UCSP Reading Materials

3rd Quarter

CULTURAL VARIATION, SOCIAL DIFFERENCE AND POLITICAL IDENTITY

Cultural variation refers to the rich diversity in social practices that

different cultures exhibit around the world. Cuisine and art all change from one
culture to the next, but so do gender roles, economic systems, and social hierarchy
among any number of other humanly organized behaviors. Cultural variation can
be studied across cultures.

People specifically students are not the same and alike. Their socio-
economic status, backgrounds, political beliefs cultural behaviors. Just like the
saying goes “Different strokes different folks”

Across the globe societies are different in forms and varies, this is because of
culture. Cultural Variation also refers to the differences in social behaviors that
different cultures exhibited around the world. And with the current New Normal,
another variation is on the horizon.

As a result of interacting by culture in both progressive and aggressive is

due to the evolution of those cultures being uninfluenced by one another. What
may be considered good etiquette in one culture may be considered an offensive
gesture in another. As this occurs constantly, cultures push each other to change.
The variations between humans are summarized in the ideas of natural selection
and evolution. Human variation is based on the principle that there is variation in
traits
which is resulted by recombination of genes from sexual reproduction. These traits
are changeable and can be passed down generation to generation. It also relies on
differential reproduction, the idea that the environment can't support unlimited
population growth is because of the reason that not all individuals get to reproduce
to their full potential.

Table 1. primarily shows the examples of kinds of cultural variation (namely

ethnicity, religion and nationality) and its definitions

Table 1 : CULTURAL VARIATION

KINDS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Ethnicity it is the expression of the set Ilocano
of cultural ideas held by Mangyan
indigenous people Maranao
Religion Is a system of beliefs and Christians
practices as well as system Moslems
of actions directed toward Hindus
entities which are above men
Nationality It is the legal relationship Filipinos
that binds a person and a Malaysians
country Indonesians

On the other hand, social difference is a situation where people felt discriminated
and there are also individuals on the basis of social characteristics and qualities. Social
difference can create discrimination among individuals. For example, if in a society individual
with a high status are given more respects and importance as compared to the poor or
homeless people. Thus, social differences can create a lot of problems in society because
discrimination and prejudices always result in inequality inferiority complex and others.

In Table 2, you can also determine the kinds of social differences. These differences
include those associated with gender, sexual orientation, age, social class, religion, and
ability. To give one example, social class continues to persist as a significant difference within
and between communities in a world where poverty shows few signs of disappearing.

Table 2: SOCIAL DIFFERENCE

KINDS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Gender it is the socially constructed Lesbian
characteristics of being male Bisexua
or female l
Gay
Socio- It refers to the category of High-income Class
Economi persons who have more or Middle-income Class
c Classes less the same socio- Low-income class
economic privilege
Exceptionality It refers to the state of being Personality
intellectually gifted and /or Communicatio
n
 having physically or mentally Intellect
challenge Physical Appearance

Lastly, political identity is always associated with group affiliation and

describes the ways in which being a member of a certain group might express
specific political opinions and attitude. Like cultural variation and social difference,
Various factors constitute identity, it may include race, nationality where people
live and a person’s gender, sexuality, religion and socio- economic class.
Political identity as shown in Table 3 is about having political affiliations,
political benefits and loyalty as well.
Table 3: POLITICAL IDENTITY
KINDS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Political Party benefit from partisan, seeks Liberal & Nacionalista
to cultural partisan loyalty
including dynasties among
their member
partisan signifies membership in a
affiliation group that defines a world PRO
view and a core set of and ANTI
common values
Political One who remains loyal DDS. Marcos loyalist,
loyalist especially to a political dilawan
cause

ETHNOCENTRISM AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to use one’s own cultural standards and
values to judge the behavior and beliefs of people with different cultures. It is a
cultural universal. That is, people everywhere think that familiar explanations,
opinions and customs are true, right, proper, and moral.

The term ethnocentrism was coined by William Graham Sumner. He defined

it as the view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all
others are scaled and rated with reference to it. Each group nourishes its own pride
and vanity, boasts itself superior, exalts its own divinities, and looks with contempt
on outsiders. Each group thinks its own folkways the only right ones, and if it
observes that other groups have other folkways, these excite its scorn.

