion, but the coefficients of contraction have negative values.
Linear contraction equation:
ΔL = -αL₀ΔT
Volumetric contraction equation:
ΔV = -βV₀ΔT
In these equations, the negative sign indicates the decrease in size or volume due to cooling
Stress applied first we get strain. - same can be done if it is reversed – example (if we heat
something)
Heat – expansion happened then strain is produced then due to it stress is produced …… this
is Thermal stress.
Thermal Stress:
Thermal stress refers to the stress that occurs in a material due to non-restricted thermal
expansion or contraction. When a material is subjected to a change in temperature, its
dimensions change, leading to internal stresses. These stresses are a result of the material's
resistance to thermal expansion or contraction.
σ = αEΔT
Where:
σ represents thermal stress.
α (alpha) is the coefficient of thermal expansion, a material-specific constant.
E is the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus of the material.
ΔT is the change in temperature.
Thermo-Mechanical Stress:
Thermo-mechanical stress combines the effects of both thermal stress and mechanical
stress. The governing equation depends on the specific loading conditions and the behavior
of the material. One common approach is to consider the superposition of thermal stress
and mechanical stress.
If a material is subjected to both thermal stress and mechanical stress simultaneously, the
total stress is given by:
σ_total = σ_thermal + σ_mechanical
Where:
σ_total represents the total stress experienced by the material.
σ_thermal is the thermal stress estimated using the thermal stress equation.
σ_mechanical is the mechanical stress resulting from the external mechanical loading.
In mechanical analysis physical Constraints in which they are restricted to move are boundary
conditions
For thermal analysis temperature is considered as the Boundary conditions. – Heat transfer
phenomena – Non-Linear phenomena.
Fan analysis and we take fan outside where temperature is 40-degree Celsius increase in
temperature will cause expansion which is change in length divide it by original l give strain
from which thermal stress can be found.
Examples of thermo mechanical system in real life
Internal Combustion Engines:
Internal combustion engines, such as those found in automobiles, motorcycles, and aircraft, are prime
examples of thermo-mechanical systems. These engines experience high-temperature combustion
processes along with mechanical forces generated by pistons, connecting rods, and crankshafts. The
temperature changes due to combustion and the mechanical loading from the reciprocating and rotating
components create complex thermo-mechanical stresses within the engine.
Gas Turbines:
Gas turbines are used in power generation, aviation, and industrial applications. They consist of a
compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. The combustion process generates high temperatures,
while the turbine experiences mechanical forces due to the gas flow and rotor rotation. The interaction
of thermal stress from temperature gradients and mechanical stress from the turbine's operation is a
critical aspect of gas turbine design and operation.
Steam Power Plants:
Steam power plants, such as those used for electricity generation, involve the conversion of heat energy
into mechanical work. Water is heated to generate steam, which drives a turbine. The temperature
changes in the steam and the mechanical loading on the turbine blades result in thermo-mechanical
stresses. Proper design and understanding of these stresses are essential for the efficient and safe
operation of steam power plants.
Metal Casting and Welding:
In metal casting and welding processes, materials are subjected to intense localized heating and
subsequent cooling. The temperature gradients and rapid heating and cooling rates induce thermal
stress in the materials. When combined with the mechanical loading from shaping and joining processes,
such as casting or welding, the thermo-mechanical stresses can affect the structural integrity and
dimensional stability of the final product.
Aerospace Structures:
Aerospace structures, such as aircraft wings, fuselages, and rocket components, experience a wide range
of temperature variations during operation. The combination of temperature changes and mechanical
loading from aerodynamic forces, vibrations, and structural loads results in complex thermo-mechanical
behavior. Understanding and managing these stresses are critical for ensuring the structural safety,
performance, and durability of aerospace systems.

Lec 8-10

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lec 8-10

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lec 8-10

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conduction:

 ΔV is the change in volume of the material.

Steam Power Plants:

Metal Casting and Welding:

You might also like