Heat Transfer(Introduction)

Chapter one:. Introduction

1.1 Introduction :.

From the study of thermodynamics, we learned that energy can be

transferred by interactions of a system with its surroundings. These
interactions are called work and heat. However, thermodynamics deals
with the end states of the processes during which an interaction occurs
and provides no information concerning the nature of the interaction or
the time rate at which it occur. The objective of the study is to extend
thermodynamics analysis through study of the modes of heat transfer
rates.

Definition:

Heat:. Is the energy transit as a result of the temperature difference.

Heat transfer:. Is that science which seeks to predict the energy transfer
that may take place between material bodes as a result of a temperature
difference.
Thermodynamics :. Is the state science of energy, thermodynamics can
be able to determination of heat and work requirements for chemical and
physical process and the equilibrium conditions.
Thermodynamics is the study of energy and the ways in which it can
be used to improve the lives of people around the word.

The Thermodynamics Equilibrium:.

In thermodynamics, the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when it
is in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and
chemical equilibrium. Equilibrium means a state of balance. In a state of

thermodynamic equilibrium, there are no net flows of matter or of energy,

no phase changes, and no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces), within

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

the system. A system that is in thermodynamic equilibrium experiences

no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.

The various types of equilibriums are achieved as follows:

 Two systems are in thermal equilibrium when their
temperatures are the same.
 Two systems are in mechanical equilibrium when their
pressures are the same.
 Two systems are in diffusive equilibrium when their
chemical potentials are the same.
 All forces are balanced.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics:.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics
that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most
systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because
they are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are
continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to
and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium
systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by
equilibrium thermodynamics.
-The Energy Balance:.
In this special case the control surface includes no volume and appears as
shown in figure. The generation and storage terms of the energy
expression,

Ein – Eout – Est + Eg = 0

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

Consequently, there can be no generation and storage. The

conservation requirement then becomes
Ein – Eout = 0

1.2 Modes of heat transfer:.

1. Heat conduction, also called diffusion:.

Is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles
through the boundary between two systems. When an object is at a
different temperature from another body or its surroundings, heat flows
so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at
which point they are in thermal equilibrium. Such
spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high
temperature to another region of lower temperature, as described by the
second law of thermodynamics.

Conduction is can be defined as the transfer of heating energy from the

more heated to the less heated particles of a substance due to interactions
between the particles.

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

When a solid body as

show in the figure, exposed
to a heat source on one side.
Then the side temperature
increases to (T1). And if the
other side temperature
remain in a heating level of
(T2). Then the heat will
transfers through the body
in the direction of
temperature change.
The heat transfer rate (q) is directly proportional to the surface area,
which is normal to the direction of heat flow, directly proportional to
temperature difference (T1 – T2) and inversely proportional to wall

thickness ∆x. therefore q α

this equation is called Fourier’s 𝒅𝑻

q =- k A
law of heat conduction 𝒅𝒙

The minus sign is necessary because heat always transferred in the

direction of decreasing temperature. Also the partial derivative sign
denoted that the temperature is not a function of (x) only.
Where: q = the heat transfer rate (watt,But/hr).
k = thermal conductivity of the material(w/m.oC,
w/m.oK , Btu/hr.ft.oF).
A = area of the wall normal to heat flow (m2, ft2).
dT = the temperature difference( )(oC ,oK, oF).
dx = (L) the wall thickness(m,ft).

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

thermal conductivity (k):the thermal conductivity of a material is a

measure of the abitity of the material to conduct heat.
Thermal resistance(Rk) : the quantity (L/kA) is equivalent to a thermal
resistance Rk (K/W) which is equal to the reciprocal of the
conductance, as:

Rc = , q=

2. Heat convection :.
Whenever a solid body is exposed to a moving fluid having a
Temperature different from that of
the body, energy is carried or
convected from or to the body by
the fluid if the upstream
temperature of the fluid is T∞, and
the surface temperature of the solid

is Ts the heat transfer per unit time is given Newton Law of cooling:

q = hA (Ts - T∞ )

where h is convective heat transfer coefficient ( W/m 2. oK )as the

constant of proportionality relating the heat transfer per unit time and
area to the overall temperature difference. It is important to keep in
mind that the fundamental energy exchange at a solid-fluid boundary
is by conduction, and that this energy is then converted away by the
fluid flow.
The thermal resistance to convection heat transfer Rc, as:

Rc = , q=

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

3. Heat radiation :.
The final major form of heat transfer is by radiation, which occurs
in any transparent medium
( solid or fluid) but may also
even occur across vacuum
( as when the Sun heats the
Earth).
Radiation is the transfer of
energy through space by
means of electromagnetic waves in much the same way as
electromagnetic light waves transfer light.
The same laws that govern the transfer of light govern the radiant
transfer of heat.
Experimental evidence indicates that radiant heat transfer is proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature, where as conduction and
convection are proportional to a linear fundamental difference. The
fundamental Stefan- Boltizmann law is :
q = σ ε A T4

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

where T is absolute temperature, σ is Boltzmann constant

independent of surface, medium, and temperature, σ is 5.6697 × 10-8
W/m2.K4.
The thermal emission from many surfaces can be well represented by:
q=σεA( - )

where ε, the emissivity of the surface, range ( 0 – 1). Ts and Tsur the
temperature of surface and surroundings respectively. Similarly, the
thermal resistance to radiation heat transfer Rr, as:

Rr = , q=

Example 1:. Find heat transfer rate (q). given T1= 1400K , T2= 1150K ,

A= 1.5m2 ,∆x = 0.15m , k =1.7 .