People who are ethnocentric believe their cultural beliefs are morally correct
and others are morally questionable. Thus, if the beliefs, customs and values of other culture differ from
theirs, they find that culture bizarre, barbaric and even savage.
For example, a westerner who uses spoons, fork and knife when eating will find
other people who eat with their hands weird and silly.
Ethnocentrism is a universal attitude. Every society views itself as a center
surrounded by a boundary beyond which mankind is less accomplished than
inside. Therefore, it is a natural tendency for each of us to believe that our cultural
beliefs are the best. However, this prevents us from becoming culturally competent
and responsive to others who share differing cultural beliefs, traditions, practices,
and affiliations.
Ethnocentrism has both positive and negative implications. On the positive,
ethnocentrism is a mechanism to preserve culture. It promotes people’s pride and
encourages solidarity among individuals in order to defend their group against
external aggression. It is ethnocentrism that gives people their sense of
peoplehood, group identity, and place in history. On the negative side, too much
emphasis on its superiority over other culture may result to violence, oppression,
prejudice, discrimination and stagnation.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, the view that the behavior in one
culture should not be judged by the standards of another. For cultural relativist, the values,
knowledge, and behavior of people must be understood within their own cultural context.

Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices
should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than be judged
against the criteria of another.
It was established as axiomatic in anthropological research by Franz Boas in
the first few decades of the 20th century and later popularized by his students.
Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: "civilization is not something absolute, but
is relative, and our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization
goes

The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not
typically part of one’s own culture. Using the perspective of cultural relativism
leads to the view that no one culture is superior than another culture when
compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc. [11] It is a concept that cultural
norms and values derive their meaning within a specific social context.
This is also based on the idea that there is no absolute standard of good or evil, therefore
every decision and judgment of what is right and wrong is individually
decided in each society. The concept of cultural relativism also means that any
opinion on ethics is subject to the perspective of each person within their particular
culture.
In addition, culture can also demonstrate the way a group thinks, their
practices, or behavioral patterns, or their views of the world.
The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not
typically part of one's own culture. Using the perspective of cultural
relativism leads to the view that no one culture is superior than
another culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc.
Overall, there is no right or wrong ethical system. In a holistic
understanding of the term cultural relativism, it tries to promote the understanding
of cultural practices that are unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating insects,
genocides or genital cutting.
Some important points about Cultural Relativism are:
1. Cultural Relativism does not mean anything a culture or group of
people believe is true.
A good example of this is flat earthers. Just because someone believes this
to be true, doesn’t make it so. We have endless evidence against their
claims. However, if you wanted to understand how the flat earthers came
to believe this point, you would temporarily put aside your own views and
evidence for a moment and try to examine their claim from their point of
view. This can also be valuable in debunking some of their claims in the
long term. By learning to speak their ‘language’ we can open lines of
communication that are more productive, and hopefully get them out of
their insane beliefs.
2. Cultural Relativism does not mean that anything a culture does is
good or moral.
This is one of the ones that confuses people. Some people might claim that
we can never understand something because it’s ‘cultural’. Not so. There
are certain beliefs and practices that are objectively harmful. But this is
where someone, who has never studied anthropology might not
understand that kinship/marriage patterns don’t actually contain any real
morality outside of culture.
For example, there is nothing objectively wrong with a woman practicing
polyandry (she has several husbands), such as is practiced in some parts
 of the Himalayas. It teaches us that, marriage patterns are cultural
options, not objective truth. We can also examine the history of our own
3. Cultural Relativism doesn’t mean that cultures can’t be compared.
There is sometimes a strange notion that there are no commonalities
between cultures. It is true that there are very few universals across all
human experience, but there are definitely some core things that
humans all do, most of which relate to survival and continuity. But
even in practices that are entirely different, we can find comparison as
a useful tool for understanding ideas and points of view. But again,
cultural relativism is about putting aside our preconceptions and having
an experience that is less tainted by our past knowledge and experience.
This is especially powerful and useful when problem solving in other
cultures or even our own.
In addition, cultural relativism is important to anthropology and one of
the things that makes anthropology unique because it is a tool, a method for
attempting to see things from a multiplicity of viewpoints so as to better
understand them. This is one of the reasons why those trained in cultural
anthropology are often great problem solvers for complex issues. We are able to
put ourselves aside for a moment and explore something that would make
most people uncomfortable.
To embrace cultural relativism is to understand that aspects of cultures
change or are actively maintained relative to subjective, intersecting factors that
create cultural realities.
To embrace cultural relativism is to not judge others by one’s own cultural
contexts. For example, some cultures eat foods I might deem disgusting but
availability of certain kinds of food, religion, and history all help determine what is
taboo and what is not.

Ethnocentrism when people find cultural practices and values not their own
as disturbing and threatening, that can be regarded as ethnocentrism. A literal
meaning of ethnocentrism is the regard that one’s own culture and society is the
center of everything and therefore far more superior than others (Kottak 2012: 39;
Eriksen 2001:7). It is understandable that people laud and hold importance to the
cultural values that were taught them by their parents, elders, and other
institutions
of their society.

Anthropological Concepts

So interestingly society is the first concept. Society is a human

created organization or system of interrelationships that connects
individuals in a common culture. All the products of human interaction, the
experience of living with others around us. Humans create their
interactions and once created the products of those interactions have the
ability or power to act back upon humans to determine or constrain action.
Often, we experience society (humanly created the organization as
something apart from the individuals and interactions that create it.
Three Components of Society

1. Language- Language- it is a system of verbal symbols through

which humans communicate ideas, feelings, experiences. Through
language these can be accumulated and transmitted across
generations. Language is not only a tool, or a means of
expression, but it also structures and shapes our experiences of
the world and what we see around us. Filipino are very creative in
inventing a different term for different things for example tatay is
usual called erpat while nanay is called ermat. Likewise, we can
say language is continually evolving throughout a progressing
society.

2. Values come in a second in the components of society. It is set of

ideas people share about what is good, bad, desirable,
undesirable. These are usually very general, abstract, cut across
variations in situations. Take the example of Filipino Hospitality
according to other foreigners or tourist visiting our country, in one
commercial a tourist was called “anak” by a local villager and
eagerly asked another local villager the meaning and was
astonished to hear the translation “my son.”

3. Norms are behavioral rules or standards for social interaction.

These often derive from values but also contradict values, and
serve as both guides and criticisms for individual behavior. Norms
establish expectations that shape interaction. Some of the norms
that Filipinos practice are; showing respect when talking with
elders using po at opo, pagmamano, by placing the hand of the
elder into your forehead. There are also negative norms that are
being practice like spiting on the ground, calling someone you
don’t know “hoy.”

The second of the concept is culture. We may define culture as

sets of traditions, rules, symbols that shape and are enacted as feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors of groups of people. Referring primarily to learned
behavior as distinct from that which is given by nature or biology, culture
has been used to designate everything that is humanly produced
(habits, beliefs, arts, and artifacts) and passed from one generation to
another. In this formulation, culture is distinguished from nature and
distinguishes one society from another. Here are some quotes defining
culture “Culture. Those patterns of meaning that any group or society
uses to interpret and evaluate itself and its situation.” Bella et. al.
Habits of the Heart 1985:333.
 “Culture. A system of durably acquired schemes of perception,
thought and action, engendered by objective conditions but tending to
persist even after an alteration of those conditions.” Bourdieu, The
Inheritors. 1979.

I guess you were asking what is the relationship between culture and society?

Culture is based off of historical precedence while society is an

agreement on how each member should behave. Society is the overall
bigger picture while culture is part of society. Culture changing
constantly remember during the 80’s up to the 90’s the word tatay
became a slang as in erpat while nanay is ermat. Can you tell how are
father and mother are called today? Like in the early part of our
discussion we mentioned that being a Filipino is really a unique
experience let us know why. What makes the Filipino culture stands
out. Let us enumerate!

Filipinos are very resilient. In times of calamities and

catastrophes, Filipinos always manage to rise above the challenge.
Instead of wallowing, they manage to pick themselves up and smile.

Filipinos take pride in their families. In our country, It’s family

first. So, whether you are of the immediate family or you belong to the
third or fourth generation, you are treated as a family member.
Sometimes, even the closest of friends are considered family too.

Filipinos are very religious. In all corners of a Filipino house, you

can find brazen images of crosses and other religious paraphernalia.
They go to church every Sunday, or sometimes even twice or three times
a week.

Filipinos are very respectful. From the moment they are born into
this world, they are already taught how to be respectful by using these
simple catchphrases-po and opo, words that end sentences when
addressing elders.

Filipinos helps one another. More popularly known as

bayanihan, Filipinos help one another-without expecting anything in
return-so that their tasks and responsibilities become much easier. It is
sometimes called, “community spirit.”