Solution:.

q =- k A

q =- 1.7 * 1.5 * = 4249.5W

Example 2:. Determine the steady state rate of heat transfer per unit area
through a 4.0cm think homogeneous slab with its two faces maintained at
uniform temperatures of 38oC and 21oC . the thermal conductivity of the
material is 0.19 W/m.K.

Solution:.

The rate of heat transfer per unit area = =- k

= - 0.19 = 80.75 W/m2

Example 3 :.Air at 20 oC blow over a hot plate 50 by 75 cm maintained at
250 oC. h = 25 W/m2. oC. Calculate heat transfer.
Solution:

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

q = hA (Ts - T∞ )

q = (25)(0.5*0.75)[(250- 20 )]

= 2156 W

Example 4 :. After sunset, radiant energy can be sensed by a person

standing near a brick wall. Such walls frequently have surface
temperature around 44 oC, and typical brick emissivity values are on the
order of 0.92. what would be the radiant thermal flux per square meter
from a brick wall at this temperature?

Solution:. Note that absolute temperature must be used in all radiant

calculations. q = σ ε A T4

q /A = (0.92)(5.6697 *10-8)(44+273)4 = 527 W/m2

H.W.:.

1. A plane wall 0.15m thick, of a homogeneous material with k = 0.4

W/m.K, has steady and uniform temperature T1= 20 oC and T2 = 70 oC.
determine the heat transfer rate per square meter of surface area.

Ans: 133W/m2

2. forced air flows over a convective heat exchanger in a room heater,

resulting in a convective heat transfer coefficient h = 200 Btu/h.ft2.oF.The
surface temperature of the heat exchanger may be considered constant
150 oF, and the air is at 65 oF. determine the heat exchanger surface area
required for 30000 Btu/h of heating. Ans: 1.765 ft2

3. Asphalt pavements on hot summer days exhibit surface temperatures of

approximately 50 oC. consider surface such a surface to emit as a
blackbody (ε = 1) and calculate the emitted radiant energy per unit
surface area. Ans: 617 W/m2

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

1.3 analogy between heat condition and electric aystem:.

If an electric resistance (R) has a voltage difference (V) impressed

across it, an electric current (I) will flow through the resistor. As show
below.

I= …..(1)

This electric example analogy to the case of heat flow through a

wall. The following comparisons can be made. The temperature
difference across the wall represents the potential difference or diriving
force (|∆T|).

q= …..(2)

Compare equation (1) and equation (2) , since (I) is in analogy with

(q), and (V) is in analogy with (∆T). therefore ( R ) is in analogy with

( heat conduction system )

The term can be named as thermal resistance. i.e;

q= , where Rth is thermal resistance.

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

- Composite walls:.
As shown in the figure. There are three walls in series with each
Other, a situation which
is similar to an electrical
circuit consisting of
three series resistors and
a battery across them.

The total resistance through the composite wall is given by:.

∑ =R1+ R 2 + R3 = + +

And gives a total heat flow,q,of

q= =
∑

Note 1 :. We can rewrite the heat transfer equation:

q = U A ∆T

Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient

U=

Note 2: Noting that the heat flow across the first wall is equal to
that across the second and third. In mathematical representation:

q= = =

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

-Also there are many other different connect of thermal resistors. For
example the composite wall showed below. The thermal resistors circuit
will be:

The overall resistance is :

∑ = R1+[ + ]-1 + R4
- Thermal convection resistance:.
The thermal resistance for convection must be equal to

And when the case is a combination of conduction and convection

as shown in the figure below, the electrical analogy will be:

The resulting expression for the heat

flow,q,is

q=

- The general case of a combination of conduction and convection

as shown in the figure below.