These are just some of the uniqueness of the Filipino culture. Our
culture speaks of our colorful history from the time of our ancestors and
conquerors: the Spaniards, the Americans. We have also enumerated
the concept of Anthropology namely society and culture itself.
 As mentioned, what makes the Filipino culture stand out? It is not
only from being respectful with our elderly people nor being resilient in
times of calamities. Filipinos stands out because of our care as a
human being.

Remember society and culture are interrelated and form part of

our vast history as Filipinos. And under Anthropology as a concept, it
explains that the origin of culture diversity is through mankind hence
the concentration a human perspective throughout society.

CULTURE AND SOCIETY AS SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Sociological Approaches to the Study of Society Sociologists use three theoretical

approaches: the structural-functional approach, the social-conflict approach, and the
symbolic-interaction approach. A theoretical approach is a basic image of society that
guides thinking and research (Macionis 2012: 12)

Structural-Functional Approach Structural-functionalists view

society as a “complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability” (Macionis 2012: 12). It involves an analysis of
social structure, “any relatively stable pattern of social behavior.
 Social structure gives our lives shape—in families, the
workplace, the classroom, the community.” The approach seeks to
identify a structure’s social functions or “the consequences of any social
pattern for the operation of society as a whole” (Ibid). It is an approach
that is influenced by the ideas of Auguste Comte (1798–1857) who
coined the term sociology in 1838, and Emile Durkheim (1858- 1917).
Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) also made significant contributions by
distinguishing between “manifest functions, the recognized and intended
consequences of any social pattern, and latent functions, the
unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern. He
also recognized social dysfunction, any social pattern that may disrupt
the operation of society” (Macionis 2012:13).
Social-Conflict Approach The social-conflict approach sees
society as an “arena of inequality that generates conflict and change”
(Macionis 2012: 13). It therefore highlights inequality and change. In
contrast to the structural-functionalist approach, it does not see the
social structure as promoting the smooth operation of society. Instead, it
focuses on how social patterns benefit the dominant groups in society.
Typically, “people on top try to protect their privileges while the
disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves” (Ibid).

Symbolic-Interaction Approach The symbolic-interaction

approach views sees society as the “product of the everyday interactions
of individuals” (Macionis 2012: 16). Human beings live in a world of
symbols. In the process of social interaction, they attach meaning to
everything. Macro and micro levels of analysis It should be noted that
the Structural-Functional and Social-Conflict Approaches have a macro-
level orientation, or a broad focus on social structures that shape society
as a whole. In contrast, the Symbolic-Interaction Approach uses a
micro-level orientation, a close-up focus on social interaction in specific
situations (Macionis 2012: 16).

Human beings are biological creatures. We are composed of blood

and bones and flesh. At the most basic level, our genes express
themselves in physical characteristics, affecting bodily aspects such as
skin tone and eye color. Yet, human beings are much more than our
biology, and this is evident particularly in the way humans generate,
and live within, complex cultures.

Culture is what differentiates one group or society from the next; different
biology: for example, our norms and values, the stories we tell, learned
or acquired behaviors, religious beliefs, art and fashion, and so on.
Culture is what differentiates one group or society from the next.

Different societies have different cultures; however, it is important not to

confuse the idea of culture with society. A culture represents the beliefs and
practices of a group, while society represents the people who share those
beliefs and practices.

“Neither society nor culture could exist without the other.”

Culture and society are intricately related. A culture consists of

the “objects” of a society, whereas a society consists of the people who
share a common culture

The sociology of culture concerns culture—usually understood as the

ensemble of symbolic codes used by a society—as it is manifested in
society. The elements of culture include (1) symbols (anything that carries
particular meaning recognized by people who share the same culture); (2)
language (system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one
another); (3) values (culturally-defined standards that serve as broad
guidelines for social living; (4) beliefs (specific statements that people hold
to be true); and (5) norms (rules and expectations by which a society guides
the behavior of its members).

While these elements of culture may be seen in various contexts

over time and across geography, a cultural universal is an element,
pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures
worldwide. Taken together, the whole body of cultural universals is
known as the human condition.

So how much does biology influence our behavior? Predictably,

there are different disciplines that answer to this question in different
ways. Most sociologists and anthropologists would probably say that
culture affects behavior much more than biology does. In contrast, many
biologists and psychologists would give much more weight to biology.

But why do sociologists generally favor culture over biology? Two

reasons stand out. First, many behaviors differ dramatically among
societies in ways that show the strong impact of culture. Second, biology
cannot easily account for why groups and locations differ in their rates
of committing certain behaviors. Various
 aspects of culture and social structure seem much better able
than biology to explain these differences.

Many sociologists also warn of certain implications of

biological explanations. First, they say, these explanations
implicitly support the status quo. Because it is difficult to
change biology, any problem with biological causes cannot be
easily fixed.
Today, sociologists generally endorse social learning theory to explain the emergence of culture. That
is, they believe that specific behaviors result from social factors that activate physiological
predispositions, rather than from heredity and instincts, which are biologically fixed patterns of
behavior. Because humans are social beings, they learn their behaviors (and beliefs, attitudes,
preferences, and the like) within a culture.
Identity Formation

In this section of our lesson, we discuss how an individual can learn the
culture that encompasses him as a member of society and to be commendable in
his society. Through the process of enculturation and socialization we must learn
to become a competent person as a member of society.

Enculturation

The process by which people learn the requirement of their surrounding

culture and obtain the values and behaviors appropriate on necessary in that
culture. Through enculturation, we learn what behaviors, values, language, and
morals are acceptable in our society. We learn by observing other members of our
society, including our parents, friends, teachers, and mentors. Enculturation
provides a means for us to become functional members of our society (Williams
2020). Most importantly the individual knows and sets up a setting of boundaries
and acknowledged behavior that directs what is worthy and not worthy inside the
system of that society (Wikipedia 2019).
Socialization

Socialization is the lifelong social

experience by which people develop their
human potential and learn culture. Unlike other
living species, whose behavior is mostly or
entirely set by biology, humans need social
experience to learn their culture and to survive.
Social experience provides individuals with
communication skills and confidence to interact
effectively in social contest (R. L. Duran 2020). One good example is participation in
social gatherings. Participating in social activities has many positive effects on
different aspects of a person’s life. It depends on how you accept experience and
change your personality.

Theories of Socialization

There are different types of theories that will explain how your personality is
shaped (Boundless Sociology n.d.).

The looking-glass self is a social

psychological concept, made by Charles Horton
Cooley in 1902, stating that a person’s self
develops out of society’s interpersonal interactions
and the recognitions of others. The term refers to
individuals forming themselves based on other
people’s perception, which leads individuals to
strengthen other people’s points of view on
themselves.
Individuals shape themselves based on what other individuals see and affirm other
people ‘s opinions on themselves.

George Herbert Mead developed a theory of social behaviorism to clarify

how social experience develops an individual’s identity. Mead’s central concept is
the self: the part of an individual’s personality composed of self-awareness and self-
image. Mead claimed that the self isn’t there at birth, or maybe, it is created with
social experience.

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of

psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue
between a patient and a psychoanalyst. In his later work, Freud proposed that the
human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. The id is
the completely unconscious, impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that
operates on the “pleasure principle” and is the source of basic impulses and drives;
it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification. The ego acts according to the reality
principle (i.e., it seeks to please the id’s drive in realistic ways that will benefit in
the long term rather than bringing grief). Finally, the super-ego aims for perfection.
It comprises that organized part of the personality structure, mainly but not
criticizes and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.
entirely unconscious that includes the individual’s ego ideals, spiritual goals, and
the psychic agency that

criticizes and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.
 Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of
psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue
between a patient and a psychoanalyst. In his later work, Freud proposed that the
human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. The id is
the completely unconscious, impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that
operates on the “pleasure principle” and is the source of basic impulses and drives;
it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification.

Johari Window Model

Another way to reflect your self is utilizing the Johari Window Model used to
assess and improve a group’s relationship with a group. It was devised by
American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955, while researching
group dynamics at the University of California Los Angeles. The Johari Window
model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-awareness, and
mutual understanding between individuals within a group.

A Johari is represented as a common window with four panes. Two of these

panes represent self and the other two represent the part unknown to self but to
others. The information transfers from one pane to the other as the result of
mutual trust which can be achieved through socializing and the feedback got from
other members of the group.

expect.
Source: https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-johari-window-model/

Open/self-area or arena – Here the information about the person his attitudes,
behavior, emotions, feelings, skills and views will be known by the person as well as
by others.

Blind self or blind spot – Information about yourselves that others know in a
group but you will be unaware of it. Others may interpret yourselves differently
than you

expect.
Hidden area or façade – Information that is known to you but will be kept
unknown from others. This can be any personal information which you feel
reluctant to reveal. This includes feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets etc. we
keep some of our feelings and information as private as it affects the relationships
and thus the hidden area must be reduced by moving the information to the open
areas.