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

And the thermal resistance circuit is:

And
q = , ∑ = + + +
∑

Example 5: A laboratory furnace wall is constructed of 0.2m thick

fireclay with having ka = 1 W/m.K. this is covered on the outer surface
with a 0.03m thick layer of insulating material having kb = 0.07 W/m.K.
the furnace inner brick surface is at 1250K and the outer surface of the
insulation material is a 310K. Calculate the steady state heat transfer rate
through the wall in W/m2, and determine the interfacial temperature T2
between the brick and the insulation.
Solution:
To find the heat transfer rate:
= =

= 1495 W/m2
To find the interfacial temperature:
= T2 = T1 - ( )

T2 = 1250 - 1495 ( ) = 951 K

Example 6: A composite protective wall is formed of a 1 in. copper plate,
a 1/8 in. layer of asbestos, and a 2 in. layer of fiberglass. The thermal
conductivities of the materials in units of Btu/hr.ft.oF are as follows:kCu =
240, kasb = 0.048 , kfib = 0.022. the overall temperature difference across
the wall is 500oF. calculate the thermal resistance of each layer of the
wall and the heat transfer rate per unit area(heat flux) through the
composite structure.
Solution:

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

Example 7 : two large aluminum plates (k = 240 W/m.K), each 1 cm

thick, with 10μm surface roughness the contact resistance Ri = 2.75× 10-4
m2 K/W. The temperatures at the outer surfaces are 395oC and 405 oC.
Calculate the heat flux.
Solution: the rate of heat flow per unit area , q , through the sandwich
wall is
= =

= 2.79 × 104 W/m2.

Example 8 : A 0.1m thick brick wall(k = 0.7 W/m.K) is exposed to a cold
wind at 270K through a convection heat transfer coefficient of 40 W/m2.
K. on the other side is air at 330K, with a natural convection heat transfer
coefficient of 10 W/m2. Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
Solution : - the three resistances.
- The rate of heat transfer per unit area is :
=

= 223.9 W/m2

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

Example 9 :consider a 0.8m high and 1.5m wide double pane window
consisting of two 4mm thick layers of glass (k = 0.78 W/m. oC) separated
by a 10mm wide stagnant air space (k = 0.026 W/m.oC).
Determine the steady rate of
heat transfer through this
double- pane window and the
temperature of its inner
surface for a day during which
the room is maintained at
20oC while the temperature of
the outdoors is -10oC. take the
convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and
outer surface of the window to
be h1 = 10 W/m2.oC and h2 =
40 W/m2.oC, which includes
the effects of radiation.
Solution: the area of the window is A = 0.8 × 1.5 = 1.2 m2

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

Example 10: a 3m high and 5m wide wall consists of long 16cm×22cm

cross section horizontal bricks (k =
0.72 W/m.oC) separated by 3cm
thick plaster layers (k = 0.22 W/m
.oC ). There are also 2 cm thick
plaster layers on each side of the
brick and a 3cm thick rigid foam(k
= 0.026 W/m.oC) on the inner side
of the wall,as shown in figure. The
indoor and the outdoor
temperatures are 20 C and -10 oC,
o

respectively, and the convection

heat transfer coefficients on the
inner and the outer sides are h1 = 10
W/m2.oC and h2 = 25
2o
W/m . C,respectively. Assuming
one dimensional heat transfer and
disregarding radiation, determine
the rate transfer through the wall.

Solution: the individual resistances are evaluated as:

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

H.W.2:.
1. A wall of a furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120mm
thick covered with a layer of magnesite brick 240mm thick. The
temperatures at the inside surface of silica brick wall and outside surface
of magnesite brick wall are 725 oC and 110 oC respectively. The contact
thermal resistance between the two walls at the interface is 0.0035 oC/W
per unit area. If thermal conductivities of silica and magnesite bricks are
1.7W/m. oC and 5.8W/m. oC . calculate.
a. the rate of heat lass per unit area of walls. Ans: 5324.67 W/m2
b. the temperature drop at the interface. Ans: 18.81 oC

2. A furnce wall consists of 200mm layer of refractory bricks,6mm layer

of steel plate and a 100mm layer of insulation bricks. The maximum
temperature of the wall is 1150 oC on the furnace side and the minimum
temperature is 40 oC on the outermost side of the wall. An accurate
energy balance over the furnace shows that the heat loss from the wall is
400 W/m2 . It is known that there is a thin layer of air between the layers
of refractory bricks and steel plate. Thermal conductivities for the three
layers are 1.52 , 45 , 0.138 W/m. oC , respectively .Find :
a.To how many millimeters of insulation brick is the air layer equivalent?
Ans: 266.5mm
b. What is the temperature of the outer surface of the steel plate?
Ans: 329.8 oC

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Heat Transfer(Introduction)

3.Find the heat flow through the composite wall as shown in figure.
Assume on dimensional flow.
kA = 150 W/m. oC
kB = 30 W/m. oC
kC = 65 W/m. oC
kD = 50 W/m. oC

Ans: 1273.4 W

4.An electric hot plate is maintained at a temperature of 350 oC, and is

used to keep a solution boiling at 95 oC. the solution is contained in a
cast-iron vessel of wall thickness 25mm, which is enameled inside to a
thickness of 0.8mm. the heat transfer coefficient for the boiling solution
is 5.5 KW/m2. K, and the thermal conductivities of the cast iron and
enamed are 50 and 1.05 W/m.K. respectivity.calcalute:
a. the overall heat transfer coefficient. Ans: 692.5 W/m2 .K
b. the rate of heat transfer per unit area. Ans: 176.6 KW/m2

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