Unknown area – The Information which are unaware to yourselves as well as

others. This includes the information, feelings, capabilities, talents etc. This can be
due to traumatic past experiences or events which can be unknown for a lifetime.
The person will be unaware till he discovers his hidden qualities and capabilities or
through observation of others. Open communication is also an effective way to
decrease the unknown area and thus to communicate effectively.

Norms and Values

Socialization prepares people for social life by teaching them a group’s

shared norms and values. People are taught about how individual should act in a
given situation (Arcinas 2016). It prepares individuals to participate in a group by
illustrating the expectations of that group. Everyone’s norms and values depend on
how they process them through socialization. One can see in a person how to deal
with the effects of norms and values. Norms are the rules and expectations by
which a society guides the behavior of its members. Values are culturally defined
standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that
serve as broad guidelines for social living.

Shelly (2017), in her article “Values and Norms of Society: Conformity,

Conflict and Deviation of Norms”, differentiated and analyzed the meaning of norms
and values.

Meaning of Values:
In sociology our concern is with social values. Social values are cultural
standards that indicate the general good deemed desirable for organized social life.
These are assumptions of what is right and important for society. They provide the
ultimate meaning and legitimacy for social arrangement or ideals. An example of an
important values is, “equality of opportunity”. It widely considered to be a desirable
en in itself.

The importance of such value in social life can hardly be exaggerated. A

social value differs from individual value. An individual value is enjoyed or sought
by the individual which man seeks for himself. Even though these values are
commonly share, they do not become social values. Even though these values are
commonly share, they do not become social values. As distinct from individual
values, a social value contains a concern for other’s welfare. Social values are
organized within the personality of the individual. The regulate his thinking and
behaving.

pattern of expected behavior.

 The process of socialization aims to include these values in his personality,
the ethos of fundamental characteristics of any culture are a reflection of its basic
values. The differences in social values result in divergent social structure and

pattern of expected behavior.

Meaning of Norms:

Norms are standards of group behavior. An essential characteristic of

group life is that it is possessed of a set of values which regulate the behavior of
individual members. As we have seen already, groups do not drop out of the blue
with stabilize relationships among members. Groups are the products of interaction
among individuals.

A normless society is impossibility. Norms are of great importance to

society. It is impossible to imagine a normless society, because without norms
behavior would be unpredictable. The standards of behavior contained in the
norms give order to social relation interaction goes smoothly if the individuals
follow the group norms. The normative order makes the factual order of human
society possible.

Norms influence individual’s attitudes. Norms influence an individual

attitudes and his motives. They impinge directly upon a person’s self-conception.
They are specific demands to act made by his group. They are much more stable.
They have the power to silence any previously accepted abstract sentiment which
the may oppose. They take precedence over abstract sentiments. Becoming a
member of a group implies forming attitudes in relation to group norms The
individual becomes a good member to the extent he abides by norms.

Statuses and Roles

In every social group that was as individuals have a place to, we have a
status and role to accomplish. Status is our relative social position inside a group,
whereas a role the portion of our society anticipates us to play in a given status. In
sociological point of view status is defined as the position in the social stratification.
Social stratification refers to the society’s categorization of its people into groups
based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, gender,
occupation and social status, or derived power (social and political). The individual
commonly recognized in a set of designations. Sets of persons are recognized
according to their works such as school teacher, lawyer, factory workers and
janitors. In each social position is said to exhibit a characteristic role (Lanuza and
Raymundo 2016). Role on the other hand is what the individual is anticipated to
do, given his status. Everyone has the capacity to plays a various role within the
society (Arcinas, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics 2016).

Status is divided into two, the achieved status and ascribed. Achieved
status refer to a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal
ability and effort. Ascribed status is obtained not through accomplishments but or
maybe through birth. Ascribed is something that an individual is born into.

Gender role socialization

Gender socialization is the process by which individuals are educated

approximately the standards and behaviors related with their assigned sex, the
ordinarily amid during childhood development. Sex refers to biological
 differences between males and females. Gender refers to those social, cultural, and
psychological traits linked to males and females through particular contexts. It is
more difficult to define, but it can refer to the role of a male or female in society,
known as gender lore, or an individual’s concept of themselves, or gender identity
(Newman 2018).

The role of young generation in the society

Dr. Jose Rizal quoted, “Ang kabataan ang pag-asa ng bayan”. In order to become a better citizen of tomorrow, it is
necessary to provide a good education. Youth is the backbone of a society and thus they determine the future of any
given society (Iann 2016). It is only right that government’s attention should be given the need to keep up with the
modern era. Read the “The Role of Youth in the Future Society” by Iann,
https://www.kenyaplex.com/resources/13270-the-role-of-youth- in-the-future-society.aspx

How Society is Organized

“Whenever I see a group of mothers in front of their residence and busy

talking, I straight away think negatively. It may be positive to other people who see
their activities, although it is already the subculture of ordinary Filipinos. This
sometimes leads to misunderstandings and trouble among neighbors, for providing
false information or “fake news” or “Tsismis”.”

Taking part in a group to get information and share your personal thoughts
and opinions is a vital role of every individual within a society. However, providing
false information and wrong accusations that can ruin a person is a wrongful act.

The concept of the group is an aggregation of one goal and aspirations. The
group is where people interact with others and think of themselves as belonging
together (Arcinas 2016). Everything shared by each member is entertained that can
make an additional sense of forming ideas.

A society is defined in many aspects. According Cambridge dictionary,

society is defined as people in general living together in an organized way, making
decisions about how to do things, and sharing the work that needs to be done. All
people in a country, or in several countries, can be referred to as a society.

Sociologists classified the group as social aggregates and social categories. If

a group of people happened to be in a particular place but they do not interact or
identify with one another, this is called social aggregates. If a group of people share
common characteristics, it refers to as social categories. When these two groups of
people emerge in the situation they are in, this event is not only considered as a
collection of being, instead, it is an active social interaction wherein people deliver
interests, welfare, and common good. Hence, according to Muzafer Sherif, a highly
regarded social psychologist, suggested that in defining social group, a wide variety
of people interacting with each other with respect should also be taken into account
(Arcinas 2016). Listed below are the definitions of social group given by Muzafer
Sherif. A social group is where people:

1. share common motive and goals;

2. accept division of labor, example: roles;
3. establish status (social rank, dominance) relationships;
4. refer norms and values relevant to the group; and
5. develop accepted sanctions if norms were respected or violated.

Primary and Secondary Groups

In sociology, there are two types of groups which are distinguished based on
their characteristics.

1. Primary group. A primary group is a small social group whose members share
close and long-term relationships (Wikibooks 2019). People in this group tend to
help each member and respect their differences in opinions and political
viewpoints. They express strong, positive relationships that each member helps
build trust and confidence. The purpose of primary group is to create relationships
to live with and maintain social structures. The closeness of people in this group
results to members who are most likely to feel secure and loved.
 The concept of the primary group was
introduced by Charles Cooley, a
sociologist from the Chicago School of
sociology, in his book Social
Organization: A Study of the Larger
Mind (1909). Primary groups play an
important role in the development of
personal identity. Cooley argued that
the impact of the primary group is so
great that individuals cling to primary
ideals in more complex associations and
even create new primary groupings
within formal organizations. To that Photo & Source:
extent, he viewed society as a constant
experiment in enlarging social https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociol
experience and in coordinating variety. ogy/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/06%3A_Soci
He, therefore, analyzed the operation of al_Groups_and_Organization/6.01%3A_Types_of_
such complex social forms as formal
institutions and social class systems and
Examples:
the subtle controls of public opinion.
 Family. An organized group, usually related
to blood or some binding or similarity factor,
in which individual roles and relationships
change over time. Family relationships are
usually long-term and generally have time
shared common space.
 Friends. Having similar interests and enjoy
spending time together. They support each other when things happen
and share the most important events of their lives together.
 Love relationship. It is a profound expression of respect, trust, honesty,
integrity, intimacy, chemistry and cooperation. It builds on reality rather
than play. The spend valuable time together, be it about discovering
each other or sharing new experiences together.

2. Secondary group. A large group of people share common goals which often
aim to complete tasks at hand. In this type of group, people are surrounded
with relationships which are not personal. Relationships that merely involve
in a purpose-oriented goal is always the impetus of this kind of people
alliance. This means that this group demonstrates weak interpersonal ties
compared to the primary group which almost always end in long-lived
engagements (Arcinas 2016). Members in a secondary group usually perform
their functions well in accordance with their associated roles.

Examples:

 Classroom. A classroom consists of students and a teacher where the

teacher oversees the creation of structures and environments that help the
student learn. It responds to the implementation of a set of policies and
expectations and helps students support their educational goals.
  Place of Employment. In a work atmosphere, employees and managers come
together in the same location for the purpose of completing a task. The goal
of the structured environment is to fulfil a predetermined assignment.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

An in-group is a group where people feel that they belong to the social group.
In the field of sociology and social psychology, in-group is defined as a social group
to which a person psychologically identifies himself as a member of a particular
group. In contrary, an out-group is a social group that is not recognized by any
individual.

People in in-groups and out-groups are associated with different

phenomena. It refers to the individual, external influences that shape our evolving
behaviors and opinions. Given the instances below, these are some of the reasons
why these two groups would not come into consensus and usually ended with a
discordance.

 In-group favoritism. It is the feeling of people to favor one group over others.
 Out-group derogation. A phenomenon in which an out-group is perceived as
threatening to the members of an in-group.
 Social influence. People have been shown to be differentially influenced by
in- group members. That is, under conditions wherein group categorization
is psychologically salient, people will shift their beliefs in line with in-group
social norms.
 Group polarization. This refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions
that are extreme than the initial inclination of its members.
 Intergroup aggression. People in in-group who try to harm another
individual because they feel that they are part of the out-group.

During the Basketball League held at

Phil Sports Arena in Pasig City, people
formed an In-group which was
surrounded by basketball fans. The Out-
group was demonstrated as groups
people who paid their support but they
were not fond of watching basketball.
Moreover, supporters of one team also
formed their own in-groups while the
supporters of the rival team were the
out- groups.

Photo: Wikipedia
Reference Groups

A reference group is a group to which one can compare himself or

herself to others. This group serves as a standard to which it measures
one’s behaviors and attitudes. Reference groups are used in order to
guide people’s behavior and attitudes in identifying social norms. The
concept of reference group is important for understanding socialization,
conformity, and an assessment of how people see and evaluate
themselves especially in relation to oneself vis-à-vis to others.

Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast

necessary for the comparison and analysis of group and personal
characteristics. According to Robert
K. Merton, individuals compare themselves to the reference groups of
people who occupy the social function that everybody desires to have.

Listed below are the types of reference groups:

1. Informal reference groups. These are the type of groups that

share interests and goals. Members react on a personal level.
Examples: family and friends.
2. Formal reference groups. They have specific goals and missions.
Example: Employee Union.
3. Membership reference groups. Groups that agree on attitude,
norms, and behaviors.
4. Disclaimant reference groups. Groups that do not agree as
regards to attitudes, norms, and behaviors.
5. Aspirational reference groups. Groups of individuals who aspire to
become a person they desire to be associated with.
6. Dissociative reference groups. Groups of individuals who do not
belong to any group and often wish to avoid any association from
others as regards to attitudes, norms, and behaviors.

Networks

According to Britannica, networks vary widely in their nature and

operation, depending on the particular actors involved, their
relationships, the level and scope in which they operate, and in the
broader context. The actors within a network can be associated as
individuals, families, organizations, states, or a mixture of individuals
and groups.
 Today, the most noticeable use of a network concept is within
information technology (Bevir 2020). According to Castells n.d.,

“a society whose social structure is made up of networks powered

by micro-electronics-based information and communications
technologies. The use of ICTs helps to create and sustain far-flung networks in which new kinds of social
relationships are created”.
The word Anthropology is a compound of two Greek words: "anthropos" and "logos." This term can be
translated as human and study (study of human)

Anthropology --- Is the comparative study of cultural and social life and compares aspects of different
societies, and continuously searches for interesting dimensions for comparison.

Franz Boas --- Considered both the founder of modern anthropology as well as the father of American
Anthropology who gave modern anthropology its rigorous scientific methodology, patterned after the
natural sciences, and it was the one who originated the notion of "culture" as learned behaviors.

Sociology --- The study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society or the study of
social problems; the systematic study of society.

Auguste Comte --- He was often called the "father of sociology"---first used the term "sociology" in 1838
to refer to the scientific study of society.

Political Science --- The branch of knowledge that deals with systems of government; the analysis of
political activity and behavior; the systematic study of politics.

Aristotle --- Known as "the father of political science." His works "The Politics and "Nicomachean Ethics"
among many others evaluated political systems on a philosophical basis. H-e is a thinker who gave
perspectives about politics that human being is a political animal.

Cultural Anthropology --- This means "knowledge about cultivated humans"; that is, knowledge about
those aspects of humanity which are not natural, but which are related to that which is acquired.

Social Anthropology --- This means knowledge about humans in societies.